Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102) 2022

Module Contents:

1. Introduction to network analysis and synthesis

 Analysis and synthesis concepts

2. Network transforms representation and analysis

 Analysis of first and second order circuits;

 Transformed network equations and analysis

3. Two Port Networks

 Z -, Y-, H-, and ABCD parameters;

 Relationship among 2-port parameters;
 Parallel, series, and cascade interconnections

4. Elements of reliability theory

 Causality and stability

 Concept of poles and zeros, time response and stability from pole zero plot
 Hurwitz Polynomials
 Positive Real Function
 Properties of driving point and transfer functions

5. Synthesis of Driving Point Function

 Elementary synthesis procedures;

 Removal of minimum resistance/conductance

6. Filters

 Filter categorization and specification, classical filter design techniques and

 Modern filter design techniques
 Synthesis of active filters

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Introduction to network analysis and synthesis

1.1. Basic definitions and representation of networks

In generally accepted definitions of network analysis and synthesis, there are three key

words: the excitation, the network, and the response as depicted in Fig. 1.1.

Fig. 1.1: Block diagram representation of electrical network systems

Definitions:

 Excitation – source of electrical energy to be connected to the network.

 An electrical network is a combination/interconnection of electrical elements

such as resistors, inductors, capacitors, transmission lines, voltage sources,

current sources, and switches, connected in any manner to perform a certain task

governed by certain laws.

 Response – output signal produced by the network in response to the input

(excitation).

For electrical networks, the excitation and response are given in terms of voltages and

currents which are functions of time, 𝑡. In general, these functions of time are called

signals. In describing signals, we use the two universal languages of electrical

engineering- time and frequency. Strictly speaking, a signal is a function of time.

However, the signal can be described equally well in terms of spectral or frequency

information. The translation between time and frequency domain representations are

affected by Fourier series, Fourier integral and Laplace transform.

To mention some examples of networks:

 Filters − electrical networks which pass selective frequency signals.

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 Amplifiers/ Attenuators − electrical networks which are used to magnify or

reduce signal power level from input to output.

 Equalizers − electrical networks used to counteract frequency or phase

distortions.

 Matching networks − electrical networks that match source and load

impedances.

1.1.2. Definitions of Analysis and synthesis

Network Analysis

If the network and the excitation are given, and the problem is to find current or voltage
through/across elements of the network or to find their relation with other voltages or
currents, the process to find the solution is called network analysis.

 Consists of characterizing the network itself in terms of time and frequency and

determining how the network behaves as a signal processor

 Concerned with determining the response, given the excitation and the network

 In this process there is always one and only one solution

Network synthesis

If the input and the output are given explicitly or implicitly (in the form of a function

relating the two) and the problem is to create a network that meets the given

specifications, the procedure followed is called network synthesis.

 Here the problem is to design/synthesize the network from the system function
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻( 𝑠) = given the excitation 𝐸(𝑠) and the desired response 𝑅(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠)

 In this kind of process there may not be a solution (unrealizable specifications);

otherwise if a solution exists, there will be several (precisely infinite) equivalent

solutions (networks).

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1.1.3. Network components

Electrical network (Circuit) components (elements) can be classified according to

different properties.

Active and passive elements:

 Passive elements are those that have no energy sources. This includes resistors,

inductors, capacitors and coupled inductors (transformers)

 Active elements are dependent sources, transistors, op-amps etc. There are

separate energy sources in these elements, without which they cannot function.

Linear and non-linear elements:

A system is linear if superposition theorem holds true for the input-output relationship

If 𝑥1 → 𝑦1

and 𝑥2 → 𝑦2

then 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2 → 𝑎𝑦1 + 𝑏𝑦2

Fig. 1.2: Linear systems

Similarly, linear elements are those that have a linear response (current or voltage) to

the input (voltage or current); or elements that have linear relationship between current

and voltage through/across them.

Distributed and Lumped Parameter elements:

Unlike lumped parameter elements, many network elements have electrical properties

(Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance) in a distributed manner in space (say, a

transmission line or a rheostat).

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A transmission line between a generating station and the load has inductance (due to

the magnetic field set up by the current) and capacitance (between two conductors and

between conductor and ground).

When a source of energy is connected to the transmission line, energy is transported

through all the parts. However, points along the line do not have the same electrical

conditions at the same instant of time. This means that the parameters are distributed

along the line.

1.2. Representation of Ideal Elements

In the analysis of electrical networks, we use idealized linear mathematical models of

physical circuit elements. The elements most often encountered are the resistor R, given

in ohms, the capacitor C, given in farads, and the inductor L, expressed in henrys. The

endpoints of the elements are called terminals. A port is defined as a pair of terminals in

which energy is supplied or withdrawn or where network variables may be measured

or observed

The energy sources that make up the excitation functions are ideal current or voltage

sources, as shown in Figs. 1.3 a and b. The polarities indicated for the voltage sources

and the direction of flow for the current source are arbitrarily assumed for reference

purposes only. An ideal voltage source is an energy source that provides, at a given

port, a voltage signal that is independent of the current at that port. If we interchange

the words “current” and “voltage” in the last definition, we then define an ideal current

source.

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Fig. 1.3: (a) voltage source, (b) current source

A dependent voltage (or current) source is a source the voltage (or current) of which

depends on another voltage (or current). A dependent or controlled source is said to be

voltage or current controlled if its terminal behavior is controlled by another voltage or

current. This leads to four different controlled sources which are:

1. Voltage-controlled voltage source

2. Voltage-controlled current source

3. Current-controlled voltage source

4. Current-controlled current source

Some physical devices operate almost like ideal dependent sources. For example, an

operational amplifier is a voltage controlled voltage source, a field effect transistor a

voltage controlled current source.

In network analysis, the principal problem is to find the relationships that exist between

the currents and voltages at the ports of the network. Certain simple voltage-current

relationships for the network elements also serve as defining equations for the elements

themselves. For example, when the currents and voltages are expressed as functions of

time, then the R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig. 1.4, are defined by the equations
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅i(𝑡) Or 1
i (𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑅

𝑑i(𝑡) Or 𝑡
𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝐿 i(𝑡) = 1 ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + i(0)
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 0

𝑡 or 𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = 1 ∫ i(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣(0) i (𝑡) = 𝐶
𝐶 0 𝑑𝑡

where the constants of integration i(0) and 𝑣(0) are initial conditions.

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Fig. 1.4: (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor (in time domain)

Fig. 1.5: (a) Resistor, (b) inductor, (c) capacitor (in Laplace domain)

Expressed as a function of the complex frequency variable s, the equations defining the

R, L, and C elements, shown in Fig. 1.4, are (ignoring the initial conditions for the

moment)
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠) Or 1
𝐼( 𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑅

𝑉(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠) Or 1
𝐼( 𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑠𝐿

1 Or 𝐼(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶𝑉(𝑠)
𝑉(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶

We see that in the time domain, i.e., where the independent variable is t, the voltage-

current relationships are given in terms of differential equations. On the other hand, in

the complex-frequency domain, the voltage-current relationships for the elements are

expressed in algebraic equations. Algebraic equations are, in most cases, more easily

solved than differential equations.

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When a network is made up of an interconnection of linear circuit elements, the

network is described by its system or transfer function H(s). The response R(s) and the

excitation E(s) are related by the equation

𝑅(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)
In network analysis we are given 𝐸(𝑠), and we can obtain 𝐻(𝑠) directly from the

network. Our task is to determine 𝑅(𝑠). On the other hand for the case of network

synthesis, we are given 𝐸(𝑠) together with the desired response 𝑅(𝑠) and the problem
𝑅(𝑠)
will be to synthesize the network from the system function 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝐸(𝑠) .
Since 𝐸(𝑠) and 𝑅(𝑠) are currents or voltages, then 𝐻(𝑠) is denoted generally as an

immittance is 𝑅(𝑠) is a voltage and 𝐸(𝑠) is a current, or vise versa. A deriving point

immittance is defined to be a function for which the variables are measured at the same

port. Thus a driving-point impedance 𝑍(𝑠) at a given port is the function

𝑉(𝑠)
𝑍(𝑠) =
𝐼(𝑠)
Where the excitation is a current 𝐼(𝑠) and the response is a voltage 𝑉(𝑠). When we

interchange the words “current” and “voltage” in the last definition, we then have

driving-point admittance given as,

𝑌(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑉(𝑠)
Applying those definitions for the R, L, and C elements we can get the impedance and

admittance expressions as follows,

Resistor Inductor Capacitor

Impedance 𝑅 𝑠𝐿 1
𝑠𝐶

Admittance 1 1 𝑠𝐶
𝑅 𝑠𝐿

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Exercises

1. If the system function of a network is given as

1
𝐻( 𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)
3
Find the response 𝑅(𝑠) is the excitation is 𝐸(𝑠) =
𝑠

2. Given the following functions, find their simplest network realizations.

1
a) 𝑍(𝑠) = 3 + 2𝑠 +
3𝑠
3𝑠
b) 𝑌(𝑠) = 2𝑠 +
𝑠+2
𝑠
c) 𝑍(𝑠) = 3 +
𝑠 2+2
1
d) 𝑌(𝑠) = 2𝑠
3𝑠+2 + 𝑠2+4
3. For the network shown, write the mesh equation in-terms of (a) differential

equations and (b) the complex-frequency variable s.

Fig. 1.6

4. For the network shown in Fig. 1.7, write the node equation in-terms of (a)

differential equations and (b) the complex-frequency variable s.

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Fig. 1.7

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1.4. Network Theorems

In network analysis, the objective of a problem is often to determine a single branch

current through a given element or a single voltage across an element. In problems of

this kind, it is generally not practicable to write a complete set of mesh or node

equations and to solve a system of equations for this one current or voltage. It is then

convenient to use two very important theorems on equivalent circuits, known as

Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems.

1.4.1. Superposition Theorem

The superposition theorem states the following

The current through, or voltage across, any element of a network is equal to the

algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each source.

In other words, this theorem allows us to find a solution for a current or voltage using

only one source at a time. Once we have the solution for each source, we can combine

the results to obtain the total solution. The term algebraic appears in the above theorem

statement because the currents resulting from the sources of the network can have

different directions, just as the resulting voltages can have opposite polarities.

If we are to consider the effects of each source, the other sources obviously must be

removed. Setting a voltage source too zero volts is like placing a short circuit across its

terminals and setting a current source to zero amperes is like replacing it with an open

circuit. In both cases any internal resistance associated with the sources should remain

in the network.

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1.4.2. Thevenin’s Theorem

From the standpoint of determining the current 𝐼(𝑠) through an element of

impedance 𝑍1(𝑠), shown in Fig. 1.8 (a), the rest of the network N can be replaced by

equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒(𝑠) in series with an equivalent voltage source 𝑉𝑒(𝑠) , as

depicted in Fig. 1.8 (b). The equivalent impedance 𝑍𝑒(𝑠) is the impedance “looking into”

N from the terminals of 𝑍1(𝑠) when all voltage sources in N are short circuited and all

current sources are open circuited. The equivalent voltage source 𝑉𝑒(𝑠) is the voltage

which appears between the terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 1.8 (a), when the element 𝑍1(𝑠) is

removed or open circuited.

Fig. 1.8: (a) Network N, (b) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Example: for the network in Fig. 1.9, let us determine the voltage 𝑣0(𝑡) across the

resistor by Thevenin’s theorem. The switch closes at 𝑡 = 0, and we assume that all initial

conditions are zero at 𝑡 = 0.

Fig. 1.9

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First let us redraw the circuit in terms of its transformed representation, which is given

in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10

We can almost determine by inspection that the Thevenin equivalent voltage source of

the network to the left of 𝑁 in Fig 1.10 is

𝑉(𝑠)(1⁄𝑠𝐶)
𝑉𝑒(𝑠) = + 1⁄𝑠𝐶
𝑠𝐿 1

And the input impedance to the left of N is

𝑠𝐿1(1⁄𝑠𝐶)
𝑍𝑒 (𝑠) = 𝑠𝐿2 +
𝑠𝐿 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶
1

We know that

𝑅𝑉𝑒(𝑠)
𝑉0 (𝑠) = 𝑍𝑒(𝑠) + 𝑅

Therefore

𝑅𝑉(𝑠)(1⁄𝑠𝐶)
𝑉0(𝑠) =
(𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 )(𝑠𝐿1 + 1⁄𝑠𝐶) + 𝐿1 ⁄𝐶
2

Finally

𝑣0(𝑡) = 𝐿−1(𝑉0(𝑠))

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1.4.3. Norton’s Theorem

When it is required to find the voltage across an element whose admittance is 𝑌1(𝑠), the

rest of the network can be represented as an equivalent admittance 𝑌𝑒(𝑠) in parallel with

an equivalent current source 𝐼𝑒(𝑠), as shown in Fig. 1.11. The admittance 𝑌𝑒(𝑠) is the

reciprocal of the Thevenin impedance. The current 𝐼𝑒(𝑠) is that current which flows

through a short circuit across 𝑌1(𝑠). From Fig. 1.10,

𝑉 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝑒(𝑠)
1
𝑌𝑒(𝑠) + 𝑌1(𝑠)

Fig. 1.11

Example: in the network in Fig. 1.12, the switch closes at 𝑡 = 0. It is given that 𝑣(𝑡) =

0.1𝑒−5𝑡 and all initial currents and voltages are zero. Let us find the current i2(𝑡) by

Norton’s theorem.

Fig. 1.12

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The transformed circuit is given in Fig. 1.13. To find the Norton equivalent current

source, we short circuit points 1 and 2 in the network shown. Then 𝐼𝑒(𝑠) is the current

flowing in the short circuit, or

𝑉(𝑠) 0.1 1
= =
𝐼𝑒(𝑠) = + 𝑠𝐿 𝐿(𝑠 + 𝑅⁄𝐿)(𝑠 + 5) (𝑠 + 5)(𝑠 + 10)
𝑅 1

The equivalent admittance of the circuit as viewed from points 1 and 2 is

1 𝑠2𝐿𝐶 + 𝑠𝑅1𝐶 + 1 0.5𝑠2 + 5𝑠 + 10

= =
𝑌𝑒(𝑠) = 𝑠𝐶 + + 𝑠𝐿 𝑅1 + 𝑠𝐿 𝑠 + 10
𝑅 1

Fig. 1.13

𝐼2(𝑠) is then

𝐼𝑒(𝑠) 1
𝐼2 (𝑠) = 𝑅2[𝑌𝑒(𝑠) + 𝐺2] = (𝑠 + 5)2(𝑠 + 6)

By inspection, we see that 𝐼2(𝑠) can be written as

(𝑠 + 6) − (𝑠 + 5) 1 1
𝐼2(𝑠) = ( = −
𝑠 + 5)2(𝑠 + 6) (𝑠 + 5) 2
(𝑠 + 6)(𝑠 + 5)

Repeating this procedure, we then obtain

1 1 1
𝐼2(𝑠) = − +
(𝑠 + 5) 2
( 𝑠 + 5) ( 𝑠 + 6)

Taking the inverse transform of 𝐼2(𝑠), we finally obtain

i2(𝑡) = (𝑡𝑒−5𝑡 − 𝑒−5𝑡 + 𝑒−6𝑡)𝑢(𝑡)

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1.4.4. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

The process of finding the load that will receive maximum power from a particular

system is quite straightforward due to the maximum power transfer theorem, which

states the following:

A load will receive maximum power from a network when its load impedance is

exactly equal to the Thevenin impedance of the network applied to the load. That is,
𝑍𝐿(𝑠) = 𝑍𝑇ℎ(𝑠)
With 𝑍𝐿(𝑠) = 𝑍𝑇ℎ(𝑠), the system being perfectly matched to the load and the source,

thus the power transfer becomes maximum, and this amount of power 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 can be

obtained by the following equation

𝑉2 (𝑠)𝑍𝑇ℎ(𝑠) 𝑉2 (𝑠)
𝑇ℎ 𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
(𝑍𝑇ℎ(𝑠) + 𝑍𝐿(𝑠))2 4𝑍2 (𝑠)
�
1.5. Classification of Networks

The overall behavior of an electrical network can be predicated by the constituent

element and their interconnection. The behavior of the network, considered as a black

box, leads to a number of classifications like linear, nonlinear: time-invariant and time

variant; passive, active. Also depending on the number of terminals, a network can also

be classified as 1-port, 2-port,… network.

