Master Thesis

Master’s Programme (60 credits) in

Mechanical Engineering

Advancement of Supercapacitor in
Automotive Applications
Thesis in Mechanical Engineering-MT8007 (15 hp)

Halmstad, 26-May-2023

MURALI MOHAN
SREEKANTH VIJAYAN
 Preface
The project is about the advancement of supercapacitor in the automotive
applications. One of the main reasons for the current surge in the development of
hybrid electric vehicle technologies is the depletion of fossil fuels and their
detrimental effects on global warming. Additionally, the harmful gas emissions that
have an adverse effect on the environment are considerably reduced by the battery-
supercapacitor energy storage technology. In HEV, energy storage devices utilising
batteries and supercapacitors play a significant role.

We sincerely thank our Professors, Dr. Håkan Petersson (Examiner) and Dr. Aron
Chibba (Supervisor), for the guidance and support provided during the entire
period. We strongly believe this helped us complete the Master Thesis successfully
and within the timeframe.

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 Abstract

Keywords: hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), battery-supercapacitor energy storage system,

topology

The rising use of fossil fuels and the resulting rise in environmental harm have
fueled the advancement of automobiles that are fuel-efficient. A severe existential
challenge facing the planet earth has given rise to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs),
which have developed from their incipient stage and are shown promise as a
solution. Additionally, when needed to produce peaking power, batteries' efficiency
is reduced. Instead, supercapacitors have smaller energy storage capacity but can
withstand peaking power. Designing a clever method to manage the energy balance
between a supercapacitor and a battery is the main goal of this research. Different
topologies are used to study the battery-supercapacitor energy storage system in
great detail. Nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC),
and other harmful gases are less released when a battery-supercapacitor energy
storage system is integrated. Additionally, it can lower the load on the battery,
extending its life and improving its performance in HEVs.

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List of Figures
Figure 1. Supercapacitor market ………………………………………………….2
Figure 2. Different Methods that can be followed for the current thesis………….5
Figure 3. Different simulation models used for battery-supercapacitor EMS…….6
Figure 4. Chosen methodology for this Thesis work……………………………...6
Figure 5. Classification of EMS control strategies ………………….....................7
Figure 6. Schematic representation of supercapacitor types: (a) EDLC,
(b) pseudocapacitor, and (c) hybrid capacitor ……………...................................10
Figure 7. Lead acid battery chemistry during discharging and charging ………..11
Figure 8. Discharging and charging schematic of nickel based battery …………12
Figure 9. Charging and discharging behaviour of lithium ion battery:
(a) Charging and (b) discharging ...…………………………………………...…13
Figure 10. a) Series hybrid electric vehicles (SHEVs), b) Parallel hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs), and c) Series parallel hybrid electric vehicles (SPHEVs) …..14
Figure 11. Passive Parallel Hybrid Energy Storage System …………………....16
Figure 12. Partially Decoupled Supercapacitor/Battery Configuration …………17
Figure 13. Partially Decoupled Battery/Supercapacitor Configuration …………18
Figure 14. Fully Decoupled Cascaded Battery/Capacitor Configuration ……….18
Figure 15. Fully Decoupled Cascaded Capacitor/Battery Configuration ……….19
Figure 16. Fully Decoupled Multiple Converter Configuration ………………...19
Figure 17. Battery in direct connection with an ultracapacitor with same
terminal voltage ………………………………………………………………….21
Figure 18. Magnified representation of battery in direct connection with an
ultracapacitor with same terminal voltage ………………………………………21
Figure 19. Battery in direct connection with an ultracapacitor without the same
terminal voltage ………………………………………………………………….22
Figure 20. Magnified representation of battery in direct connection with an
ultracapacitor without the same terminal voltage………………………………..23
List of Tables
Table 1: Comparison of emission for different driving cycles ..………………...20

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Table of Contents
List of Figures .......................................................................................................iii
List of Tables .........................................................................................................iii
List of Content …………………………………………………………………...iv
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................1
1.1 Background .......................................................................................................1
1.2 Aim of the Study ...............................................................................................2
1.2.1 Problem definition .........................................................................................3
1.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................3
1.4 Individual responsibility and efforts during the project ....................................3
1.5 Study environment ............................................................................................4
2. METHOD ...........................................................................................................5
2.1 Alternative Methods ..........................................................................................5
2.2 Chosen methodology for this Master Thesis .....................................................6
2.3 Preparations and data collection ........................................................................7
3. THEORY ...........................................................................................................9
3.1 Basics of Supercapacitor ...................................................................................9
3.2 Basics of Battery .............................................................................................11
3.2.1 Lead-acid batteries ........................................................................................11
3.2.2 Nickel-Based Batteries ..................................................................................12
3.2.3 Lithium Batteries ..........................................................................................12
3.3 Literature survey of the current study .............................................................14

3.3.1 Series hybrid electric vehicles (SHEVs) ………………………………...14

3.3.2 Parallel hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) ………………………………..15
3.3.3 Series parallel hybrid electric vehicles (SPHEVs) ………………………15
3.4 DC/DC Converter …………………………………………………………..15
3.5 Topographies of battery-supercapacitor energy storage systems ……………16
4. RESULTS .........................................................................................................20

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4.1 Results based on HEV .....................................................................................20
4.2 Results based on simulation models ...............................................................20
4.3 Discussion .......................................................................................................23
5. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................24
5.1 Conclusion of this current work/research questions…………………………..24
5.1.1 Recommendation to future activities………………………………………25
6. CRITICAL REVIEW………………………………………………………..26
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................27