1.5.1. Linear and Non-linear Networks

In a linear network, the relationship between the voltage and current is described by a

linear equation. Consider two networks 𝑁1, and 𝑁2 as shown in Fig.1.14 (a) and (b)

respectively. Network (a) is made up of a linear resistor R, while (b) is made up of a

semi-conductor diode and linear resistor R. let the cut-in voltage of the diode be 0.6

volt. In network (a) current 𝐼1 is given by 𝑉/𝑅 and exists for all values of V. In network

(b) if V is less than 0.6 volt the current 𝐼2 is zero and for voltages higher than 0.6 volts 𝐼2

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𝑉−0.6
is given by , where 𝑅𝐹 is the forward resistance of the diode. Obviously, in network
𝑅+𝑅𝐹

(a) the current response is linear in contrast to that in (b).

A system (network) is linear if the principle of superposition and (ii) the principle of

proportionality hold. By the superposition principle, if, for a given network, [𝑒1(𝑡),

𝑟1(𝑡), and [𝑒2(𝑡), 𝑟2(𝑡), are excitation response pairs, then if the excitation were e(t) =

𝑒1(𝑡) + 𝑒2(𝑡) the response would be r(t) = 𝑟1(𝑡) + 𝑟2(𝑡). By the proportionality principle,

if the excitation were 𝐶1𝑒1(𝑡) , where 𝐶1 is a constant, then the response would

be

𝐶1𝑟1(𝑡)i.e. the constant proportionality 𝐶1 is preserved by the linear network. Let both

the networks be excited by two serially connected voltage sources 𝑉1 and 𝑉2. Then it can

be seen that 𝐼1(𝑉1 + 𝑉2) = 𝐼1(𝑉1) + 𝐼2(𝑉2) and 𝐼1(𝑉1 + 𝑉2) G 𝐼1(𝑉1) + 𝐼2(𝑉2) .

Fig. 1.14. Linear and non-linear networks

Where 𝐼i(𝑉j) is the current into the terminals of network 𝑁i when excited by a voltage

source 𝑉j . We say that network 𝑁1 is linear and 𝑁2 is nonlinear as the principle of

superposition holds for 𝑁1 but not for 𝑁2 .

1.5.1. Time-variant and Time-invariant Networks

A network is time invariant if 𝑒(𝑡) → 𝑟(𝑡) implies that 𝑒(𝑡 ± 𝑇) → 𝑟(𝑡 ± 𝑇), where the

symbol → means “gives rise to.” To understand the concept of time invariance in a

linear system, let us suppose that initially the excitation is introduced at 𝑡 = 0, which

gives rise to a response 𝑟(𝑡). If the excitation were introduced at 𝑡 = 𝑇, and if the shape

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of the response waveform were the same as in the first case, but delayed by a time 𝑇

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(Fig. 1.15), then we could say the system is time invariant. Another way of looking at

this concept is through the fact that time-invariant systems contain only elements that

do not vary with time. A network composed of time-invariant elements is necessarily

time-invariant whereas network composed of time-variant elements may exhibit time-

invariant terminal behavior.

Fig. 1.15. Time-invariant system

1.5.3. Causal and Non-causal networks

We say a system is causal if its response is non-anticipatory, i.e.,

if 𝑒(𝑡) = 0 f𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 𝑇, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟( 𝑡 ) = 0 f𝑜𝑟 𝑡<𝑇
In other words, a network is causal if before an excitation is applied at 𝑡 = 𝑇, the

response is zero for −∞ < 𝑡 < 𝑇. Otherwise the network is said to be non-causal.

1.5.4. Passive and Active Networks

Consider a network made up of a single linear resistor. The energy supplied to (or

dissipated by) the resistor, from the previous relation is

𝑡
W(𝑡, 𝑡0) = ∫ i2(𝑡)𝑅𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

If the resistor has to deliver power to the external world, 𝑅 has to be negative. As long

as R is positive the resistor will consume power, and such a resistor is called a passive

resistor.

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Let 𝑣(𝑡) and i(𝑡) be voltage and current at the terminals of a network. Then the energy

delivered to the network is given by

𝑡
W(𝑡, 𝑡0) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑟)i(𝑟)𝑑𝑟
𝑡0

A network is said to be passive if, and only if, W(𝑡, 𝑡0) + 𝐸(𝑡0) ≥ 0 for all 𝑡 and 𝑡0, and

for all 𝑣(𝑡) and i(𝑡), where 𝐸(𝑡0) is the energy in the network at 𝑡 = 𝑡0. Otherwise, the

network is said to be active. In other words, if the energy delivered to the network is

non-negative for all time and input, the network is said to be passive.

1.5.5. One-port and Two-port Network

A pair of terminals such that current entering one of the terminals is the same as current

leaving the other terminal is called port. Depending on the number of ports, networks

can be classified as 1-port, 2-port…, n-port (multi-port). One-port network is a two

terminal electrical network in which, current enters trough one terminal and leaves

through another terminal. Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are the examples of one

port network because each one has two terminals. One port network representation is

shown in Fig. 1.16 below.

Fig. 1.16: One-port network

Here, the pair of terminals, 1 & 1’ represents a port. In this case, we are having only one

port since it is a one port network.

Similarly, two port networks is a pair of two terminal electrical network in which,

current enters through one terminal and leaves through another terminal of each port.

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Two port network representation is shown in the following Fig. 1.17. Here, one pair of

terminals, 1 and 1’ represents one port and, which is called as port1 and the other pair

of terminals, 2 & 2’ represents another port, which is called port2. Port1 is used as an

input port and port2 is used as output port.

Fig. 1.17: Two-port network

There are four variables 𝑉1, 𝑉2, 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 in a two port network as shown in Fig. 1.17, out

of which, we can choose two variables as independent and another two variables as

dependent. So we will get six possible pairs of equations. These equations represent the

dependent variables in terms independent variables. The coefficients of independent

variables are called as parameters. So, each pair of equations will give a set of four

parameters. We will explore two port networks in Chapter 5.

Chapter Review Exercises

1. Find the deriving-point impedance and admittance functions for the following network.

Fig. 1.18

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2. Obtain the differential equation relating i𝐿 and 𝑉𝑠 for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19.

Also find the expression for 𝑉𝑐 in terms of 𝑉𝑠.

Fig. 1.19

3. Find the current 𝐼 in the circuit of Fig. 1.20 using the following methods if the input

current 𝐼i𝑛 = 5𝛿(𝑡)𝐴.

A) Nodal analysis

B) Mesh analysis

Fig. 1.20

4. Use the superposition theorem to find the voltage 𝑣0(𝑡) in the following circuit, if

the initial value of the capacitor is assumed to be zero.

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Fig. 1.21

5. Find i1(𝑡) in Fig. 1.22 below using Thevenin’s theorem. The excitation is 𝑒(𝑡) =

100 cos 20 𝑢(𝑡). Assume zero initial energy.

Fig. 1.22

6. In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.23, the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0, with the network

previously un-energized. Evaluate,

A) i1 using Thevenin’s theorem

B) i2 using Norton’s theorem

Fig. 1.23

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7. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.24, what load impedance 𝑍𝐿 absorbs maximum

average power, and what is this maximum power?

Fig. 1.24

2. Network Transform Representation and analysis

In this chapter we will apply our knowledge of differential equations to the analysis of

linear, passive, time-invariant networks. We will assume the students are already

familiar with Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws, and with methods for writing mesh

and node equations for AC or DC circuits as well as theorems to analyze different RLC

networks. We will therefore, consider only briefly the problem of writing mesh and

node equations when the independent variable is time t (mr.x, Mr.y, 2019).

The problems in this chapter have the following formats: Given an excitation signal

from an energy source and the network, a specified response that is a current or voltage

in the network is to be determined. When relating these problems, we shall see that the

network is described by the differential equation, and the unknown variable 𝑥(𝑡) is the

response. To encounter these problems, we must first write the differential problems of

the network using Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws. Next, we must solve these

equations for a specified current or voltage in the network. Here it is also important to

consider initial conditions in solving the resulting differential equations (z, 2015).

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2.1 Analysis of First and Second Order Circuits

2.1.1 Voltage – current relationships of R, L, and C Elements in Time-domain
In this section, we will discuss the voltage-current (𝑣 − i) relationships that exist for the

basic network elements. We will start our discussion with review of 𝑣 − i relationships

for the resistor, the inductor, and capacitor.

Resistor

The resistor shown in Fig. 2.1 defines a linear proportionality relationship between 𝑣(𝑡)

and i(𝑡), namely,

𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅i(𝑡)
1
i(𝑡) = 𝐺𝑣(𝑡), 𝐺 =
𝑅
Where 𝑅 is given in ohms and 𝐺 in mhos.

Fig. 2.1: resistor

Capacitor

For the capacitor shown in Fig. 2.2a the 𝑣 − i relationships are

𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
i (𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
1
𝑣( 𝑡 ) = ∫ i(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 + 𝑣𝐶(0−)
� 0−
Where 𝐶 is given in farads. The initial value 𝑣𝐶(0−) is the voltage across the capacitor

just before the switching action. It can be regarded as an independent voltage source, as

shown in Fig. 2.2b. We should point out also that 𝑣𝐶(0 −) = 𝑣𝐶(0+) for all excitations

except impulses and derivatives of impulses.

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Fig. 2.2 (a) Capacitor. (b) Capacitor with initial voltage

The inductor in Fig. 2.3a describes a dual relationship between voltage and current

when compared to a capacitor. The 𝑣 − i relationships are

𝑑i(𝑡)
𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
1 𝑡
i(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑣(𝑟) 𝑑𝑟 + i𝐿(0−)
� 0−
Where 𝐿 is given in henrys. The initial current i𝐿(0−) can be regarded as an

independent current source, as shown in Fig. 2.3b. as it is true for the voltage across a

capacitor, the current through the inductor is similarly continuous for all 𝑡, except in the

case of impulse excitations.

Fig. 2.3: (a) Inductor. (b) Inductor with initial current

When the network elements are interconnected, the resulting v-I equations are

integrodifferential equations relating the excitation (voltage or current sources) to the

response (voltages and currents of the elements). The equations could be written by

using either the mesh or nodal analysis methods.

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2.1.2. Differential Equations

To study the transients in electric circuits, it is necessary to be familiar with the

mathematical concept of differential equations and the solution techniques. The order of

the differential equation represents the highest derivative involved and is equal to the

number of energy storing elements. A circuit containing an inductor L or a capacitor C,

and resistors will have current and voltage variables given by linear first order

differential equation with constant coefficients when the values of R, L, and C are

constants. Circuits having two storage elements like one inductor and one capacitor are

referred to as second order circuits. Therefore, the series or parallel combination of R

and L or R and C are first order circuits and RLC in series and RLC in parallel are

typical examples of second order circuits. As the differential equation contains no

partial derivatives, it is considered as ordinary. Hence, in this chapter we will be

dealing with linear, ordinary, differential equations (LODE) with constant coefficients.

Type I (First Order Homogeneous Differential Equations)

 General form 𝑑𝑦(𝑡) where 𝑃 is a constant

+ 𝑃𝑦(𝑡) = 0,
𝑑𝑡
 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑒−𝑃𝑡 where K is constant

If the constant 𝐾 is evaluated, the solution is a particular solution.

Type II (First Order Non-homogeneous Differential Equations)

 General form 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

+ 𝑃𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑄
𝑑𝑡
where 𝑃 is a constant and 𝑄 may be a function of independent variable t or a constant

 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒−𝑃𝑡 ∫ 𝑄𝑒𝑃𝑡𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑒−𝑃𝑡 where 𝐾 is constant

First term of the above solution is known as the particular integral; while the second is

known as the complementary function. Note that the particular integral does not

contain the arbitrary constant, and the complementary function does not depend on the

forcing function 𝑄.

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If 𝑄 is constant, then
𝑃𝑡 𝑄
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒−𝑃𝑡. 𝑄. 𝑒 + 𝐾𝑒−𝑃𝑡 = + 𝐾𝑒−𝑃𝑡
𝑃 𝑃
Type III (Second Order Homogeneous Differential Equations)

 General form 𝑑2𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

𝐴 +𝐵 + 𝐶𝑦(𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡
 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾1𝑒𝑃1𝑡 + 𝐾2𝑒𝑃2𝑡

Where 𝐾1 and 𝐾2 are constants. And 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the roots of quadratic equation
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝐴𝑃2 + 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐶 = 0, letting 𝑃 = and are given by
𝑑𝑡

−𝐵 ± √𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶
𝑃1, 𝑃2 =
2𝐴
If 𝑃1, = 𝑃2 , roots of the quadratic equation are repeated and the general solution

becomes,
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾1𝑒𝑃1𝑡 + 𝐾2. 𝑡. 𝑒𝑃1𝑡
Roots complex (  j): Solution
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒𝛼𝑡(𝐶 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝐷 sin 𝛽𝑡)
Type IV (Second Order Non-homogeneous Differential Equations)

The second-order, constant coefficient, linear, inhomogeneous differential

equation is an equation of the type:

 General form 𝑑2𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)

𝐴 +𝐵 + 𝐶𝑦(𝑡) = f(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
 General solution 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦1(𝑡) + 𝑦2(𝑡) = 𝐾1𝑒𝑃1𝑡 + 𝐾2𝑒𝑃2𝑡 + 𝑦2(𝑡)

The solution is in two parts 𝑦1(𝑡) + 𝑦2(𝑡):

(a) part 1, 𝑦1 is the solution to the homogeneous equation and is called the

complementary function which is the solution to the homogeneous equation

(b) part 2, 𝑦2 is called the particular integral.

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The general form assumed for the particular integral depends upon the form of

the right-hand side of the inhomogeneous equation. The following table can be

used as a guide:
f(𝑡) Trial solution (𝑦(𝑡))
𝑘 𝐶
𝑘𝑡 𝐶𝑡 + 𝐷
𝑎𝑡𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑘 𝐶𝑡𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝐷𝑡 + 𝐸
𝑘 sin 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 cos 𝑡 𝐶 sin 𝑡 + 𝐷 cos 𝑡
𝑘 sinh 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑘 cosh 𝑡 𝐶 sinh 𝑡 + 𝐷 cosh 𝑡

𝑒𝑘𝑡 𝐶𝑒𝑘𝑡
2.1.3. Initial and Final Conditions in Circuits
We need initial conditions to evaluate the arbitrary constants in the general solution of

differential equations. The number of initial conditions required is equal to the order of

the differential equations for a unique solution.

Procedure to Evaluate the Initial Conditions

The first step in determining the initial conditions is to draw the equivalent circuit at

𝑡 = 0+ based on the element given in Table 2.1. The next step is to evaluate the initial

values of the voltages and current of all the branches. After that, the derivatives at

𝑡 = 0+ are evaluated. Initial values of current and voltage may be found directly from a

study of the network schematic. For each element in the network, we must determine

just what will happen when the switching action takes place. From this analysis, a new

schematic of an equivalent network for 𝑡 = 0+ may be constructed according to these

rules:

 Replace all inductors with open circuits or with current generators having the

value of current flowing at 𝑡 = 0+.

 Replace all capacitors with short circuits or with voltage sources having the value
𝑞0
𝑉 = if there is an initial charge, 𝑞 .
0 𝐶 0

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 Resistors are left in the network without change.

Table 2.1: The equivalent circuit for the three parameters (R, L, & C) at 𝑡 = 0+ and 𝑡 =

∞.

Element with initial conditions Equivalent circuit at 𝑡 = 0+ Equivalent circuit at 𝑡 = ∞

OC- open circuit SC- short circuit

2.1.4. Various Responses

Transient response: (Transient means short lived)

The values of voltages and current during the transient period are known as the

transient responses. It is also defined as the part of the total time response that goes to

zero as time becomes large. It depends upon the network elements alone and

independent of the forcing function. The complementary function is the solution of the

differential equation with forcing function set to zero and hence, the complementary

function represents the source-free response or simply free response or natural response

or transient response.

Steady State Response:

The value of voltage and current after the transient has died out are known as the

steady-state response. It is also defined as the part of the total time response which

remains after the transient has passed. It depends on both the network elements and

forcing function.

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The particular integral represents the forced response or steady state response. It

satisfies the different equation but not the initial condition.

Note: The complete or total response of a network is the sum of the transient

response and the steady state response or the sum of the natural and forced

response.

Zero Input Response:

The values of voltage and current that result from initial conditions when the excitation

or forcing function is zero are known as zero input response.

Zero State Response:

The value of voltage and current for an excitation which is applied when all initial

conditions are zero are known as zero state response. Such a network is also said to be

at rest or initially relaxed.

Step and Impulse Response

Given a network with zero initial energy, we are required to solve for a specified

response (current or voltage) due to a given excitation function 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑜𝑟 𝛿(𝑡), which

either can be a current or a voltage source. If the excitation is a step of voltage, the

physical analogy is that of a switch closing at time 𝑡 = 0, which connects a 1v battery to

a circuit. The physical analogy of an impulse excitation is that of a very short (compared

to the time constants of the circuit) pulse with large amplitude. By definition the

integral of impulse response is step response.

Fig. 2.1:

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Considering the circuit of Fig. 2.1, the differential equation of the circuit becomes;
𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑅i(𝑡) + 1 ∫ i(𝑟)𝑑𝑟
𝐶 0−
Assuming, 𝑣𝐶(0−) = 0 and substituting 𝑥′(𝑡) for i(𝑡) in the above equation;
1
𝛿(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑥′(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡)
𝐶
The characteristic equation becomes,
1
𝐻(𝑃) = 𝑅𝑃 +
𝐶
1
With initial condition (0 ) = , and solving this characteristic equation results in,
+
𝑅
1
𝑥(𝑡 ) = 𝑒−𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶𝑢(𝑡)
𝑅
so that,
1 1
i(𝑡) = [𝛿(𝑡) − 𝑒−𝑡⁄𝑅𝐶𝑢(𝑡)]
𝑅 𝑅𝐶
We thus arrive at the current impulse response i(𝑡) as the result of an impulse voltage

excitation. In the process we have also obtained the step response 𝑥(𝑡) since by

definition the derivative of the step response is the impulse response. This result can

also be checked by replacing the impulse excitation in Fig.2.1 by a step excitation of

voltage.

1. Find the current i(𝑡) for the network in Fig. 2.2, when the voltage source is

𝑒(𝑡) = 2𝑒−0.5𝑡𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑉𝐶(0−) = 0.

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Fig. 2.2

2. For the R-C network in Fig. 2.3 with excitation given by ig(𝑡) = (𝐼0 sin 𝜔0𝑡)𝑢(𝑡),

find the voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the capacitor: it is given that 𝑣(0−) = 𝑣𝐶(0−).

Fig. 2.3

3. The circuit shown in Fig. 2.4, is in the steady state with the switch S closed. The

switch is opened at 𝑡 = 0. Determine i𝐿(𝑡) in the circuit.

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Fig. 2.4

4. In the network of Fig. 2.5, the switch S is thrown from position 1 to position 2

at 𝑡 = 0. Find i1(𝑡) and i2(𝑡) after the switch position changes.

Fig. 2.5

5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6, capacitor C has an initial voltage 𝑉𝐶 = 10𝑣 and at

the same instant, current through inductor L is zero. The switch K is closed at

time 𝑡 = 0. Find out the expression for the voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the inductor L

using differential equation formulation.

Fig. 2.6

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2.2 Network Functions

As we have discussed in Chapter one, the word port has special meaning. It is a pair of

terminals in which the current into one terminal is equal to the current out of the other.

The port at which the input/excitation is given is called driving point or input port. The

port at which output is taken is called output port. If the network has only driving port,

it is called one-port network and if the network has input and output ports, then it is

called two-port network. In Fig. 2.7, a general two-port network and a standard

convention adopted in the designation of voltages and currents are shown. It is also

discussed that a one port network is completely specified when a voltage-current

relationship at the terminals of the port is given. The four variables (𝐼1, 𝐼2, 𝑉1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2) of

the two-port network, taken two at a time, results in six set of equations that describe

the two-port network. These equations are called network functions.

A network function is defined as the ratio of the zero-state response to the input, where

both the response and the input expressed in Laplace domain, i.e.

𝑅(𝑠)
𝐻( 𝑠) =
𝐸(𝑠)

where 𝑠 the Laplace variable is the complex frequency variable 𝑠 = 𝜎 + j𝜔. Two sets of

network functions can be defined:

1. Driving point functions

2. Transfer functions.

These are defined and illustrated by using the network shown in Fig. 2.7.

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Fig. 2.7: Network used to define network functions

1. Deriving-point functions

If the excitation and the response are measured at the same set of terminals (terminal 1-

1’, or 2-2’), the network function is called driving point function. There are two driving

point functions: impedance and admittance.

𝑉1(𝑠)
𝑍𝑑𝑝 = (Deriving point impedance)
𝐼 (𝑠)
1
𝐼1(𝑠)
𝑌𝑑𝑝 = (Deriving point admittance)
𝑉 1(𝑠)
Because of the similarity of impedance and admittance, these two quantities are

assigned one name “Immitance” (a combination of impedance and admittance). From

the two relations, we can observe that the reciprocal of a driving point function is

another driving point function.

2. Transfer function

If the excitation and response are measured at different sets of terminals, then the

corresponding network function is called a transfer function. In two port network, this

transfer function is the ratio of output quantity to input quantity. On the other hand the

ratio of input quantity to the output quantity is termed as inverse transfer function.

Z21(s) = V2(s) (Transfer impedance) Z12(s) = V1(s) Inverse transfer impedance

I 1(s) I 2(s)

Y21(s) = I2(s) (Transfer admittance) Y12(s) = I1(s) Inverse transfer admittance

V 1(s) V 2(s)

G21(s) = V2(s) (Transfer voltage ratio) G12(s) = V1(s) Inverse transfer voltage
V 1(s) V 2(s)
ratio

I2(s) (Transfer current ratio) I1(s) Inverse transfer current

𝘢21(s) = 𝘢12(s) =
I 1(s) I 2(s)

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ratio

It can be observed from the definition of DP and transfer functions that for an

impedance function, excitation is a current source and response a voltage, and for an

admittance function excitation a voltage source and response a current. For simple

networks DP function can be obtained by inspection.

Exercises

1. Find the impedance and admittance for some simple networks containing,

A. Series B. Parallel

i) 𝑅−𝐿 i) 𝑅−𝐿

ii) 𝑅−𝐶 ii) 𝑅−𝐶

iii) 𝐿 − 𝐶 iii) 𝐿 − 𝐶

iv) 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶 iv) 𝑅 − 𝐿 − 𝐶

2. Find the deriving-point impedance and admittance functions for the following

network

2.3. Important definitions and mathematical representations

2.3.1. Poles and zeros of rational function (Laplace domain)

We have seen that network functions are rational functions of 𝑠, and the generalized

network function can be written as:

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𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑏 𝑠𝑚 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏 𝑠+𝑎
0 1 𝑚−1 𝑚

By factorizing each polynomial, the above function can be written as:

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0(𝑠 − 𝑧1)(𝑠 − 𝑧2) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑛)

𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑏0(𝑠 − 𝑝1)(𝑠 − 𝑝2) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚)

Where 𝑧1, 𝑧2 … 𝑧𝑛 are 𝑛 roots of the polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝑝1, 𝑝2. . . 𝑝𝑚 are 𝑚 roots of the

polynomial 𝐷(𝑠). The roots of polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) are called zeros whereas the roots of the

polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) are called poles. In complex frequency domain, a zero is denoted by a

small circle and a pole by a cross. From the above equation, 𝐻(𝑠) becomes zero when s

is equal to any of the zeros and 𝐻(𝑠) becomes infinite when s is equal to any of the

poles.

When the degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is greater than the degree of 𝐷(𝑠), then 𝐻(𝑠) goes to

infinite as s goes to infinity; and hence, 𝐻(𝑠) is said to have pole at infinity.

Similarly, when the degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is less than the degree of 𝐷(𝑠), then 𝐻(𝑠) goes

to zero as s goes to infinity; and hence, 𝐻(𝑠) is said to have zero at infinity.

Poles and zeros at 𝑠 = 0 and 𝑠 = ∞ are called external critical frequencies, and

other poles and zeros are called internal critical frequencies.

𝐻(𝑠) is said to have simple poles and zeros when the poles and zeros are not

repetitive, otherwise the network function may have multiple poles and zeros.

𝐻(𝑠) can have three types of critical frequencies (poles and zeros)
 Poles and zeros at 𝑠 = 0 and 𝑠 = ∞

 Poles and zeros at real frequency (𝜎). These poles and zeros have the form of

(𝑠 + 𝜎1) during factorization.

 Poles and zeros at complex frequency (𝜎 + j𝜔). These poles and zeros have

the form of (𝑠 − 𝜎1 − j𝜔) during factorization. For network functions, these

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complex poles and zeros exist in conjugates so that the product of these

terms [(𝑠 − 𝜎1 − j𝜔)(𝑠 − 𝜎1 + j𝜔)] gives the term (𝑠2 − 2 𝜎1𝑠 + 𝜎2 + 𝜔2).
1

 For poles and zeros on the j𝜔 – 𝑎𝑥i𝑠, 𝜎 is zero so that the above term is

reduced to (𝑠2 + 𝜔2).

Example 1

1. Find pole-zero plot for the following transfer function

2. Find the pole-zero plot for a transfer function is given by

3𝑠(𝑠 + 4)
𝑍(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 1)

2.3.2. Partial fraction expansion and residues

Consider the general network function.

𝑁(𝑠) 𝑎0𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛

𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑏 𝑠𝑚 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏 𝑠+𝑎
0 1 𝑚−1 𝑚

When the denominator polynomial is factorized, 𝐻(𝑠) can be written as:

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𝑁(𝑠)
𝑎0𝑠𝑛 + 𝑎1𝑠𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝑏 (𝑠 − 𝑝 )(𝑠 − 𝑝 ) … (𝑠 − 𝑝 )
0 1 2 𝑚

Partial fraction expansion is done by breaking up H(s) in to sum of smaller functions

each containing a pole. The partial fraction expansion of H(s) is given as

𝑁(𝑠)
𝐻( 𝑠) = = 𝐾 𝐾𝑚
1
+⋯+
+
𝐾
0

𝐷(𝑠) 𝑠 − 𝑝0 𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚
In the case of passive network functions, degree of the numerator (𝑁(𝑠)) will not exceed

the degree of (𝐷(𝑠)) by more than one, hence the quotient polynomial will be a 1st

order or less polynomial so that 𝐻(𝑠) can be written as:

𝐻( 𝑠) = 𝐻 + 𝐾 𝑠 + 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝐷
+ +⋯+
∞ 0
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝐷

𝐾𝑜 = (1/𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)|𝑠 = ∞
𝐾1 = (𝑠 − 𝑝1)𝐻(𝑠)|𝑠 = 𝑝1
𝐾2 = (𝑠 − 𝑝2)𝐻(𝑠)|𝑠 = 𝑝2 . . .
Where the first term is a constant and the rest are functions each of which consists of a

pole from 𝐻(𝑠). In other words, subtracting any of the functions from H(s) removes the

corresponding pole so that we say a pole is removed from H(s). The constants 𝐾i are

called residues of the poles. The term 𝐾0𝑠 exists only if 𝐻(𝑠) has a pole at infinity.

When 𝐻(𝑠) contains j𝜔 − 𝑎𝑥i𝑠 poles and zeros, it can be written as:

𝐾(𝑠2 + 𝜔2)(𝑠2 + 𝜔2) … (𝑠2 + 𝜔2) …

𝐻( 𝑠) = ( 2 1 3 i
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔2)(𝑠2 + 𝜔2) … (𝑠2 + 𝜔2) …
2 4 j

And its partial fraction expansion will be as follows:

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𝐾0 𝐾2𝑠 𝐾4𝑠
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑞(𝑠) + + + +⋯
𝑠 𝑠 +𝜔
2 2
𝑠 +𝜔
2 2
2 4

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Exercise: Find partial fraction expansions of the following immitance functions.

(𝑠+2)(𝑠+3)
𝐴) 𝑌(𝑠) = (𝑠+1)(𝑠+3) 2(𝑠2+1)(𝑠2+9)
𝐵) 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠2+4)
2.3.3. Continued Fraction expansion

Continued fraction expansion of a network function is accomplished by long division

where the division continues by taking the reciprocal of remainder functions.

The polynomials 𝑞i(𝑠) are quotients of the subsequent divisions.

Exercise: Find continued fraction expansion of the following impedance function.