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1. INTRODUCTION
The automobile sector has a big impact on global economic development, which
has an impact on everyone in the world (Bharadwaj, 2015). Since internal
combustion engines (ICEs) power most automobiles, the transportation sector is
responsible for 25% to 30% of all greenhouse gas emissions. The operation of ICE
involves the combustion of fuel, which produces a number of gases, including CO2,
NO2, NO, and CO (Ehsani, Gao, Longo, & Ebrahimi, 2018). Due to this, there is
also a significant increase in greenhouse gas emissions, which harms both human
health and the environment and lowers air quality. Because of its clean and
environmentally friendly features, electric vehicles are becoming more and more
popular (Sharma, Meena, & Saad, 2018). One of the major problems with electric
vehicles is battery life, along with charging times. However, new materials are
being used to boost battery life and storage density while reducing weight and space
requirements. In addition to novel materials, some research is still being done on
how to create hybrid energy storage systems to enhance battery performance. To
reduce the charging time, some fast-charging technologies and related devices have
been created. However, the situation has changed because they are now commonly
used in portable devices and electrical or hybrid cars.
Batteries are, however, somewhat challenging and difficult to employ as energy
buffers, which shortens their lifespan. Lithium-ion derivatives have produced the
greatest results among the several HEV battery compositions that have been
explored in the past. In cars, battery packs can be integrated at three different levels:
as single cells, as modules made up of individual cells, and as battery packs made
up of modules. Battery should be able to sustain millions of transient shallow cycles
throughout the course of a vehicle's lifetime while still being able to deliver
significant power for brief periods. Due to its exceptionally low internal resistance
and great power density, electrical double layer capacitors (EDLC) or
supercapacitors allow hybrid electrical vehicles (HEV) run more efficiently. The
main design issues with electrical vehicles allow for the important characteristics
of each system to be utilised even when there are several energy storage systems
arranged in a systematic manner (Singh, Bansal, & Singh, 2019).
1.1 Background
According to Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast, 2020–2027, the
market for supercapacitors was valued at $3.27 billion in 2019, and it is anticipated
to expand to $16.95 billion by 2027, with a CAGR of 23.3% from 2020 to 2027.
The market for supercapacitors in electric vehicles has been divided into hybrid
capacitors, pseudocapacitors, and electric double layer capacitors. Due to the
increasing demand for the next generation of affordable, environmentally friendly,
and energy-dense supercapacitors to power electric vehicles, electric double layer

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capacitors, which held a 42% market share in 2020, are predicted to hold the
greatest market share by 2026.

Figure 1. Supercapacitor market (Global Opportunity Analysis and Industry Forecast)

The need for environmentally friendly supercapacitors is rising along with

passenger environmental consciousness. In order to expand the EV charging
infrastructure, Tesla successfully acquired Maxwell Technologies, a San Diego-
based supercapacitor and battery company, for more than US$ 200 million in May
2019. Such acquisitions are boosting the market ("Supercapacitor Market by
Product Type, Module Type, Material and Application: Global Opportunity
Analysis and Industry Forecast, 2020-2027," 2020).
1.2 Aim of the Study

The aim of the study is to examine the recent advancement of supercapacitors in

HEVs and also discuss different approaches that can enhance the battery life of
electrical vehicles.

1. What are the challenges and opportunities of supercapacitors?

2. What are the environmental impacts of supercapacitors?
3. How can supercapacitors enhance the battery life of the hybrid electrical
vehicles?

In this study, batteries and supercapacitors are examined in terms of their principles,
characteristics, applications, etc. The different test results of battery-supercapacitor
topologies will be discussed in this project.

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1.2.1 Problem Definition
Considering their improved electrochemical performance, superior cycling life,
great specific power, and quick charging-discharging rate, supercapacitors have
recently attracted a lot of attention. This article discusses their relevance.
Additionally, we pointed out that supercapacitors could outperform batteries in
terms of power density and specific energy by several orders of magnitude, making
them a versatile and compromise energy storage option.
1.3 Limitations

The fact that car batteries have a lower power density than some other kinds of
energy storage devices is mostly to blame for the extreme voltage sag they endure.
By making batteries larger, one can increase their power capacity. Although
supercapacitors have a large capacitance and may quickly charge hybrid vehicles,
they have a few undesirable characteristics that are part of their design. Because of
a property known as self-discharge, supercapacitors are not very good at storing a
lot of energy for an extended period of time. In addition, compared to lead-acid or
lithium-ion batteries, they have a far lower energy density the amount of energy
they can store per kilogramme than those batteries. The most recent hybrid vehicle
technology combines lithium cells and supercapacitors.

Supercapacitors are, in general, effective storage devices with a wide range of

applications in the near future. To make some electronic devices useful and well-
liked, they must be affordable, long-lasting, and versatile, but in the case of
supercapacitors, the electrode materials not only limit their scope of use but also
raise their cost to end users. To increase the overall cell efficiency, additional
considerations must be made when choosing the electrolyte and electrode material,
such as the temperature operating range, rate of self-discharge, lifespan,
deterioration of the current collectors, separators, packaging, etc (results, 2020).