𝑠2+2𝑠+2
𝐴) 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑠5+4𝑠3+5𝑠
𝑠2+𝑠+1 𝐵) 𝑍(𝑠) = 3𝑠4+6𝑠2
2.3.4. Network functions of a ladder network

If each immitance of the network in Fig. 2.8 represents one element, the network is

known as a simple ladder network. We follow the practice of characterizing series arms

by their impedances and shunt (parallel) arms by their admittances.

Fig. 2.8: Ladder network

The driving point impedance or transform impedance at port 1-1’ will then be

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1
𝑍 = 𝑍1 + 1
𝑌2 +
𝑍3 + 1
1
𝑌4 + ⋯ 1
+ 𝑍2𝑛−1 +
𝑌2𝑛

Exercise: Find the open circuit driving point impedance at terminals 1-1’ of the ladder

network shown in Fig.2.9.

Fig. 2.9: Ladder network exercise

2.3.5. Necessary conditions for deriving point immittance function (with common

factors in 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) cancelled)

1. The coefficients in the polynomials 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) must be real and positive.

2. Poles and zeros must be conjugate if imaginary or complex.

3. The real part of all poles and zeros must be negative or zero, if the real part is

zero, then that pole or zero must be simple. i.e. all the roots of 𝑁(𝑠) = 0 and

𝐷(𝑠) = 0 lie on the left half of s-plane and simple roots may lie on the imaginary

or j𝜔 − 𝑎𝑥i𝑠.

4. The polynomials 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) may not have missing terms between those of

highest and lowest degrees, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.

5. The highest degree of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) may differ by either zero or one only.

6. The lowest degree of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) may differ by either zero or one only.

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Example: Check whether the following functions are suitable for representing the

driving point immitance functions or not.

4𝑠4+𝑠2−3𝑠+1
𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑠3+2𝑠2+2𝑠+40 No; one coefficient is missing and one is negative.
i
15(𝑠3+2𝑠2+3𝑠+4)
i 𝑌 (𝑠) = 𝑠4+8𝑠3+6𝑠2 No; the lowest degrees of 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) differ by two.
𝑠2+𝑠+2
iii. 𝑍(𝑠) = , Yes; all conditions are satisfied.
2𝑠 +𝑠+1
2
2.3.6. Necessary conditions for transfer functions (with common factors in 𝑁(𝑠) and

𝐷(𝑠) cancelled)

1. The coefficients in the polynomials 𝑁(𝑠) and 𝐷(𝑠) must be real and those for

𝐷(𝑠) must be positive.

2. Poles and zeros must be conjugate if imaginary or complex.

3. The real part of poles must be negative or zero, if the real part is zero, then that

pole must be simple. This includes the origin.

4. The polynomial 𝐷(𝑠) may not have any missing term between that of highest

and lowest degrees, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.

5. The polynomial 𝑁(𝑠) may have terms missing, and some of the coefficients may

be negative.

6. The degree of 𝑁(𝑠) may be as small as zero independent of the degree of 𝐷(𝑠).

7. (a) For 𝐺 and 𝛼: the maximum degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is equal to the degree of 𝐷(𝑠). (b)

For 𝑍 and 𝑌: the maximum degree of 𝑁(𝑠) is equal to the degree of 𝐷(𝑠) plus one.

Example: check whether the following functions are suitable in representing the

transfer functions or not.

i. 𝐺21
(𝑠) = 5𝑠3+4𝑠2+1 , No; coefficient is missing in the polynomial 𝐷(𝑠).
3𝑠+2
ii. 𝛼
2𝑠2+5𝑠+1 𝑁(𝑠) is greater than 𝐷(𝑠).
(2𝑠) = , No; the degree of
𝑠+7

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1
iii. 𝑍21 (𝑠) =
, Yes; all conditions are satisfied.
𝑠3+2𝑠

iv. �
� 2𝑠2+5 , Yes; all conditions are satisfied.
21 (𝑠) = 3𝑠2+9𝑠+1

2.4. Time Response, Frequency Response and Bode Plotting

2.4.1. Time domain response from pole-zero plot

The time-domain response can be obtained from the pole-zero plot of a network

function. Consider network function given by

𝑁(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑧1)(𝑠 − 𝑧2) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑛)
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝐾 (𝑠 − 𝑝1)(𝑠 − 𝑝2) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚)

Where, 𝑧1, 𝑧2, … , 𝑧𝑛 are the zeros and 𝑝1, 𝑝2, … , 𝑝𝑚 are the poles of the function 𝐻(𝑠).

Assume that the poles and zeros are distinct. Hence, using partial fraction expansion,

𝐻(𝑠) can be written as,

𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑚
𝐻( 𝑠) = + +⋯+
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚
Where a particular coefficient 𝐾i can be found as follows.
𝐾i = [(𝑠 − 𝑝i)𝐻(𝑠)]𝑠=𝑝i; i = 0,1, … , 𝑚

or 𝐾i = 𝐾 (𝑝i − 𝑧1)(𝑝i − 𝑧2) … (𝑝i − 𝑧𝑛)

(𝑝 − 𝑝 )(𝑝 − 𝑝 ) … (𝑝 − 𝑝 )(𝑝 − 𝑝 ) … (𝑝 − 𝑝 )
i 1 i 2 i i−1 i i+1 i 𝑚

Here, 𝑝i, 𝑧𝑛 and 𝑝𝑚 are complex numbers and factors like (𝑝i − 𝑧𝑛) and (𝑝i − 𝑝𝑚) in the

above equation which are the difference between two complex numbers are also

complex number. Hence, a complex number (𝑝i − 𝑧1) is the directed line from 𝑧1to 𝑝iand

the complex number (𝑝i − 𝑧2) is the directed line from 𝑧2to 𝑝i etc. Similarly, the complex

number (𝑝i − 𝑝1) will be directed line from 𝑝1to 𝑝i, etc.as shown in Fig. 2.1x2.Each line is

expressed in its polar form in magnitude and phase.

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Fig. 2.1x2:
Therefore,
𝐾 =𝐾
𝑟1i𝑟2i…𝑟𝑛i
∠( 𝛼 +𝛼 +⋯+ ) − +𝛽 +⋯+ ). This equation
𝛼 (𝛽 𝛽
i 𝑅1i𝑅2i…𝑅𝑚i 1i 2i 𝑛i 1i 2i 𝑚i

shows that a particular coefficient 𝐾i can be obtained from

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜f 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑i𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙i𝑛𝑒𝑠 f𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑝i
𝐾i = 𝐾
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜f 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑i𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙i𝑛𝑒𝑠 f𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎i𝑛i𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝
i
Similarly, the other constants 𝐾1, 𝐾2, … , 𝐾i+1, … , 𝐾𝑚 can be calculated. The time-domain

response can be obtained by taking the inverse Laplace transform.

𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑚
ℎ(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 [ + +⋯+ ]
𝑠 − 𝑝1 𝑠 − 𝑝2 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚
This graphical method is applicable only for all non-repeated poles.

Example: Find ℎ(𝑡) using the pole-zero diagram of the function if 𝐻(𝑠) is given by,
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)
𝐻( 𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠2 + 6𝑠 + 18)

2.4.2. Frequency Domain response from pole-zero plot

The frequency-domain response of a network function can be obtained from its pole-

zero plot. Consider network function given by

𝑁(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑧1)(𝑠 − 𝑧2) … (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑛)
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐷(𝑠) = 𝐾 (𝑠 − 𝑝1)(𝑠 − 𝑝2) … (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑚)

Where, 𝑧1, 𝑧2, … , 𝑧𝑛 are finite zeros and 𝑝1, 𝑝2, … , 𝑝𝑚 are finite poles of the function 𝐻(𝑠).

These can be simple or multiple. To calculate 𝐻(𝑠) for a specific 𝑠 = 𝑠0 as,

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𝐻(𝑠0 (𝑠0 − 𝑧1)(𝑠0 − 𝑧2) … (𝑠0 − 𝑧𝑛)

) = 𝐾 (𝑠0 − 𝑝1)(𝑠0 − 𝑝2) … (𝑠0 − 𝑝𝑚)

We consider the geometry as similar to the time-domain response. For example, the
geometry of the terms (𝑠0 − 𝑧1) is shown in Fig.2.1x3 in which 𝑠0 is a directed line from
the origin to 𝑠0, and 𝑧1 is a directed line from the origin to the point 𝑧1. Hence, the
complex numbers (𝑠0 − 𝑧1) is the directed line from 𝑧1 to 𝑠0, with magnitude 𝑚𝑧1 and

phase 𝜃𝑧1 .

Hence, 𝐻(𝑠0) = 𝐾𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜f 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑙i𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠0

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜f 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑙i𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜
𝑠
0

Each zero line and pole line will be expressed in its polar form in magnitude and phase.

For example,

Fig.2.1x3

Where 𝑀 is the magnitude (length) of the line and 𝜃 is the angle (phase) measured in

the anticlockwise direction from the horizontal axis. The subscripts on 𝑀 and 𝜃 identify

the respective zero and pole lines. For the sinusoidal case we set 𝑠 = j𝜔

Therefore, the magnitude of the function is given by

|𝐻(j𝜔0 𝑀𝑧1 𝑀𝑧2 … 𝑀𝑧𝑛

)| = 𝑀 𝑝 𝑀 𝑝 … 𝑀 𝑝
1 2 𝑚

While the phase function is

𝜃(𝜔0) = (𝜃𝑧1 + 𝜃𝑧2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑧𝑛) − (𝜃𝑝1 + 𝜃𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝜃𝑝𝑚)

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A pole or zero at 𝑠 = ∞ doesn’t appear explicitly as a factor. Therefore, only finite zeros

and poles are plotted in this graphical method.

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Example: Plot the poles and zeros of the following transfer function and use it to find

the magnitude and phase for 𝜔 = 0,1,3.

2𝑠
𝐻( 𝑠) = 2
(𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 8)
2.4.3. Frequency response, Angle and Magnitude of a Network function

The response given by the system when input frequency 𝜔 is changed over a certain

range is called frequency response of the system. It can be obtained by expressing the

system function 𝐻(𝑠) in frequency domain replacing the complex variable ′𝑠′ by ′j𝜔′

and it is denoted as 𝐻(j𝜔), i.e.,

𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝐻(𝑠)|𝑠=j𝜔

Such a frequency domain transfer function can be expressed in the polar form as,

𝐻(j𝜔) = |𝐻(j𝜔)|∠𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝑀𝑟∠𝜃𝑟

Where 𝑀𝑟 −resultant magnitude which is function of 𝜔

and 𝜃𝑟 −resultant phase angle which is function of 𝜔

2.5. Bode Plotting

The scientist H.W. Bode suggested a specific method to ontain the frequency response

in which logarithmic values are used. In general, Bode plot consists of two plots:

I. Magnitude plot in which logarithmic values of 𝑀𝑟 are plotted against logarithmic

values of 𝜔.

II. Phase angle plot in which 𝜃𝑟 in degrees are plotted against logarithmic values

of 𝜔.

2.5.1. Magnitude Plot

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Bode suggested to express 𝑀𝑟 in decibels (dB) to plot against log10 𝜔. Such a dB value of

𝑀𝑟 can be obtained as

|𝐻(j𝜔)| i𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑀𝑟 i𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10|𝑀𝑟|

Such dB values are obtained for various values of 𝜔 from 0 to ∞ and are plotted

against log10 𝜔. It is shown in Fig.2.1x4 (a).

2.5.2. Phase Angle Plot

The ∠𝐻(j𝜔) or 𝜃𝑟 is obtained in degrees for various values of 𝜔 and are plotted

against log10 𝜔. The phase plot is shown in Fig.2.1x4 (b).

Fig.2.1x4

2.5.3. Standard Form of 𝐻(j𝑚)

The frequency domain transfer function may be written as the ratio of polynomials as

(in time constant form)

𝐾(1 + 𝑇1j𝜔)(1 + 𝑇2j𝜔) … …

𝐻(j𝜔) =
(j𝜔)𝑃(1 + 𝑇 j𝜔)(1 + 𝑇 j𝜔) … …
𝑎 𝑏

The above transfer function shows that the numerator and denominator have four basic

types of factors. They are

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i. Resultant system gain 𝐾 , constant factor (when 𝐻(j𝜔) is expressed in time

constant form)

ii. Poles or zeros at the origin (j𝜔)±𝑃, P = 1, 2, …

iii. Simple poles and zeros also called first order factors of the form (1 + 𝑇1j𝜔)±1

iv. Quadratic factors which cannot be factorized into real factors, of the form
±1
2𝛾 1
[1 + j𝜔 + 2
(j𝜔) ]
𝜔𝑛 �𝑛2

For each factor, procedure to obtain its Bode plot can be divided into the following

steps:

Step 1: Replace ′𝑠′ by ′j𝜔′ to convert it to frequency domain.

Step 2: Find its magnitude as a function of ′𝜔′.

Step 3: Express the magnitude in dB by 20 log10|𝐻(j𝜔)|.

i𝑚𝑎gi𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
Step 4: Find phase angle by using tan−1 * + = 𝜃 in degrees.
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡

Step 5: With required approximation, plot magnitude in dB and phase angle in degrees

against log10 𝜔 by varying 𝜔 from 0 to ∞.

1. System Gain ‘𝐾’

0
𝐻(𝑠) = 𝐾, 𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝐾 + j0, |𝐻(j𝜔)| = √𝐾2 + 0 = 𝐾. And ∠𝐻(j𝜔) = tan−1 = 0°
𝐾

Magnitude Plot: Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝐾 𝑑𝐵. As gain ′𝐾′ is constant, 20 log10 𝐾 is

always constant when ′𝜔′ is varied from 0 to ∞. So its magnitude plot will be straight

line parallel to X-axis.

Phase angle plot: As ∠𝐻(j𝜔) = 0° . So it doesnot affect the phase angle plot as its

contribution to phase angle plot is 0° as shown in Fig. 2.1x5.

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)

Fig. 2.1x5: contribution by K

2. Poles or Zeros at the Origin (j𝑚)±𝑃

Let us consider for simplicity single pole at the origin,

1 1 1 1 1
𝐻(𝑠) = , 𝐻(j𝜔) = = , |𝐻(j𝜔)| = =
𝑠 j𝜔 0 + √02 + 𝜔2 𝜔
j𝜔
1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 = −20 log10 𝜔
𝜔

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜f 𝜔 𝜔 = 0.1 𝜔=1 𝜔 = 10 𝜔 = 100

= −20 log10 𝜔 20 𝑑𝐵 0 𝑑𝐵 −20 𝑑𝐵 −40 𝑑𝐵

Now, 10 times change in frequency range is called 1 decade , i.e., 1 pole at the origin

reduces the |𝐻(j𝜔)| at the rate of −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

So magnitude plot for 1 pole at origin is a straight line of slope −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

Now at 𝜔 = 1, |𝐻(j𝜔)| = 0 𝑑𝐵 this line intersects the reference 0 dB line at 𝜔 = 1.