Another limitation of the use of super capacitors is the cell voltage. Even if a single
cell is capable of storing or producing sufficient peak power, the system in which
the supercapacitor is used may operate at a voltage that is higher than what a single
cell is able to handle. One cell might not be able to meet the requirements of a
particular application, and integrating the supercapacitor module will be difficult.
An additional challenge is that the supercapacitor module interface will require
adequate space (Muniraj et al., 2023).

1.4 Individual responsibility and efforts during the project

In order to complete the most difficult jobs in this project concurrently, we divided
the work on an equal basis. The specific tasks we carried out were introduction,
methodology, theory, result, and discussion, which entail document analysis to
extract appropriate data for the study and writing analysis for the project.

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Overall, we both contributed equally to the success of this report, and it has been a
terrific learning experience for us. And also helpful from different journals we
covered lot of journals about our topics so it is very useful from that.
1.5 Study environment
The research environment consists of organizing, carrying out, and writing a report.
Halmstad University was the subject of the majority of the work. The many journals
are used in the data gathering stage. We cover between 5 to 10 articles every day. We
do everything on our own. For the thesis writing, we discussed lot of thing and also
covers lot of articles, we adhered to the guidance of the department head at
Halmstad University's mechanical engineering faculty.
We concentrate on the drawbacks of conventional approaches used to execute the
power section as well as the benefits of using supercapacitor energy storage devices
in controlled electric drives.

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2. Method
This Chapter relays and presents a description of the Methodology employed to
carry out this project. Alternative approaches, the methodology chosen for this
project, the preparations and data collecting, as well as the benefits and drawbacks
of the existing approach, are the primary topics covered in this chapter.
2.1 Alternate Methods

Figure 2. Different Methods that can be followed for the current thesis (by authors)

The several approaches that could be used for the current thesis are described below.
One of the techniques employed in the completion of this thesis is experimental
studies. It needs a sizable setup of the supercapacitors and batteries used in hybrid
electrical vehicles to do this. It takes a lot of time and effort to use this strategy. To
perform this procedure, a large and highly qualified team is needed. The battery-
supercapacitor integration is not just concerned with the mechanical foundation;
additional factors like electrical, fabrication, and design will also have an impact on
the outcomes of the experiments. Additionally, the cost and accessibility of the
supplies required to carry out the test procedure are another big concern.
Utilising various simulation models is the other important and popular way for
evaluating the effectiveness of various battery-supercapacitor topologies for the
energy management system in hybrid electrical vehicles. Some of the models that
can be used for this thesis work include Model Predictive Control (MPC), Dynamic
Programming, Stochastic Dynamic Programming (SDP), and Particle Swarm
Optimisation (PSO). This technique has the added benefit of allowing us to use
numerous types of intricate battery-supercapacitor topologies.

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 Model
Dynamic
Predictive
programming
Control
(DP)
(MPC)

Stochastic Particle
Dynamic Swarm
Programming Optimization
(SDP) (PSO)

Figure 3. Different simulation models used for battery-supercapacitor EMS (by authors)

It has drawbacks, such as the substantial amount of parameter data needed to carry
out this modelling method. When compared to real-time circumstances, the data
obtained might not be trustworthy. Furthermore, this kind of simulation field
requires extremely specialised understanding. Throughout this procedure, there will
be numerous trials and errors.
2.2 Chosen methodology for this Master Thesis
The method used for this master's thesis project is a thorough and extensive
literature study. This approach consists of literature reviews, case studies, and
observations. The figure 4. represents the chosen methodology of this thesis work.

Literature
review

Extensive
literature
studies

Observation
Case study
s

Figure 4. Chosen methodology for this Thesis work (by authors)

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Literature Review
In this study, we primarily employed a literature review to comprehend the
fundamental ideas behind supercapacitors, batteries, hybrid cars, and energy
management systems. The data is collected from different journals like Science
Direct, Researchgate, CrossMark, IEEE, ACS, and other reputed journals. The data
collected from these journals is credited with addressing the problem statements in
this current work. Extensive data will be available for the applications of
supercapacitors in HEVS through literature surveys. Among those, the battery-
supercapacitor energy storage system is the most suitable topic for this thesis work.
Many of the collected data are related to the topographies of battery-supercapacitor
energy storage systems. Choi and Seo et al. are one of the major journals that we
used for integrating the information for this thesis work.
Case Studies
Case studies are another section of the extensive literature review that go into great
detail about the various battery and supercapacitor integrations. The approaches for
this thesis work include the use of battery-supercapacitor applications as energy
sources for vehicles, energy storage from regenerative breaking, and other energy
storage systems. A case study on the use of supercapacitors in regenerative braking
systems is covered in (Partridge & Abouelamaimen, 2019).
Observations
Observations are the next steps in the extensive literature studies. The information
and observations found in the different literature reviews and case studies are taken
as the results and discussion of this thesis work. The use of supercapacitor-battery
integration reduced the load on the battery, according to the studies shown in Manal
et al.
2.3 Preparations and data collection

Figure 5. Classification of EMS control strategies (Lemian & Bode, 2022)

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The various studies on HEVs driven by supercapacitor batteries that have been
conducted have been gathered as the data for this thesis study. The other component
of gathering data for this endeavour is the energy management system (EMS) in
electrical vehicles. Power capacity, controller response timing, controller cost,
power fluctuation reduction, and hybridization structure are only a few of the
variables that influence the selection of an effective control method in EMS. The
classification of EMS control techniques for the supercapacitor-battery setups in the
HEV is shown in figure 5. All of the data gathered for this thesis study is based on
the EMS tactics mentioned above (Lemian & Bode, 2022).