Consider two poles at origin,

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)
1 1 1
𝐻( 𝑠) = 2
, 𝐻(j𝜔) = 2
, |𝐻(j𝜔)| = 2
𝑠 (j𝜔) 𝜔
1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 = −40 log10 𝜔
𝜔2

So it is a straight line of slope −40𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

Also at 𝜔 = 1, |𝐻(j𝜔)| = 0 𝑑𝐵 i.e., this line has slope −40𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒, intersects 0 dB line

at 𝜔 = 1.

Similarly, for P number of poles at origin,

1 1 1
𝐻( 𝑠) = 𝑃
, 𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝑃
, |𝐻(j𝜔)| = 𝑃
𝑠 (j𝜔) 𝜔
1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 = −20 × 𝑃 log10 𝜔 . So this is a straight line of slope
𝜔𝑃
−20 × 𝑃 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 but again intersecting with 0 dB line at 𝜔 = 1 . Therefore,

magnitude plot for P poles at the origin gives family of lines passing through

intersection of 𝜔 = 1 and 0 dB line having slope −20 × 𝑃 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 as shown in Fig.

2.2x1.

Fig. 2.2x1. contribution by poles at the origin

Now if there is a zero at the origin,

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𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠 i. 𝑒. , 𝐻(j𝜔) = 0 + j𝜔

The magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 𝜔

This is equation of straight line whose slope is +20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. The only change with

that of the pole is the sign of the slope, and for both cases itersection of line with 0 dB

occurs at 𝜔 = 1.

In general for P num,ber of zeros at the origin,

𝐻(𝑠) = 𝑠𝑃, 𝐻(j𝜔) = (j𝜔)𝑃

Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 × 𝑃 log10 𝜔, i.e., slope = +20 × P dB/decade

So it gives family of lines with slope as +20, +40, … . , 20 × 𝑃 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 passing

through intersection point of 𝜔 = 1 with 0 dB line as shown in Fig. 2.2x2.

Fig. 2.2x2: contribution of zeros at the origin

Phase Angle Plot: consider single pole at the origin,

1 1 1
𝐻( 𝑠) = , 𝐻(j𝜔) = , ∠𝐻(j𝜔) = ∠ = −∠j𝜔 = −90°
𝑠 j𝜔 j𝜔

This is independet of ′𝜔′. So phase angle plot of a pole at origin is line parallel to
X − 𝑎𝑥i𝑠 contributiong −90° to phase angle.

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Similarly, for zeros, the contribution is same as that of pole, the only change is its sign. I
general, ′𝑃′ number of zerso at the origin, the total angle contribution is +90° × 𝑃 ,
irrespective of ′𝜔′. This can be shown as in Fig. 2.2x3.

Fig. 2.2x3: Angle contributions by poles and zeros at the origin

3. Simple poles or Zeros at the Origin (1 + 𝑇 j𝑚)±1

First let us consider a simple pole,

1
𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇 𝑠)−1 = 1 1 −1
, 𝐻(j𝜔) = , |𝐻(j𝜔)| = = *√1 + (𝜔𝑇)2 +
1 + 𝑇𝑠 1 + 𝑇 √1 +
j𝜔 (𝜔𝑇)2
−1
Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10[√1 + (𝜔𝑇)2] = −20 log10 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2

Here instead of sketching magnitude plot exactly according to this expression we can
approximate this into two regions and can draw straight lin eapproximated magnitude
plot. The approximation is
1
i. For low frequency range 𝜔 « i.e., 𝜔2𝑇2 « 1 hence can be neglected.
𝑇

Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2 = −20 log10 1 = 0

So for low frequencies it is straight line of 0 dB only. Thus the contribution
by such factor can be completely neglected for low frequency range.
1
ii. For high frequency range 𝜔 » i.e., 𝜔2𝑇2 » 1
𝑇

Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 √(𝜔𝑇)2 = −20 log10 𝜔𝑇

It is staright line of slope = −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒.

But the intersection of this line with 0 dB line will give us range of high frequency and
low frequency, i.e., 0 dB line for low ′𝜔′ and line with slope −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 for high ′𝜔′
are going to intersect when,

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1
− log10 𝜔𝑇 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑇 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 =
𝑇
This frequency at which change of slope from 0 dB to −20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 occurs is called
1
corner frequency denoted by 𝜔𝑐 = .
𝑇
1
Hence, asymptotic i.e., approximate magnitude plot is 0 dB line upto 𝜔𝑐 = and line of
1 𝑇
slope −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 when 𝜔 > 𝜔𝑐 i.e., above 𝜔𝑐 = as shown in Fig. 2.2x4.
𝑇

Fig. 2.2x4: Contribution by simple pole

Similarly for a simple zero,

𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇𝑠), 𝐻(j𝜔) = 1 + 𝑇j𝜔, |𝐻(j𝜔)| = √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2

Magnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = 20 log10 √1 + (𝜔𝑇)2

1
Therefore, tha magnitude plot for a simple zero is a straight line of 0 dB upto 𝜔𝑐 = and
𝑑𝐵 𝑇
then straight lines of slope +20 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 for all frequencies more than corner frequency
1
𝜔𝑐 = as shown in Fig.2.2x5.
𝑇

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Fig. 2.2x5: Contribution by simple zero

Phase Angle Plot: For a simple pole,

𝜔𝑇
𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇𝑠)−1, 𝐻(j𝜔) = (1 + 𝑇j𝜔)−1, ∠𝐻(j𝜔) = 0 − tan−1 = − tan−1 𝜔𝑇
1

While for a simple zero,

𝐻(𝑠) = (1 + 𝑇𝑠), 𝐻(j𝜔) = (1 + 𝑇j𝜔), ∠𝐻(j𝜔) = + tan−1 𝜔𝑇

So the shape remains the same. Only sign of the angles changes from negative to
positive when factor changes from pole to zero. Such plot is to be drawn by actually
calculating angles for different friequencies. So make a table as shown below:

𝜔 ± tan−1 𝜔𝑇(+f𝑜𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, −f𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒)

1 ±5.71°
0.1𝜔𝑐 =
10𝑇
1 ±26.6°
0.5𝜔𝑐 =
2𝑇
1 ±45°
𝜔𝑐 =
𝑇
2 ±63.4°
2𝜔𝑐 =
𝑇
10 ±84.3°
10𝜔𝑐 =
𝑇

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This can be shown in Fig. 2.2x6.

Fig. 2.2x6: Angle contribution by a simple pole and zero

4. Quadratic Factors :

Generally, we have the quadratic factor in the denominator of transfer function, i.e.,
the transfer function of the form,
2
2𝛾1 𝑠2 � 1
𝐻( 𝑠) = 1 + 𝑠+ 𝑛
= 𝑠2 + 2𝛾𝜔𝑛𝑠 + 𝜔2 , 𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝜔 j𝜔 2

𝑛
𝜔𝑛 2 1 + j2𝛾 𝜔 + ( )
�� 𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜔 is variable and 𝜔𝑛 is constant.

1 1
𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝜔 2 , |𝐻(j𝜔)| =
𝜔
) + j2𝛾 𝜔 2 2
1−( 2 𝜔 2

𝜔𝑛 𝜔 √[1 − ( ) ] + 4𝛾 (𝜔 )
𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝑛

2
Mgnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 [1 − ( 𝜔 )2] + 4𝛾2 ( 𝜔 ) 2
√ 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝜔 2
i. For low frequency, 𝜔 « 𝜔𝑛, ( ) « 1, hence nwglected.
𝜔𝑛

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)
Mgnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 1 = 0.
Thus similar to simple pole, quadratic poles are also negligible till its corner
frequency occurs.
2 𝜔
ii. For high frequency, 𝜔 » 𝜔𝑛, 4𝛾 2( 𝜔 ) « ( ) 4as 𝛾 is very low.
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝜔 2 2 𝜔
Mgnitude in 𝑑𝐵 = −20 log10 [( ) ] = −40 log10 = −40 log10 𝜔 + 40 log10 𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

This is equation of straight line of slope −40 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒

Hence, in general, magnitude plot for quadratic poles is 0dB line till corner frequency
and then a straight line of slope −40 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. To find the corner frequency 𝜔𝑐,
𝜔
−40 log10 𝜔
= 0, = 1, i. 𝑒., 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛
�𝑛 𝜔𝑛

So 𝜔𝑛 is the corner frequency for quadratic poles. The magnitude plot for the above
transfer function is shown in Fig. 2.2x7.

Phase angle Plot: for the guadratic pole,

2𝛾 𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛
∠𝐻(j𝜔) = − tan−1 ]
[1 − (𝜔 𝜔𝑛) 2
⁄
The phase angle table for 𝛾 = 0.3 is shown below

Fig. 2.2x7: Contribution by guadratic pole

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∠𝐻(j𝜔) = 𝜃 = − tan−1 2 × 0.3 𝜔⁄𝜔𝑛 ]
[
1 − (𝜔⁄𝜔 )2
�

𝜔⁄ 𝜔𝑛 𝜃

0.1 −3.46°

0.5 −21.8°

1 −90°
𝜔
So at = 1 i.e., 𝜔 = = it contributes −90° and hence must aproache to −180° as
𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑐 𝜔𝑛
𝜔 𝜔
→ ∞. But according to above formula when > 1, 𝜃 becomes positive, in such cases
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
the angle contribution is obtained by subtracting 180° from the positive 𝜃. This happens
because, behaviour of tan−1 function for the complex quantities with real part negative
or imaginary part negative cannot be identified on calculator. Hence phase angle table
becomes

𝜔⁄ 𝜔𝑛 𝜃

0.1 −3.46°

0.5 −21.8°

1 −90°

2 +21.8° − 180° = −158.2°

4 +10.09 − 180° = −170.9°

10 +3.46 − 180° = −176.5°

⁝ ⁝

∞ −180°

Note: for quadratic zeros, sign of the angle should be made positive. The above
discussion is aplicable only when the roots of the quadratic factor are complex
conjugate to each other. If roots are real, factorize it and consider its two components as
independetly as a simple factor thather than quadratic.

This can be shown in Fig.2.2x7.

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Fig.2.2x7: Angle contribution by quadratic poles

2.5.4. Steps to sketch the Bode Plot

1. Express given 𝐻(𝑠) into time constant form

2. Draw a line of 20 log10 𝐾 𝑑𝐵.

3. Draw a line of appropriate slope representing poles or zeros at origion, passing

through intersection point of 𝜔 = 1 and 0 dB.

4. Shift this intersection point on 20 log10 𝐾 line and draw parallel line to the draw

in step 3. This is resultant of constant K and poles or zeros at the origin.

5. Change the slope of this line at various corner frequencies by appropriate values

i.e., depending upon which factor is occuring at corner frequency. For a simple

pole, slope must be changed by −20 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 , for a simple zero +20 𝑑𝐵/

𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒 and for quadratic poles by −40 𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒. Do not draw these individual

lines.

6. Prepare the phase angle table and obtain the table of 𝜔 and resultant phase angle

𝜃𝑟 by actual calculation. Plot thse points and draw the smooth curve the

neccesary phase angle plot.

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Exercises

1. Construct Bode magnitude and phase plots for the impedance of the network

shown in Fig. 2.2x6.

Fig. 2.2x6.

3. Draw the Bode plot for the following function.

20(𝑠 + 2)
𝐻( 𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠2 + 4𝑠 + 16)

Measure of Relative Stability

Relative stability can be measured by two quantities designated as (i) gain margin and
(ii) phase margin, which can be obtained from the Bode plot. Again, in order to find
these quantities, we have to define phase-crossover frequency and gain-crossover
frequency in the Bode plot.

Phase Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the angle of the system function is
−180° is called phase-crossover frequency. So frequency at which the resultant phase
angle plot intersects −180° line is called phase-crossover frequency denoted as 𝜔𝑝.

Gain Crossover Frequency: The frequency at which the manitude of the system
function is 0 𝑑𝐵 is called gain-crossover frequency. So frequency at which the resultant
magnitude plot intersects 0 𝑑𝐵 line is called gain-crossover frequency denoted as 𝜔g.

Gain Margin (GM)

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)
The GM is the amount of gain in dB that can be added to the system before the system
becomes unstable. It is the reciprocal of the magnitude of the system function at the
frequency where the phase angle is −180° or at the phase-crossover frequency.
1 1
Mathematically 𝐺𝑀 = , i𝑛 𝑑𝐵, GM in dB = 20 log = −20 log10|𝐻(j𝜔𝑝)|
|𝐻(j𝜔𝑝 )| 1 | )|
𝐻(j𝜔𝑝

Positive GM means increase in gain is allowable and system is stable. On the otherhand,
the negative GM means the gain limit has been crossed and sytem is unstable.

Phase Margin (PM)

The PM is the amount of phase lag in degrees that can be added to the system before
the system becomes unstable. It is 180° plus the phase angle ɸ at the gain-crossover
frequency. Mathematically 𝑃𝑀 = 180° + ɸ, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ɸ = ∠𝐻(j𝜔g)

Positive PM means increase in phase lag is allowable and system is stable. On the
otherhand, the negative PM means the phase lag limit has been crossed and sytem is
unstable.

Determination of gain margin and phase margin from Bode plot

GM can be directly read out from resultant magnitude plot by extending 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑝 line till
it intersects resultant magnitude plot (say point A corresponding to = 20 log10|𝐻(j𝜔𝑝)|).
the difference between 0 dB (say point B) and point A is gain margin. If point A is below
0 dB line, GM is positive and if point A is above 0 dB line, GM is negative.

GM can be directly read out from resultant magnitude plot by extending 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑝 line till
it intersects resultant magnitude plot (say point A corresponding to 20 log10|𝐻(j𝜔𝑝)|).
the difference between 0 dB (say point B) and point A is gain margin. If point A is below
0 dB line, GM is positive and if point A is above 0 dB line, GM is negative.

Exercise: from Bode plot for exercieses above, determine, phase-cross-over frequency,
gain-crossover frequency, gain margin, phase margin and stability.

Chapter Review Exercises (under development)

1. Obtain the pole-zero location for the following transfer function.

(2𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 4)
𝐻( 𝑠) =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
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2. Plot poles and zeros of the following impedance networks.

Fig. 2.1x:

3. The pole zero plot of a voltage transfer function is shown in Fig.2.1x1. Find the

transfer function for each cases.

Fig. 2.1x1

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Fig. 3.1: Two port network

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Series connection

Parallel connection

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4. Elements of Realizability Theory

4.1 Causality and stability

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5. Filter network
Introduction
 A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass signals with desired frequencies and reject
or attenuate the others.
 As a frequency-selective device, a filter can be used to limit the frequency spectrum of
a signal to some specified band of frequencies.
 Filters are the circuits used to allow to us to select one desired signal out of a multitude of
broadcast signals in the environment.
 Application of filters:
 Communication systems:- to separate various channels in carrier frequency telephone circuits.
 Instrumentation system
 Telemetering circuits
 Control systems
Parameters of a Filter
The following parameters characterize a typical filter
1. Characteristic impedance (Zo):- the characteristic impedance of a filter must be chosen
such that the filter may fit into a given line or between two types of the equipment.