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3. THEORY
In the field of automotive engineering, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are regarded
as one of the most cutting-edge options (Raman, Cheng, Xue, Fong, & Cheung,
2021). In contrast to traditional fuel-based cars, which have a single power
structure, HEVs have a power supply system that is made up of a generator, an
internal combustion engine, and a converter. A HEV can be powered by both heat
and electricity because to its improved energy sources within, which lowers its need
for fossil fuels and pollutants (Singh et al., 2019) (Shen, Shan, & Gao, 2011).
However, because of the complicated internal structure of HEV, energy
management strategies for conventional vehicles, which primarily focus on the
efficiency of internal combustion engines, are no longer appropriate (Maheswari,
Sharan, Shalini, Sowndarabarani, & Kumar, 2021).
Following are the four primary difficulties facing HEV energy management (Jiang
et al., 2021):
1. Real-time optimization: Compared with static optimization, the real-time
optimisation to dynamic driving conditions is difficult because of the
driving conditions, such as the road condition, traffic, varying driving styles,
and other surrounding environments.
2. Battery durability: The durability of fuel batteries is prone to suffer greatly
under a dynamic loading state in comparison to steady load settings.
Additionally, a battery's ageing process is sped up by repeated charging and
discharging, switching voltages, and energy transfer.
3. Computation load: Current vehicle networks may struggle to process such
massive amounts of data instantaneously due to their low computational
power.
4. Multiple energy sources: HEVs are different from conventional fuel-based
vehicles in that they are powered by several power sources, and their
internal energy flows and transitions are more complex.
3.1 Basics of Supercapacitor
A supercapacitor is an electrochemical capacitor with a lower voltage limit and a
higher energy density than the conventional types of capacitors. Due to its ability
to store a significant amount of energy per unit mass or volume compared to
electrolytic capacitors, this capacitor is known as an ultracapacitor. It has significant
features including high-power, long-life cycle, and fast charge-discharge rates
(Tahir et al., 2020). Based on the charge storage, supercapacitors can be categorised
into three broad categories. The first type is an EDLC (figure 6.a), or electrical
double-layer capacitor, which stores electrical energy by intercalating charges at the
electrode-electrolyte interface to create a double layer of charges (Hulicova,
Yamashita, Soneda, Hatori, & Kodama, 2005). In a Helmholtz double layer, the
charges are physically deposited by electrostatic attraction, leading in quick charge-

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discharge kinetics, a high-power density, and a long cycle. Most commonly utilised
as the electrode material to store charges are carbon-based compounds such as
graphene, carbon nanotubes, activated carbon, graphite, etc. Because only physical
charge transfer takes place, EDLCs have comparatively lengthy life cycles.

Figure 6. Schematic representation of supercapacitor types: (a) EDLC, (b) pseudocapacitor, and (c) hybrid
capacitor (Shafiei, Nasrollahzadeh, & Hegde, 2021)

The second type of supercapacitor is called a pseudocapacitor (figure 6.b) because

it stores electric energy through faradaic processes (A. Burke, 2000). For storing
charges, they employ high energy electrode materials based on metal oxides, metal-
doped carbons, or conductive polymers. Although this supercapacitor has a higher
energy density than an EDLC, involvement of chemical reactions shortens both its
life cycle and power density (Frackowiak & Beguin, 2001). As the name implies,
hybrid supercapacitors (figure 6.c) combine techniques from EDLCs and
pseudocapacitors (Conway & Pell, 2003). To store charge, it uses both faradaic and
non-faradaic processes. Different electrodes with various properties are utilised in
these components. Electrodes that may display electrostatic capacitance on one
electrode and electrochemical capacitance on the other. Without making the
compromises in cycling stability and price that have limited the development of
pseudocapacitors, hybrid capacitors have achieved energy and power densities
greater than EDLCs. The fundamental equations used to calculate conventional
capacitors also apply to supercapacitors, and the capacitance of a conventional
capacitor may be calculated using the following equation:

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Capacitance, C = ε0εrAe/d (1)
where Ae = surface area of the each electrode; ε0 = dielectric constant (or
permittivity) of free space; εr = the dielectric constant of the insulating material
between the electrodes; and d = distance between two oppositely biased electrodes
(Ryu, Kim, Park, Park, & Chang, 2002).
3.2 Basics of Battery
Depending on their chemical composition, batteries come in various forms on the
market. Currently, the three generally used rechargeable battery types widely
utilised in EVs are lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion, and nickel-metal hydride (Ni-
MH).

Figure 7. Lead acid battery chemistry during discharging and charging (M. Hannan, Hoque, Mohamed, &
Ayob, 2017)

3.2.1 Lead-acid batteries

Lead-acid batteries are rechargeable electrochemical products that have been used
in households as well as industrial applications (Tie & Tan, 2013). Lead dioxide
(PbO2) serves as the negative electrode of a lead-acid battery. Metallic lead (Pb)
serves as the positive electrode (Sun, Li, Wang, & Li, 2019). In figure 7., this is
illustrated. Low capital costs, excellent energy efficiency (>80%), quick response
times, and low rates of self-discharge only 2% of rated capacity per month (at 25
°C) are only a few benefits offered by lead-acid batteries. Lead-acid batteries, on
the other hand, have a poor specific energy density of 30–50 Wh/kg and a minimal
1500 cycle life (May, Davidson, & Monahov, 2018). Due to an increase in lead-acid
battery usage, more parts are being thrown away. The environmental effects of lead
are hazardous (Hadjipaschalis, Poullikkas, & Efthimiou, 2009).

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3.2.2 Nickel-Based Batteries
Nickel-iron, nickel-cadmium (NiCd), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), and nickel-
zinc (NiZn) batteries are the four different varieties of nickel-based batteries. The
positive electrode for all three types is nickel hydroxide, while the electrolyte is
predominantly lithium hydroxide combined with an aqueous potassium hydroxide
solution. As the negative electrode, cadmium hydroxide is used in the NiCd type, a
metal alloy in the NiMH type, and zinc hydroxide in the NiZn type (Iclodean, Varga,
Burnete, Cimerdean, & Jurchiş, 2017). Common characteristics of NiMH batteries
include a 1.2V cell voltage, an energy density range of 140Wh/l to 300Wh/l, a self-
discharge rate of 30% per month, a specific energy range of 60Wh/l to 120Wh/kg,
a charge discharge efficiency of 66%, a specific power range of 50W/kg to
1000W/kg, and a cycle durability range of 500–1000 cycles. Alkaline batteries'
maximum energy densities are frequently higher than that of lead-acid batteries,
and their individual energy densities range from 50 Wh/kg to 95 Wh/kg. In
comparison to lead-acid batteries, NiCd batteries have longer average operating and
cycle lives with up to 10,000 cycles.

Figure 8. Discharging and charging schematic of nickel based battery (Salkuti, 2021)

3.2.3 Lithium Batteries

The lithium-based batteries are the preferred option for all EVs due to their great
energy density; yet, because of their high price, they are only used in high-end
vehicles. The cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator are the lithium-ion battery's
four main parts. Li-ions leave from the cathode to the anode during charging. Li-
ions leave the anode and enter the cathode during discharge. Powdered lithium
metal oxide is used to make the cathode. Powdered graphitic carbon serves as the
anode. As shown in figure 9.a and b, the cathode and anode structures are arranged
in copper and aluminium current collectors, respectively.

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 Figure 9. Charging and discharging behaviour of lithium ion battery : (a) Charging and (b) discharging
(Salkuti, 2021)

Organic solvents and lithium salt make up the electrolyte. This electrolyte is the
only one through which lithium ions are able to transferred (M. A. Hannan, Hoque,
Hussain, Yusof, & Ker, 2018) (Gröger, Gasteiger, & Suchsland, 2016). This
electrolyte is the only one through which lithium ions may be transferred. The outer
circuit is followed by electron flow. A separator is a thin, porous membrane that
offers a channel for Li-ion while protecting against short circuits between the anode
and cathode of the battery (A. F. Burke, 2007). Significant characteristics of it
include low mass, high specific energy, high specific power up to 4000 W/kg, and
high energy density up to 250 Wh/kg.
In addition, LiBs don't have a memory effect and don't contain any harmful
substances like cadmium, lead, or mercury. Due to its low mass, high specific
energy, high specific power up to 4000 W/kg, and high energy density up to 250
Wh/kg, lithium batteries (LiBs) are the best energy storage device for usage in
automobiles (Sun et al., 2019).

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3.3 Literature survey of the current study
Therefore, the HEV's energy management configurations play a crucial part in the
vehicle's efficiency. Three general categories for hybrid electric vehicles can be
defined based on their energy management configurations:
3.3.1 Series hybrid electric vehicles (SHEVs)

In a series hybrid system, instead of driving the wheels directly, the internal
combustion engine powers a generator (often a three-phase alternator plus rectifier).
Only the electric motor is capable of delivering the required torque and energy to
the wheels (transmission). The vehicle's electric motor is powered by the generator,
which also recharges a battery. The motor uses electricity from both the batteries
and the generator when a lot of power is needed. Due to such energy conversion
mechanism, the engine is able to work smoothly (Jiang et al., 2021).

Advantages of series hybrid vehicles:

 The engine-generator group can be placed anywhere because there is no
mechanical connection between the combustion engine and the wheels
 Because there are no traditional mechanical gearbox components (such as a
gearbox or gearbox shafts), separate electric wheel motors can be easily
connected
 Even as the car changes speed, the combustion engine can continue to run
in a constrained rpm range (it's most effective range)
 Series hybrids are comparatively the most effective during stop-and-go city
driving

Figure 10. a) Series hybrid electric vehicles (SHEVs), b) Parallel hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and
c) Series parallel hybrid electric vehicles (SPHEVs) (by authors)

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3.3.2 Parallel hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)
Internal combustion engines (ICEs) and electric motors are connected in parallel to
a mechanical transmission in parallel hybrid systems. The electric generator and
wheels receive energy from the engine, which is also used to charge the batteries
(figure 10. a). Then, the engine and the power from the batteries combine to power
the wheels (Jiang et al., 2021).
Advantages of parallel hybrid vehicles:
 Driving on long-distance highways and when cruising results in improved
overall efficiency.
 Lot of flexibility in switching between ICE and electric power
 The electromotor can be built to be less powerful than the ICE in series
hybrids because it is assisting traction. It only needs one electrical
motor/generator
3.3.3 Series parallel hybrid electric vehicles (SPHEVs)
A SPHEV hybrid system's power system combines elements of parallel and series
hybrids. Between the engine and the driving axle, there are two connections: one
mechanical and one electrical. SPHEVs have the flexibility to operate in a number
of modes and situations (Jiang et al., 2021).
Advantages of combined hybrid vehicles:
 Highest degree of adaptability when converting between ICE and electric
power
 It is possible to create an ICE that is lighter, smaller, and more efficient by
separating the power given by the engine from the power required by the
driver