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2. Pass Band: band in which filters have to pass all frequencies without reduction in
magnitude.
3. Stop band: band, in which ideal filters have to attenuate(or stop) frequencies
4. Cut-off frequency Fc: the frequency of the filter which separate the pass-band and stop-
band.
5. Unit attenuation: the attenuation of a wave filter can be expressed in decibels(dB) or
Nepers or Bels.
Classification of filters
An active filter:

- is one that, along with R, L, and C components, also contains an energy source, such as that
derived from an operational amplifier.
- The inductor component mostly represent by a connection of resisters and capacitors.
A passive filter :
-is one that contains only R, L, and C components. It is not necessary that all three be present.

• L is often omitted (on purpose) from passive filter design because of the size and cost of
inductors – and they also carry along an R that must be included in the design.
Filters pass, reject, and attenuate signals at various frequencies .
 Common types of filters:
 Low-pass: pass low frequencies and eliminate high frequencies based on cut-off frequency.
 High-pass: pass on high frequencies and reject low frequencies
 Band-pass: pass some particular range of frequencies, discard other frequencies outside that
band
 Band-stop: stop a range of frequencies and pass all other frequencies (e.g., a special case is a
notch filter)

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)

Resonance circuit
• An electrical circuit contains passive elements (at least one R,L, and C)as well as
active elements.
• Resonance is said to occur when the current is either maximum or minimum for a
particular frequency.
• When the frequency of the applied emf is equal to the natural frequency of the circuit,
the impedance is purely resistive and minimum.
• The current is maximum when the circuit is series resonance circuit and the frequency is
known as resonance frequency.
• At resonance frequency the voltage across the inductance and capacitance are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction.

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)

Active filter networks

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)

Network Analysis and

Synthesis Question
banks
Basic Network Concepts, Sources and Some Definitions, Circuit Elements and Kirchhoff’s
Laws, Series and Parallel Combination of Elements, Network Function for the One-Port and
Two-Port, Poles and Zeros of Network Functions, Properties of Driving Point Functions,
Properties of Transfer Functions, Open Circuit Impedance (Z) Parameters, Short Circuit
Admittance(Y) Parameters, Transmission(ABCD) Parameters, Hybrid (h) Parameter, Inverse
Hybrid (g) Parameter, Advanced Problems Involving Parameters, Inner Relationships of
Different Parameters, Inter Connection of Two-Port Networks, Terminated Two-Port Network,
Image Parameters, Series-Series Connection of Two Port Network, Relation between
Transmission Parameters with Short Circuit Admittance and Open Circuit Impedance
Parameters, Relation between Hybrid Parameters with Short Circuit Admittance and Open
Circuit Impedance Parameters, Series-Parallel Interconnection of Two Port Network, Advanced
Problems on Two Port Network , Filter Networks, Classification of Pass Band and Stop Band,
Constant-K Low Pass Filter, Inverse Network..

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 Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECEG-3102)

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (ECEG-3102)

Basic Network Concepts

1. Energy per unit charge is
a) Power
b) Voltage
c) Current
d) Capacitance
Answer: b
Explanation: The work or energy per unit charge utilised in the process of separation of charges
is known as Voltage or Potential difference. The phenomenon of transfer of charge from one
point to another is termed Current. The rate at which the work is done is called Power. Charge
per unit voltage is Capacitance.

2. A conductor is said to have resistance of one ohm if a potential difference of one volt
across its terminals causes a current of X ampere to flow through it. X=?
a) 4
b) 2
c) 3
d) 1
Answer: d
Explanation: Ohm’s law states that the potential difference (voltage) across a conductor is
proportional to the current through it. The constant of proportionality is called the Resistance(R).
According to Ohm’s law, V = IR (where V is the potential difference between two points which
include a resistance R).
–> I = V/R = 1V/1Ω = 1A.

3. Resistance depends on the temperature of the conductor.

a) True
b) False
Answer: a
Explanation: Resistance is directly proportional to its length, inversely proportional to the area of
cross section of the conductor, depends on the nature of the material and on the temperature of
the conductor.

4. A 25 Ω resistor has a voltage of 150 sin377 t. Find the corresponding

power. a) 900 sin2 337 t
b) 90 sin2 337 t
c) 900 sin2 377 t

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d) 9 sin2 337 t
Answer: c
Explanation: Given R = 25 Ω and v = 150 sin 377 t
i = vR=150sin377t25 = 6 sin 377 t
p = vi = (150 sin 377 t)(6 sin 377 t) = 900 sin2 377 t.

5. Unit of inductance is _
a) Weber
b) Henry
c) Farad
d) Tesla
Answer: b
Explanation: The unit of inductance is Henry. Weber is the unit of magnetic flux. Tesla is the
unit of flux density. Farad is the unit of capacitance.

6. Inductance of an inductor is inversely proportional to its

a) Number of turns
b) Area of cross section
c) Absolute permeability
d) Length
Answer: d
Explanation: Inductance of an inductor, L = µN2A/l
From the above equation, Inductance of an inductor is inversely proportional to its length.

7. Energy stored in an inductor is

a) LI
b) LI2
c) LI/2
d) LI2/2
Answer: d
Explanation: V = L didt
dE = Vidt = L didtidt = Lidt
E = ∫I0dE=∫I0Lidt=12LI2.

8. An inductor of 3mH has a current i = 5(1 – e-5000t). Find the corresponding maximum energy
stored.
a) 37.5 mJ
b) 375 J

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c) 37.5 kJ
d) 3.75 mJ
Answer: a
Explanation: Given L = 3 mH, i = 5(1 – e-5000t)
V = L didt=3×10−3ddt[5(1−e−5000t)]=75e−5000t
I = i(∞) = 5(1 – e-∞) = 5 A
E = 12 LI2 = 0.5 × 3 × 10-3 × 52 = 37.5 mJ.

9. The capacitance of a capacitor does not depend on the absolute permittivity of the medium
between the plates.
a) True
b) False
Answer: b
Explanation: C = Ɛ Ad
Where d is the distance between the plates, A is the cross-sectional area of the plates and Ɛ is
absolute permittivity of the medium between the plates.
Hence, the capacitance of a capacitor depends on the absolute permittivity of the medium
between the plates.

10. Which of the following is not the energy stored in a capacitor?

a) CV22
b) QV2
c) Q22C
d) QC2
Answer: d
Explanation: Energy stored in a capacitor, E = CV22
Since C = Q/V
E = CV22=QV2=QC2.

Sources and Some Definitions

11. Source is a basic network element which supplies power to the networks.
a) True
b) False
Answer: b
Explanation: The basic network element which supplies energy to the networks is Source.
Hence, it is true.

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12. The dependent sources are of kinds.

a) 5
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: d
Explanation: The dependent sources are of four kinds, depending on whether the control variable
is voltage or current and the controlled source is a voltage source or current source. They are
VCVS, VCCS, CCVS and CCCS.

13. The constant gm has dimension of

a) Ampere per volt
b) Ampere
c) Volt
d) Volt per ampere
Answer: a
Explanation: Transconductance is the ratio of current to voltage. Hence, the constant gm has a
dimension of ampere per volt or siemens (S).

14. In CCVS, voltage depends on the control current and the constant called
a) Transconductance
b) Transresistance
c) Current Gain
d) Voltage Gain
Answer: b
Explanation: In CCVS, voltage is directly proportional to the control current. The constant of
proportionality is called Transresistance(r).
V = ri.

15. Every circuit is a network, but all networks are not circuits.
a) True
b) False
Answer: a
Explanation: The interconnection of two or more circuit elements is called a Network. If the
network contains at least one closed path, it is called a Circuit.

16. Which of the following is not an example of a linear element?

a) Resistor

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b) Thermistor
c) Inductor
d) Capacitor
Answer: b
Explanation: If the resistance, inductance or capacitance offered by an element does not change
linearly with the change in applied voltage or circuit current, the element is termed as a linear
element. Resistor, Inductor and Capacitor are the examples of linear elements. Thermistor is an
example of Non-Linear element.

17. Find the odd one out.

a) Resistor
b) Voltage-dependent resistor(VDR)
c) Temperature-dependent resistor(Thermistor)
d) Light-dependent resistor(LDR)
Answer: a
Explanation: A non-linear circuit element is one in which the current does not change linearly
with the change in applied voltage. Examples of non-linear elements are VDR, thermistor and
LDR. Hence resistor is the odd one.

18. Which of the following is an Active element?

a) Resistor
b) Inductor
c) Capacitor
d) OP-AMP
Answer: d
Explanation: OP-AMP is an active element because it can be used for the amplification or
generation of signals. All the other circuit elements are passive elements.

19. A semiconductor diode is an element.

a) Bilateral
b) Unilateral
c) Active
d) Passive
Answer: b
Explanation: In semiconductor diode, current flows through the diode only in one direction.
Hence, it is an unilateral element.

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20. Example of distributed element is

a) Resistor
b) Thermistor
c) Semiconductor diode
d) Transmission lines
Answer: d
Explanation: Distributed elements are those which are not separable for analysis purposes.
Examples of distributed elements are transmission lines in which the resistance, inductance and
capacitance are distributed along its length.

Circuit Elements and Kirchhoff’s Laws

21. Potential difference in electrical terminology is known as?
a) Voltage
b) Current
c) Resistance
d) Conductance
Answer: a
Explanation: Potential difference in electrical terminology is known as Voltage and is denoted
either by V or v. It is expressed in terms of energy per unit charge.

22. The circuit in which current has a complete path to flow is called circuit.
a) short
b) open
c) closed
d) open
loop
Answer: c
Explanation: The circuit in which current has a complete path to flow is called closed circuit.
When the current path is broken so that current cannot flow, the circuit is called an open circuit.

23. If the voltage-current characteristics is a straight line through the origin, then the element
is said to be?
a) Linear element
b) Non-linear element
c) Unilateral element
d) Bilateral element
Answer: a
Explanation: If the voltage-current characteristic is a straight line through the origin, then the
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element is said to be Linear element. The difference in potential energy of charges is called
Potential difference.

24. The voltage across R1 resistor in the circuit shown below is?

a) 10
b) 5
c) 2.5
d) 1.25
Answer: b
Explanation: According to voltage divider rule, 10v is divide equally across resistors R1 and R2.
So the voltage across R1 will be 5v.

25. The energy stored in the inductor is?

a) Li²/4
b) Li²/2
c) Li²
d) Li²/8
Answer: b
Explanation: The energy stored in the inductor the area under the power of the inductor and is
given by W= ʃpdt = ʃLidi = Li²/2.

26. How many types of dependent or controlled sources are there?

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: d
Explanation: There are 4 dependent or controlled sources. They are VCVS(Voltage Controlled

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Voltage Source), VCCS(Voltage Controlled Current Source, CCVS(Current Controlled Voltage

Source, CCCS(Current Controlled Current Source).

27. Find the voltage Vx in the given[/expand] circuit.

a) 10
b) 20
c) 30
d) 40
Answer: a
Explanation: From the circuit applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we can write 50= 15+ 10+
15+Vx => Vx= 10V.

28. If the resistances 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω are parallel, then the equivalent resistance
is? a) 0.46Ω
b) 0.48Ω
c) 0.5Ω
d) 0.52Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: The equivalent resistance 1/Rt= (1/R1)+(1/R2)+(1/R3)+(1/R4). And R1, R2, R3,
R4 are 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω respectively. => Rt= 0.48Ω.

29. Find total current(mA) in the circuit.

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a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: a
Explanation: R2 is parallel to R3. So equivalent resistance of R2 and R3 is 1K. The total resistance
in the circuit is (1+1+1)K= 3K.Current in the circuit is 3V/3KΩ= 1mA.

30. If the resistances 3Ω, 5Ω, 7Ω, 9Ω are in series, then their equivalent resistance(Ω) is?
a) 9
b) 20
c) 24
d) 32
Answer: c
Explanation: If the resistances are in series, then equivalent resistance is the sum of all the
resistances that are in series. Equivalent resistance is (3+5+7+9)Ω= 24Ω.

Series and Parallel Combination of Elements

31. In the circuit shown below, switch K is moved from position to position 2 at time t = 0. At
time t = 0-, the current in the inductor is I0 and the voltage at the capacitor is V0. The inductor is
represented by a transform impedance in series with a voltage source

a) Ls, L V0
b) Ls, LI0
c) 1/Ls, LI0
d) 1/Ls, L V0
Answer: a
Explanation: The inductor has an initial current I0. It is represented by a transform impedance Ls
in series with a voltage source L V0.

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32. In the circuit shown in question 1, the capacitor is replaced by a transform impedance of
with an initial voltage
a) 1/Cs, V0/S
b) 1/Cs, I0/S
c) Cs, I0/S
d) Cs, V0/S
Answer: a
Explanation: The capacitor has an initial voltage V0 across it. It is represented by a transform
impedance of 1/Cs with an initial voltage V0/S.

33. The value of the total voltage after replacing the inductor and capacitor in question 1 is?
a) V1(S)-LI0-V0/S
b) V1(S)+LI0-V0/S
c) V1(S)+LI0+V0/S
d) V1(S)-LI0+V0/S
Answer: b
Explanation: The current I(s) is given as the total transform voltage in the circuit divided by
the total transform impedance. The value of the total voltage after replacing the inductor and
capacitor is V (s) = V1(S)+LI0-V0/S.

34. The value of the total impedance after replacing the inductor and capacitor in question 1 is?
a) R-LS-1/CS
b) R-LS+1/CS
c) R+LS+1/CS
d) R+LS-1/CS
Answer: c
Explanation: The value of the total impedance after replacing the inductor and capacitor is
Z (s) = R+LS+1/CS. By knowing the V(s) and Z(s) we can calculate I(s) as I(s) is given as
the total transform voltage in the circuit divided by the total transform impedance.

35. The current flowing in the circuit in question 1

is? a) (V1(S)-LI0-V0/S)/( R+LS+1/CS)
b) (V1(S)-LI0+V0/S)/( R+LS+1/CS)
c) (V1(S)+LI0+V0/S)/( R+LS+1/CS)
d) (V1(S)+LI0-V0/S)/( R+LS+1/CS)
Answer: d
Explanation: The current I(s) is given as the total transform voltage in the circuit divided by the

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total transform impedance. The current flowing in the circuit is I (s) = V(s)/I(s) =(V1(S)+LI0-
V0/S)/( R+LS+1/CS).

36. Obtain the admittance of the last two elements in the parallel combination
after transformation in the circuit shown below.

a) 1+s
b) 2+s
c) 3+s
d) 4+s
Answer: d
Explanation: The term admittance is defined as the inverse of impedance. The admittance of
capacitor is 1/s and the admittance of resistor is 1/4 mho. So the admittance of the last two
elements in the parallel combination is Y1(s) = 4 + s.

37. The impedance of the last two elements in the parallel combination after transformation
in the circuit shown in question 6 is?
a) 1/(s+4)
b) 1/(s+3)
c) 1/(s+2)
d) 1/(s+1)
Answer: a
Explanation: The impedance of resistor is 4Ω and the impedance of capacitor is s. So the
impedance of the last two elements in the parallel combination is Z1(s) = 1/(s+4).