Additionally, SPHEVs also have several drawbacks in terms of economy and

production. First off, the construction is expensive, which could make mass
production challenging.
3.4 DC/DC Converter
Depending on the needs of the circuit, a DC voltage is changed from one level to
another using electromechanical circuitry known as a DC-DC converter. This is
accomplished by momentarily holding the input energy and releasing it to the output
at a different voltage. The DC-DC converter, which is a component of the family of
electric power converters, can be used for both high voltage and low voltage
applications, such as the transmission of HEV power. Magnetic field storage
components (inductors, transformers) or electric field storage components
(capacitors) may be used to store data. Power can be transferred using DC/DC

15
converters in just one direction, from the input to the output. The majority of
DC/DC converter topologies can be made bi-directional, though.
The most common DC/DC converters can be grouped as follows:
Non-isolated converters
When the voltage needs to be increased or decreased by a relatively modest factor
(less than 4:1), non-isolated converters are typically employed. Additionally, if
there is no issue with the input and output not having dielectric separation
Isolated converters
Typically, a high frequency transformer is employed in these types of converters.
An isolated converter is required in applications where the output must be fully
separated from the input.
3.5 Topographies of battery-supercapacitor energy storage systems

The various topographies for battery- supercapacitor energy storage systems were
reviewed in this section. Topology refers to the configuration of the engine's battery,
supercapacitor, converter, and other components. Numerous configurations for a
battery- supercapacitor energy storage systems were reviewed in this section have
been proposed by researchers. The following is a brief summary of the most
common architectural styles.

Figure 11. Passive Parallel Hybrid Energy Storage System (Lesiuta, 2016)

J. Cao and A. Emadi et.al proposed simplest configuration, passive parallel

topography shown in figure 11. In this configuration, the supercapacitor plays a low
pass filter (LPF) role for the battery. Equation 3.1 precisely describes the voltage of
each component in this configuration (Cao & Emadi, 2011).
𝑉�𝐵�𝑎�𝑡�𝑡� = 𝑉�𝐶�𝑎�𝑝� = 𝑉�𝐷�𝐶� (2)
The DC bus is directly clamped to the battery unit's terminals, so any voltage
variations it experiences are extremely slow and minimal. This is ideal for the DC-

16
AC converter's input voltage. There isn't much that can be done in terms of
balancing or optimising the circuit as there are no active components in between
the battery and the supercapacitor. Although this approach is fairly economical, it
cannot fully utilise the supercapacitor (Kuperman, Aharon, Kara, & Malki, 2011).

M. Choi and co-workers proposed a topography, the partially decoupled

capacitor/battery configuration. It is a bidirectional DC-DC converter is used as the
supercapacitor interface in the supercapacitor/battery configuration seen in figure
12. This enables a broad range of voltages to be employed with supercapacitors.
The converter needs to be bigger in this design to accommodate the voltage of a
supercapacitor (Choi, Kim, & Seo, 2011) (Ostadi, Kazerani, & Chen, 2013).

Figure 12. Partially Decoupled Supercapacitor/Battery Configuration (Lesiuta, 2016)

The DC/bus voltage cannot fluctuate because the battery and the DC/bus are in
direct contact. The supercapacitor, however, is required to be rated in accordance
with the power rating, therefore the bidirectional DC-DC converter must be rated
higher since it must be able to handle big and abrupt changes in power demand (Tie
& Tan, 2013). The battery's lifespan is also shortened since the battery unit is not
protected from strong current fluctuations because it is linked directly to the DC
bus. In addition, the circuit complexity and cost are quite modest because there is
just one converter (Ortúzar, Moreno, & Dixon, 2007).

M. Choi and co-workers also proposed another topography, the partially decoupled
battery/supercapacitor configuration. In this the battery is protected from the rapidly
fluctuating currents by being decoupled from the DC bus (DC Link) illustrated in
figure 13., and this also enables management of the power transmission to and from
the battery (Choi et al., 2011). The supercapacitor manages these highly varying
currents, which boosts the system's effectiveness. The disadvantage is that the
converter's efficiency may now be significantly reduced because the DC bus may
now be subjected to significant voltage variations. With a correct management
strategy for the DC-DC converter, which permits the DC bus voltage to vary only
within a defined range, this can be efficiently mitigated.

17
 Figure 13. Partially Decoupled Battery/Supercapacitor Configuration (Lesiuta, 2016)

S. M. Lukic and co-workers studied a fully decoupled designs, the battery and the
supercapacitor are separated from the DC bus using two converters. The second
bidirectional DC/DC converter is positioned between the supercapacitor and the
DC bus, creating a new architecture as shown in figure 14. The proposed
configuration of this system so-called cascaded topology. In this configuration, the
battery unit is connected to the supercapacitor's terminals at lower voltage levels
and the supercapacitor is connected to the DC-DC converter behind the inverter at
a higher voltage level. This design has the advantage that battery cells can be
balanced more easily at lower voltages than at higher voltages. Another advantage
is that the cost can be decreased by using a DC-DC converter with roughly the same
power rating as the battery unit connecting the battery to the supercapacitor. Due to
the supercapacitor's fluctuating voltage, this arrangement has the disadvantage of
higher losses at the DC-DC converter that connects it to the DC bus (DC link).

Figure 14. Fully Decoupled Cascaded Battery/Capacitor Configuration (Lukic, Cao, Bansal, Rodriguez, &
Emadi, 2008)

S. F. Tie and team studied similar kind of cascade configuration. Another different
combination of the cascaded configuration is much similar to the above discussed
configuration. In this, the battery unit and supercapacitor locations are reversed, as
shown in figure 15. A more steady voltage can be achieved at the higher rated DC-
DC converter linked to the DC bus, but at the expense of making it more challenging
to balance the battery unit. This is because the battery must be maintained at a

18
greater voltage when the DC-DC converter is connected at the intermediate voltage
level.

Figure 15. Fully Decoupled Cascaded Capacitor/Battery Configuration (Tie & Tan, 2013)

Figure 16. Fully Decoupled Multiple Converter Configuration (Lesiuta, 2016)

S. F. Tie and team also proposed a multiple converter topology as shown in figure
16. offers an alternative to the cascaded connection as another fully decoupled
configuration. The supercapacitor and battery units, each containing a DC-DC
converter, are connected in parallel in this configuration. Although the
supercapacitor and battery's voltages can be kept separate, both DC-DC converters
will be connected at the same voltage level. As a result, the system is more stable
and the supercapacitor and battery may be balanced more easily.

19
4. RESULTS
This section presents the results of the integration of a supercapacitor and battery
module in a HEV. Additionally, based on the findings from the previously
mentioned publications in theory chapter, a comparison of the environmental effects
of various HEVs and conventional automobiles is presented. The effectiveness of
the battery in various supercapacitor topologies and battery-based HEVs with the
usage of a DC/DC converter is another significant subject area.

4.1 Results based on HEV

According to Singh et al.'s discussion in a review journal, Table 1 compares the

emissions of EVs and HEVs for urban, federal highway, and commuter driving cars.
The different parameters such as, weight nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide
(CO), The level of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) in the exhaust gases of gasoline
from Conventional, EV series hybrid and parallel hybrid vehicles are evaluated
based on the different levels of emission (Singh et al., 2019).
Table 1. Comparison of emission for different driving cycles (Singh et al., 2019)

Series Parallel
Parameters Conventional EV
hybrid hybrid
NOx (g/km) High NA Medium Low

CO (g/km) High NA Medium Low

HC High NA Low Medium

Fuel consumption (km/L) High NA Medium Low

Amount of energy supplied
NA Low Medium High
or depleted (MJ)

The conventional vehicles release high level of all pollutant chemicals to the
environment. Whereas the EV having the no emission to the environment. Whereas
the series hybrid and parallel hybrid vehicles have lesser amount of emission to the
environment.

4.2 Results based on simulation models

This part went in-depth on the simulation findings presented by Manla et al. for two
battery-supercapacitor energy management systems, one with a direct parallel
connection and the other with a DC/DC converter connected in series with the
supercapacitor. Similar types of studies have been discussed in other research
publications, but the graphics and results in this reference journal by Manla et al.
are more suited and simpler to comprehend. The battery and supercapacitor in the
first system have been represented by identical circuit models, and the

20
supercapacitor has been represented by a straightforward circuit. The battery and
supercapacitor in this circuit share the same terminal voltage. Based on the circuit
specifications, the input current will be split into two parts (Manla, 2015).
The battery is under substantially less stress when linked to the supercapacitor in
this straightforward control-free method, according to simulation data. A test
current applied to the circuit is shown in figure 17. The test current is a series of
multi-valued rectangular waveforms with varying widths that alternate between
charging and discharging periods (Manla, 2015).

Figure 17. Battery in direct connection with an ultracapacitor with same terminal voltage (Manla, 2015)

The dashed green curve represents the current in the supercapacitor, while the red
curve represents current pulled from or injected into the battery. The battery
receives somewhat less than half of the system current, as is noticeable.

Figure 18. Magnified representation of battery in direct connection with an ultracapacitor with same terminal
voltage (Manla, 2015)

21
Additionally, figure 18. depicts a zoomed-in representation of the same setup to
make it apparent which device is in charge of which share of the overall system
current in the parallel connection ESS. As expected, and intended the
supercapacitor obviously handles the majority of the current (Manla, 2015).
In the second circuit, the battery and supercapacitor do not share the same terminal
voltage. The DC/DC converter, which separates the two energy storage devices, is
what regulates how much current flows through the supercapacitor as opposed to
how much current the battery is in charge of. As a result, the input current will not
be split between the battery and the supercapacitor purely depending on the circuit
parameters, as the control system will regulate the current taken out of or injected
into the supercapacitor (Manla, 2015).

Figure 19. Battery in direct connection with an ultracapacitor without the same terminal voltage (Manla,
2015)

As seen in figure 19., the second circuit including the DC/DC converter has also
been subjected to an utilise of an alternating rectangular current waveform. This
circuit clearly displays a higher supercapacitor current share than the uncontrolled
condition. As a result, the battery is in charge of around one-third of the drawn or
injected current, resulting in an extension of the battery's lifespan. The battery is
represented by the dashed red curve, while the supercapacitor current is represented
by the continuous green curve (Manla, 2015).