38. The series combination of the last elements after replacing 1/s and 1/4Ω with 1/(S+4) in the
question 6 is?
a) (3s+4)/2s(s-4)
b) (3s-4)/2s(s-4)
c) (3s+4)/2s(s+4)
d) (3s-4)/2s(s+4)
Answer: c

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Explanation: We got the impedance of last two elements in parallel combination as Z 1(s) =
1/(s+4) and now the impedance of capacitor is 1/2s. So the series combination of the last
elements is Z2(s) =1/2s+1/(s+4)=(3s+4)/2s(s+4).

39. Determine the admittance parallel combination of the last elements after replacing
with (3s+4)/2s(s+4) in the question 6 is?
a) (4s2-19s+4)/(6s-8)
b) (4s2+19s-4)/(6s+8)
c) (4s2+19s-4)/(6s-8)
d) (4s2+19s+4)/(6s+8)
Answer: d
Explanation: The term admittance is defined as the inverse of the term impedance. As the
impedance is Z2(s) =1/2s+1/(s+4)=(3s+4)/2s(s+4) , the admittance parallel combination of the
last elements is Y2(s) = 1/2+2s(s+4)/( 3s+4)=(4s2+19s+4)/(6s+8).

40. Obtain the transform impedance of the network shown in question

6. a) (6s-8)/( 4s2+19s-4)
b) (6s+8)/( 4s2+19s+4)
c) (6s+8)/( 4s2-19s+4)
d) (6s-8)/( 4s2+19s+4)
Answer: b
Explanation: The term impedance is the inverse of the term admittance. We got admittance as
Y2(s) = (4s2+19s+4)/(6s+8). So the transform impedance of the network is
Z (s) = 1 / Y2(s) = (6s+8)/( 4s2+19s+4)

Network Function for the One-Port and Two-Port

41. The ratio of voltage transform at first port to the voltage transform at the second port is
called?
a) Voltage transfer ratio
b) Current transfer ratio
c) Transfer impedance
d) Transfer admittance
Answer: a
Explanation: Voltage transfer ratio is the ratio of voltage transform at first port to the
voltage transform at the second port and is denoted by G(s). G21 = V2(s)/V1(s) G12 =
V1(s)/V2(s).

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42. The ratio of the current transform at one port to current transform at other port is called?
a) Transfer admittance
b) Transfer impedance
c) Current transfer ratio
d) Voltage transfer ratio
Answer: c
Explanation: Current transfer ratio is the ratio of the current transform at one port to
current transform at other port and is denoted by α(s). α12(s) = I1(s)/I2(s) α21(s) = I2(s)/I1(s).

43. The ratio of voltage transform at first port to the current transform at the second port
is called?
a) Voltage transfer ratio
b) Transfer admittance
c) Current transfer ratio
d) Transfer impedance
Answer: d
Explanation: Transfer impedance is the ratio of voltage transform at first port to the
current transform at the second port and is denoted by Z(s). Z21(s) = V2(s)/I1(s) Z12(s) =
V1(s)/I2(s).

44. For the network shown in the figure, find the driving point impedance.

a) (s2-2s+1)/s
b) (s2+2s+1)/s
c) (s2-2s-1)/s
d) (s2+2s-1)/s
Answer: b
Explanation: Applying Kirchoff’s law at port 1, Z(S)=V(S)/I(S), where V(s) is applied at port 1
and I(s) is current flowinmg through the network. Then Z(S)=V(S)/I(S) = 2+S+1/S =
(s2+2s+1)/s.

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45. Obtain the transfer function G21 (S) in the circuit shown below.

a) (s+1)/s
b) s+1
c) s
d) s/(s+1)
Answer: d
Explanation: Applying Kirchhoff’s law V1 (S) = 2 I1 (S) + 2 sI1 (S) V2 (S) = I1 (S) X 2s Hence
G21 (S) = V2(s)/V1(s) =2 s/(2+2 s)=s/(s+1).

46. Determine the transfer function Z21 (S) in the circuit shown in question 5.
a) s
b) 2 s
c) 3 s
d) 4 s
Answer: b
Explanation: The transfer function Z21 (S) is Z21 (S) = V2(S)/I1(S). V2 (S) = I1 (S) X 2s.
V2(S)/I1(S)=2s. On substituting Z21 (S) = 2s.

47. Find the driving point impedance Z11 (S) in the circuit shown in question 5.
a) 2(s+2)
b) (s+2)
c) 2(s+1)
d) (s+1)
Answer: c
Explanation: The driving point impedance Z11 (S) is Z11 (S)=V1(S)/I1(S). V1 (S) = 2 I1 (S) + 2
sI1 (S) => V1(S) = (2+2s)I1(S) => V1(S)/I1(S) = 2(s+1). On substituting Z11 (S) = 2(S+1).

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48. Obtain the transfer function G21 (s) in the circuit shown below.

a) (8 S+2)/(8 S+1)
b) (8 S+2)/(8 S+2)
c) (8 S+2)/(8 S+3)
d) (8 S+2)/(8 S+4)
Answer: d
Explanation: From the circuit, the parallel combination of resistance and capacitance can be
combined into equivalent in impedance. Zeq(S) = 1/(2 S+1/2)=2/(4 S+1). Applying Kirchhoff’s
laws, we have V2 (S) = 2 I1(S) => V1 (S) = I1 (S)[2/(4 S+1)+2] = I1 (S)[(8 S+4)/(4 S+1)] The
transfer function G21 (s) = V2(s)/V1(s) =2 I1(S)/((8 S+4)/(4 S+1))I1(S) =(8 S+2)/(8 S+4).

49. Obtain the transfer function Z21(s) in the circuit shown in question 8.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: b
Explanation: The transfer function Z21(s) is Z21 (S) = V2(S)/I1(S). V2 (S) = 2 I1(S) =>
V2 (S)/I1 =2. On substituting Z21(s) = 2.

50. Determine the driving point impedance Z11(S) in the circuit shown in question 8.
a) (8 S+4)/(4 S+4)
b) (8 S+4)/(4 S+3)
c) (8 S+4)/(4 S+2)
d) (8 S+4)/(4 S+1)
Answer: d
Explanation: The driving point impedance Z11(S) is Z11(S) = V1(s)/I1(s). V1(s) = I1(s)((2/(4s+1))
+2) = I1(s)((8s+4)/(4s+1)) => V1(s)/I1(s) = ((8s+4)/(4s+1)). On substituting we get Z11(S) =
(8S+4)/(4S+1).

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Poles and Zeros of Network Functions

51. The coefficients of the polynomials P (S) and Q (S) in the network function N (S) are
for passive network.
a) real and positive
b) real and negative
c) complex and positive
d) complex and negative
Answer: a
Explanation: The coefficients of the polynomials P (S) and Q (S) in the network function N (S)
are real and positive for passive network. On factorising the network function we obtain the
poles and zeros.

52. The scale factor is denoted by the letter?

a) G
b) H
c) I
d) J
Answer: b
Explanation: The scale factor is denoted by the letter ‘H’ and its value is equal to the ratio of
ao to bo.

53. The poles in the transfer function are denoted by?

a) x
b) y
c) z
d) w
Answer: a
Explanation: The roots of the equation Q (S) = 0 are poles of the transfer function. The poles in
the transfer function are denoted by ‘x’.

54. The network function N (S) becomes when s is equal to anyone of the zeros.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 0
d) ∞
Answer: c

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Explanation: The network function N (S) becomes zero when s in the transfer function is equal to
anyone of the zeros as the network function is completely defined by its poles and zeros.

55. The N (S) becomes when s is equal to any of the poles.

a) ∞
b) 0
c) 1
d) 2
Answer: a
Explanation: The network function is completely defined by its poles and zeros and the network
function N (S) becomes infinite when s in the transfer function is equal to anyone of the poles.

56. If the poles or zeros are not repeated, then the function is said to be having poles
or zeros.
a) simple, multiple
b) multiple, simple
c) simple, simple
d) multiple, multiple
Answer: c
Explanation: If the poles or zeros are not repeated, then the function is said to be having simple
poles or simple zeros and the network function is said to be stable when the real parts of the
poles and zeros are negative.

57. If the poles or zeros are repeated, then the function is said to be having poles or
zeros.
a) multiple, multiple
b) simple, simple
c) multiple, simple
d) simple, multiple
Answer: a
Explanation: If there are repeated poles or zeros, then function is said to be having multiple poles
or multiple zeros and the network function is stable if the poles and zeros lie within the left half
of the s-plane.

58. If the number of zeros (n) are greater than the number of poles (m), then there will be
number of zeros at s = ∞.
a) n
b) m

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c) n-m
d) n+m
Answer: c
Explanation: If the number of zeros (n) are greater than the number of poles (m), then there will
be (n-m) number of zeros at s = ∞ and to obtain (n-m) zeros at s = ∞ the condition is n>m.

59. If the number of poles (m)are greater than the number of zeros (n), then there will be
number of zeros at s = ∞.
a) m+n
b) m-n
c) m
d) n
Answer: b
Explanation: If the number of poles (m)are greater than the number of zeros (n), then there will
be (m-n) number of zeros at s = ∞ and to obtain (m-n) poles at s = ∞ the condition is m>n.

Properties of Driving Point Functions

60. The driving point function is the ratio of polynomials in s. Polynomials are obtained from the
of the elements and their combinations.
a) transform voltage
b) transform current
c) transform impedance
d) transform admittance
Answer: c
Explanation: The driving point function is the ratio of polynomials in s. Polynomials are
obtained from the transform impedance of the elements and their combinations and if the zeros
and poles are not repeated then the poles or zeros are said to be distinct or simple.

61. The pole is that finite value of S for which N (S) becomes
a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) ∞
Answer: d
Explanation: The quantities P1, P2 … Pm are called poles of N (S) if N (S) = ∞ at those points.
The pole is that finite value of S for which N (S) becomes infinity.

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62. A function N (S) is said to have a pole (or zero) at infinity, if the function N (1/S) has a
pole (or zero) at S = ?
a) ∞
b) 2
c) 0
d) 1
Answer: c
Explanation: A function N (S) is said to have a pole (or zero) at infinity, if the function N
(1/S) has a pole (or zero) at S = infinity. A zero or pole is said to be of multiplicity ‘r’ if (S-Z) r
or(S- P)r is a factor of P(s) or Q(s).

63. The number of zeros including zeros at infinity is the number of poles including
poles at infinity.
a) greater than
b) equal to
c) less than
d) greater than or equal to
Answer: b
Explanation: The number of zeros including zeros at infinity is equal to the number of poles
including poles at infinity and it cannot be greater than or less than the number of poles including
poles at infinity.

64. The poles of driving point impedance are those frequencies corresponding to
conditions?
a) short circuit
b) voltage source
c) open circuit
d) current
source Answer:
c
Explanation: A zero of N(s) is a zero of V(s),it signifies a short circuit. Similarly a pole of Z(s) is
a zero of I(s). The poles of driving point impedance are those frequencies corresponding to open
circuit conditions.

65. The zeros of driving point impedance are those frequencies corresponding to
conditions?
a) current source
b) open circuit

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c) voltage source
d) short circuit
Answer: d
Explanation: The zeros of driving point impedance are those frequencies corresponding to short
circuit conditions as pole of Z(s) is a zero of I(s) and zero of N(s) is a zero of V(s),it signifies a
short circuit.

66. In the driving point admittance function, a zero of Y (s) means a of I (S).
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) zero
Answer: d
Explanation: In the driving point admittance function, a zero of Y (s) means a zero of I (S)
i.e., the open circuit condition as the driving point admittance function is the ratio of I(s) to
V(s).

67. In the driving point admittance function, a pole of Y (s) means a of V (S).
a) zero
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
Answer: a
Explanation: The driving point admittance function Y(s) = I(s)/V(s). In the driving point
admittance function, a pole of Y (s) means a zero of V (S) i.e., the short circuit condition.

68. The real part of all zeros and poles must be?
a) positive or zero
b) negative or zero
c) positive
d) negative
Answer: b
Explanation: The real part of all zeros and poles must be negative or zero. But the poles or zeros
should not be positive because if they are positive, then they will lie in the right-half of the s-
plane.

69. Poles or zeros lying on the jω axis must be?

a) complex
b) at least one complex pole
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c) at least one complex zero

d) simple
Answer: d
Explanation: Poles or zeros lying on the jω axis must be simple because on jω axis the imaginary
part of poles or zeros will be zero.

Properties of Transfer Functions

70. The coefficients of numerator polynomial and the denominator polynomial in a
transfer function must be?
a) real
b) complex
c) at least one real coefficient
d) at least one complex
coefficient Answer: a
Explanation: The coefficients of P(s), the numerator polynomial and of Q(s), the denominator
polynomial in a transfer function must be real. Therefore all poles and zeros if complex must
occur in conjugate pairs.

71. In a transfer function, the degree of numerator polynomial is than the degree of
the denominator polynomial.
a) greater than
b) less than
c) equal to
d) less than or equal to
Answer: d
Explanation: In a transfer function, the degree of numerator polynomial is less than or equal to
than the degree of the denominator polynomial. And the degree of the numerator polynomial of
Z21(s) or Y21(s) is less than or equal to the degree of the denominator polynomial plus one.

72. The real parts of all poles and zeros in a driving point function must be?
a) zero
b) negative
c) zero or negative
d) positive
Answer: c
Explanation: The real parts of all poles and zeros in a driving point function must be zero or

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negative but should not be positive and the complex or imaginary poles and zeros must occur in
conjugate pairs.

73. If the real part of driving point function is zero, then the pole and zero must be?
a) complex
b) simple
c) one complex pole
d) one complex zero
Answer: b
Explanation: If the real part of driving point function is zero, then the pole and zero must be
simple but should not contain any complex pole or complex zero.

74. The degree of the numerator polynomial and denominator polynomial in a driving
point function may differ by?
a) 0
b) 1
c) 0 or 1
d) 2
Answer: c
Explanation: The degree of numerator polynomial and denominator polynomial in a driving
point function may differ by zero or one. And the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) may not have any
missing terms between the highest and lowest degrees unless all even or odd terms are
missing.

75. The lowest degree in numerator polynomial and denominator polynomial in a driving point
function may differ by at most
a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
Answer: b
Explanation: The lowest degree in numerator polynomial and denominator polynomial in a
driving point function may differ by at most one and the coefficients in the polynomials P(s) and
Q(s) of network function must be real and positive.

76. The coefficients in the denominator polynomial of the transfer function must be?
a) positive
b) negative
c) positive or zero
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d) negative or
zero Answer: a
Explanation: The coefficients in the denominator polynomial of the transfer function must be
positive but should not be negative and the coefficients in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of
transfer function must be real.

77. The coefficients in the numerator polynomial of the transfer function may be?
a) must be negative
b) must be positive
c) may be positive
d) may be negative
Answer: d
Explanation: The coefficients in the numerator polynomial of the transfer function may be
negative and the complex or imaginary poles and zeros must occur in conjugate pairs.