22
Figure 20. Magnified representation of battery in direct connection with an ultracapacitor without the same
terminal voltage (Manla, 2015)

To illustrate which component of the overall system current in the parallel

connection ESS with a DC/DC converter is being supplied by which device, figure
20. displays a zoomed-in version of figure 19 (Manla, 2015).
4.3 Discussion
Theoretical analysis and experiment results indicate that the DC/DC converter must
have a good conversion efficiency to make the energy management system (EMS)
effective in comparison to a battery-only system. This is based on the developed
energy management strategy and the topological structure mentioned (Ahmed &
Bleijs, 2015). The primary goal is to develop a dynamic control technique for
DC/DC converters to manage energy between batteries and supercapacitors. The
dclink voltage level is mandated by the battery module, hence this dynamic control
technique is dependent on current control (Sharma et al., 2018). In comparison to a
system that uses exclusively batteries, a hybrid system offers a clear advantage in
terms of improving battery life. Furthermore, the configuration between the
supercapacitor and the battery plays a crucial role in the efficiency of HEV
depending on the various topologies that we described earlier. The DC/DC
converter's assistance allows the supercapacitor to handle the battery's loads,
improving its efficiency and extending its useful life (Zhang, Deng, Zhang, & Wu,
2016).

23
5.0 CONCLUSION
The current work is summarized in this section. The research questions for this
thesis study will also be addressed in this section. Additionally, a high-level
explanation of the benefits of employing a supercapacitor in a HEV to extend
battery life and efficiency is covered.
5.1 Conclusion of this current work/research questions
What are the challenges and opportunities of supercapacitors?
In a number of applications, supercapacitors have been limited by a few major
drawbacks. The main issues include: Each supercapacitor cell has a low voltage
rating of between 1.4 and 3.5 volts. Even if a single cell can store enough energy or
provide enough peak power, the system the supercapacitor is utilised in might
operate at a voltage that is higher than what a single cell can handle. Even while
one cell might not be able to fulfil the demands of a given application.
Several attractive characteristics of a supercapacitor, including high energy density,
reduced device weight, and great cycling stability so that the supercapacitor can be
employed in applications that require a lengthy shelf life as well as for the quick
delivery of electrical energy. Supercapacitors can therefore be used for a wider
range of applications and in a more effective way as a result of increased research
and development. Moreover, the automotive industry will be more beneficial.
What are the environmental impacts of supercapacitors?
The primary electrode component of the supercapacitor is carbon-based activated
carbon, which is made from agricultural waste. For some battery-powered
applications, the supercapacitor can be utilised as an alternative. We are aware that
lead-based batteries significantly harm the environment and that handling lead can
have negative effects on human health. Consequently, the development of
supercapacitor technology creates a range of applications that are both highly
economical and ecologically beneficial.
How can supercapacitors enhance the battery life of the hybrid electrical vehicles?
The supercapacitor pack can supply or recover the peak power, and it can be
employed, unlike a stand-alone battery system, which may not be adequate to meet
peak demand periods during transients in HEVs. The problems with battery-
supercapacitor hybrid energy storage systems, however, are regulating power
distribution and connecting the battery and supercapacitor. By attaching the
supercapacitor, the load on the battery can be decreased while also extending its
life.

24
The overall summary of this thesis work is:
 The different types of hybrid vehicles are discussed in this thesis work
 In this research, various battery-supercapacitor energy storage system
topologies for HEVs are extensively studied
 Moreover, the usage of battery- supercapacitor energy storage system has
environmental impact by reducing the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx),
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and other toxic gases
 The usage of battery- supercapacitor energy storage system can be reduce
the load of battery and increase the lifespan
5.1.1 Recommendation to future activities
A detailed study of several battery-supercapacitor energy management system
topologies is suggested. Additionally, studies on single-stage single-phase, single-
stage three-phase, and zero voltage switching inverters as well as DC/DC
converters and DC/AC converters are needed. Additionally, additional research is
suggested in this area to improve the efficiency of the various motor drives utilized
in HEVs. There is a need to use more affordable and effective components. The
suggested control method can maximize system efficiency and supercapacitor
utilization while reducing the size of the battery pack to prevent thermal runaway
issues and lengthen battery life. More economical and efficient components are
need to used.

25
6. CRITICAL REVIEW
The depletion of fossil fuels and its negative impact on global warming are one of
the key causes behind the recent growth in the development of hybrid electric
vehicle technologies. Nowadays, traditional automobile emissions have a
significant impact on urgent environmental issues. The ultimate goal of vehicle
development is to create pure electric vehicles, even though hybrid electric vehicles
are more fuel-efficient than traditional automobiles. Supercapacitors are expected
to be advantageous for upcoming power device generations. These parts are
expected to have a wide range of future applications, including in hybrid electric
vehicles and other power systems. For supercapacitors to perform to their full
capacity, energy and power densities must be maximised. A key approach to deal
with this is the development of superior electrode materials and manufacturing
procedures. The battery-supercapacitor energy storage technology also
significantly reduces the emission of hazardous gases, which has a negative
influence on the environment. The load on the battery can be reduced, the battery's
lifespan can be extended, and HEVs can be made more efficient by integrating
energy storage systems that use batteries and supercapacitors. The efficiency of the
HEV will increase with more advancement in the field of battery-supercapacitor
energy storage systems.

26
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Name: Murali Mohan
Email : [email protected]

Name: Sreekanth Vijayan

Email : [email protected]