78. The denominator polynomial in a transfer function may not have any missing terms
between the highest and the lowest degree, unless?
a) all odd terms are missing
b) all even terms are missing
c) all even or odd terms are missing
d) all even and odd terms are missing
Answer: c
Explanation: The denominator polynomial in a transfer function may not have any missing
terms between the highest and the lowest degree, unless all even or odd terms are missing and
the polynomial P(s) may have missing terms between the lowest and the highest degree.

79. The degree of numerator polynomial in a transfer function may be as small as

independent of the degree of the denominator polynomial.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 0
d) 3
Answer: c
Explanation: The degree of numerator polynomial in a transfer function may be as small as zero,
independent of the degree of the denominator polynomial and for the voltage transfer ratio and
the current transfer ratio, the maximum degree of P(s) must be equal to the degree of Q(s).

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Open Circuit Impedence(Z) Parameters

80. Two ports containing no sources in their branches are called?
a) active ports
b) passive ports
c) one port
d) three
port
Answer: b
Explanation: Two ports containing no sources in their branches are called passive ports; among
them are power transmission lines and transformers.

81. Two ports containing sources in their branches are called?

a) three port
b) one port
c) passive ports
d) active ports
Answer: d
Explanation: Two ports containing sources in their branches are called active ports. A voltage
and current is assigned to each of the two ports.

82. In determining open circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2, which of the
following are dependent variables?
a) V1 and V2
b) I1 and I2
c) V1 and I2
d) I1 and V2
Answer: a
Explanation: In determining open circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2; V1 and
V2 are dependent variables and I1, I2 are independent variables i.e., dependent variables depend
on independent variables.

83. In determining open circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2, which of the
following are independent variables?
a) I1 and V2
b) V1 and I2
c) I1 and I2
d) V1 and V2
Answer: c
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Explanation: In determining open circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2; I1 and
I2 are independent variables and V1, V2 are dependent variables. Independent variables are the
variables that do not depend on any other variable.

84. Which of the following expression is true in case of open circuit

parameters? a) V1 = Z11 V1 + Z12 I2
b) V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 V2
c) V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I2
d) V2 = Z11I1 + Z12 I2
Answer: c
Explanation: The expression relating the open circuit parameters Z11, Z12 and currents I1, I2 and
voltage V1 is V1 = Z11I1 + Z12 I2.

85. Which of the following expression is true in case of open circuit

parameters? a) V2 = Z21I2 + Z22 I2
b) V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2
c) V1 = Z21I2 + Z22 I2
d) V1 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2
Answer: b
Explanation: The expression relating the currents I1, I2 and voltage V1 and open circuit
parameters Z21, Z22 is V2 = Z21I1 + Z22 I2.

86. Find the Z – parameter Z11 in the circuit shown below.

a) 1
b) 1.5
c) 2
d) 2.5
Answer: d
Explanation: For determining Z11, the current I2 is equal to zero. Now we obtain Zeq as 1+
(6×2)/(6+2)=2.5Ω. So, Z11 = 2.5Ω.

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87. The value of Z21 in the circuit shown in the question 7 is?
a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
Answer: b
Explanation: V2 is the voltage across the 4Ω impedance. The current through 4Ω impedance is
I1/4. And V2 = (I1/4) x 4 = I1. So, Z21 = 1Ω.

88. Find the value of Z12 in the circuit shown in the question 7.
a) 3
b) 2
c) 1
d) 0
Answer: c
Explanation: The current through vertical 2Ω resistor is = I2/2. So, V1 = 2 x (I2/2). On solving
and substituting we get Z12 = 1Ω.

89. Determine the value of Z22 in the circuit shown in the question 7.
a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
Answer: c
Explanation: Open circuiting port 1, we get V2 = I2((2+2)||4) => V2 = I2 x 2 =>V2/I2 = 2.
Therefore the value of Z22 is 2Ω.

Short Circuit Admittance(Y) Parameters

90. In determining short circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2, which of the
following are dependent variables?
a) V1 and V2
b) I1 and I2
c) V1 and I2
d) I1 and V2
Answer: b
Explanation: In determining short circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2; I1 and

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I2 are dependent variables and V1, V2 are independent variables i.e., dependent variables depend
on independent variables.

91. In determining short circuit impedance parameters, among V1, V2, I1, I2, which of the
following are independent variables?
a) I1 and V2
b) V1 and I2
c) I1 and I2
d) V1 and V2
Answer: d
Explanation: In determining short circuit impedance parameters, among V 1, V2, I1, I2; V1 and
V2 are independent variables and I 1, I2 are dependent variables. Independent variables are the
variables that do not depend on any other variable.

92. Which of the following expression is true in case of short circuit

parameters? a) I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
b) I1 = Y11 I1 + Y12 V2
c) V1 = Y11 I1 + Y12 V2
d) V1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2
Answer: a
Explanation: The expression relating the short circuit parameters Y11, Y12 and voltages V1,
V2 and current is I1, is I1 = Y11 V1 + Y12 V2.

93. Which of the following expression is true in case of short circuit

parameters? a) I2 = Y21I1 + Y22 I2
b) V2 = Y21I1 + Y22 V2
c) I2 = Y21V1 + Y22 V2
d) I2 = Y21V1 + Y22 I2
Answer: c
Explanation: The expression relating the voltages V1, V2 and current is I2 and short circuit
parameters Y11, Y12 is I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2.

94. The parameters Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 are called?

a) Open circuit impedance parameters
b) Short circuit admittance parameters
c) Inverse transmission parameters
d) Transmission parameters
Answer: b

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Explanation: The parameters Y11, Y12, Y21, Y22 are called short circuit admittance parameters
also called network functions as they are obtained by short circuiting port 1 or port 2.

95. Find the Y – parameter Y11 in the circuit shown below.

a) 2
b) 3/2
c) 1
d) 1/2
Answer: d
Explanation: After short circuiting b-b’, the equation will be V1 = (I1) x 2. We know Y11 = I1/V1.
From the equation we get I1/V1 = 2. On substituting we get Y11 = 2 mho.

96. Find the Y – parameter Y21 in the circuit shown in question 6.

a) -1/4
b) 1/4
c) 1/2
d) -1/2
Answer: a
Explanation: After short circuiting b-b’, the equation will be -I2=I1 × 2/4=I1/2 and -I2= V1/4 and
on solving and substituting we get Y21 =I2/V1=-1/4 mho.

97. Find the Y – parameter Y22 in the circuit shown in question 6.

a) 3/8
b) 5/8
c) 7/8
d) 9/8
Answer: b
Explanation: On short circuiting a-a’,we get Zeq = 8/5 Ω. V2=I2× 8/5. We know Y22 = I2/V2. We
got I2/V1 = 5/8. ON substituting we get Y22 = 5/8 mho.

98. Find the Y – parameter Y12 in the circuit shown in question 6.

a) 1/2
b) -1/2
c) -1/4

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d) 1/4
Answer: c
Explanation: Short circuiting a-a’, -I1= 2/5 I2 and I2= 5 V2/8. On solving -I1= 2/5×5/8 V2= V2/4.
We know
Y12 = I1/V2. We got I1/V2 = -1/4. So the value of Y12 will be -1/4 mho.

99. Which of the following equation is true in the circuit shown in question
6? a) I1=0.5(V1)+0.25(V2)
b) I1=0.25(V1)+0.625(V2)
c) I1=-0.25(V1)+0.625(V2)
d) I1=0.5(V1)-0.25(V2)
Answer: d
Explanation: We got the admittance parameters as Y11 = 0.5, Y12 = -0.25, Y21 = -0.25, Y22 =
0.625. So the equations in terms of admittance parameters is
I1=0.5(V1)-0.25(V2) and I2=-0.25(V1)+0.625(V2).

Transmission(ABCD) Parameters
100.In the circuit shown below, find the transmission parameter A.

a) 6/5
b) 5/6
c) 3/4
d) 4/3
Answer: a
Explanation: Open circuiting b-b‘, V1 = 6 I1, V2 = 5I1. On solving V1/V2 = 6/5. On substituting
we get A = V1/V2=6/5.

101. In the circuit shown above, find the transmission parameter

C. a) 4/5
b) 3/5
c) 2/5
d) 1/5

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Answer: d
Explanation: C = I1/V2 |I2=0. By open circuiting b-b‘ we get V2 = 5 I1 =>I1/V2 = 1/5. On
substituting we get C = I1/V2=1/5 Ω.

102. In the circuit shown above, find the transmission parameter

B. a) 15/5
b) 17/5
c) 19/5
d) 21/5
Answer: b
Explanation: The transmission parameter B is given by B = -V1/I2 |V2=0. Short circuiting b-b‘, -
I2= 5/17 V1 => -V1/I2 = 17/5. On substituting we get B=17/5 Ω.

103. In the circuit shown above, find the transmission parameter

D. a) 1/5
b) 3/5
c) 7/5
d) 9/5
Answer: c
Explanation: D is a transmission parameter and is given by D = -I1/I2 |V2=0. Short circuiting b-b‘,
I1= 7/17 V1 and-I2= 5/17 V1. So we get I1/I2 = 7/5. So D=7/5.

104. The hybrid parameter h11 is called?

a) short circuit input impedance
b) short circuit forward current gain
c) open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) open circuit output admittance
Answer: a
Explanation: h11=V1/I1 |V2=0. So the hybrid parameter h11 is called short circuit input impedance.

105. The hybrid parameter h21 is called?

a) open circuit output admittance
b) open circuit reverse voltage gain
c) short circuit forward current gain
d) short circuit input impedance
Answer: c
Explanation: h21=I2/I1 |V2=0. So the hybrid parameter h21 is called short circuit forward current
gain.

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106. In the circuit shown below, find the h-parameter h11.

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: b
Explanation: h11=V1/I1 |V2=0. So short circuiting b-b‘, V1 = I1((2||2)+1) = 2I1 => V1/I1= 2. On
substituting we get h11 = V1/I1= 2Ω.

107. In the circuit shown in question 7, find the h-parameter h21.

a) 1
b) -1
c) 1/2
d) -1/2
Answer: d
Explanation: Short circuiting b-b‘, h21 = I2/I1 when V2=0 and -I2= I1/2 => I2/I1 = -1/2. So h21 = -
1/2.

108. In the circuit shown in question 7, find the h-parameter h12.

a) 1/2
b) -1/2
c) 1
d) -1
Answer: a
Explanation: Open circuiting a-a‘ we get V1=Iy×2 and
Iy=I2/2 and V2=Ix×4 and Ix=I2/2. On solving and substituting, we get h12 =V1/V2=1/2.

109. In the circuit shown in question 7, find the h-parameter h22.

a) 1
b) 2
c) 1/2
d) 3/2

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Answer: c
Explanation: Open circuiting a-a‘ we get V1=Iy×2 and Iy=I2/2 and V2=Ix×4 and Ix=I2/2. On
solving and substituting, we get h22 =I2/V2=1/2 Ω.

Hybrid (h) Parameter

110. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h11 is

a) 15 Ω
b) 20 Ω
c) 30 Ω
d) 25 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h11 is given by, h11 = V1I1, when V2=0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, we get,
V1 = I1 ((10||10) + 10)
= I1 ((10×1010+10)+10)
= 15I1

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∴ V1I1 = 15.
Hence h11 = 15 Ω.

111. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h21 is

a) 0.6 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω
c) 0.3 Ω
d) 0.2 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h21 is given by, h21 = I2I1, when V2=0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, and applying Kirchhoff’s law, we get,
-10 I2 – (I2 – I1)10 = 0
Or, -I2 = I2 – I1
Or, -2I2 = -I1
∴ I2I1=12
Hence h21 = 0.5 Ω.

112. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h12 is

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a) 6 Ω
b) 5 Ω
c) 1 Ω
d) 2 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h12 is given by, h12 = V1V2, when I1 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal X-X’ we get,
V1 = IA × 10
IA = I22
V2 = IB × 10
IB = I22
From the above 4 equations, we get,
∴ V1V2=I2×10I2×10 = 1
Hence h12 = 1 Ω.

113. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h22 is

a) 0.2 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω
c) 0.1 Ω
d) 0.3 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h22 is given by, h22 = I2V2, when I1 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal X-X’ we get,
V1 = IA × 10
IA = I22
V2 = IB × 10
IB = I22

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From the above 4 equations, we get,

∴ I2V2=I2×2I2×10 = 0.2
Hence h22 = 0.2 Ω.

114. In the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h11 is

a) 10 Ω
b) 7.5 Ω
c) 5 Ω
d) 2.5 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h11 is given by, h11 = V1I1, when V2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, we get,
V1 = I1 ((5 || 5) + 5)
= I1 ((5×55+5)+5)
= 7.5I1
∴ V1I1 = 7.5
Hence h11 = 7.5 Ω.

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115. In the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h21 is

a) 10 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω
c) 5 Ω
d) 2.5 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h21 is given by, h21 = I2I1, when V2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, and applying Kirchhoff’s law, we get,
-5 I2 – (I2 – I1)5 = 0
Or, -I2 = I2 – I1
Or, -2I2 = -I1
∴ I2I1=12
Hence h21 = 0.5 Ω.

116. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h12 is

a) 6 Ω
b) 5 Ω

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c) 1 Ω
d) 2 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h12 is given by, h12 = V1V2, when I1 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal X-X’ we get,
V1 = IA × 5
V2 = IA × 5
From the above equations, we get,
∴ V1V2=IA×10IA×10 = 1
Hence h12 = 1 Ω.

117. In two-port networks the parameter h11 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current gain
c) Open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) Open circuit output admittance
Answer: a
Explanation: We know that, h11 = V1I1, when V2 = 0.
Since the second output terminal is short circuited when the ratio of the two voltages is
measured, therefore the parameter h11 is called as Short circuit input impedance.

118. In two-port networks the parameter h21 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current gain
c) Open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) Open circuit output admittance
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that, h21 = I2I1, when V2 = 0.
Since the second output terminal is short circuited when the ratio of the two currents is
measured, therefore the parameter h21 is called Short circuit current gain.

119. In two-port networks the parameter h12 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current gain
c) Open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) Open circuit output admittance
Answer: c

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Explanation: We know that, h21 = V1V2, when I1 = 0.

Since the current in the first loop is 0 when the ratio of the two voltages is measured, therefore
the parameter h12 is called as Open circuit reverse voltage gain.

120. In two-port networks the parameter h22 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current gain
c) Open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) Open circuit output admittance
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, h22 = I2V2, when I1 = 0.
Since the current in the first loop is 0 when the ratio of the current and voltage in the second loop
is measured, therefore the parameter h22 is called as Open circuit output admittance.

Inverse Hybrid (g) Parameter

121. For the circuit given below, the value of the Inverse hybrid parameter g11 is

a) 0.067 Ω
b) 0.025 Ω
c) 0.3 Ω
d) 0.25 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Inverse Hybrid parameter g11 is given by, g11 = I1V1, when I2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, we get,
V1 = I1 ((10||10) + 10)
= I1 ((10×1010+10)+10)
= 15I1

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∴ I1V1=115 = 0.067 Ω
Hence g11 = 15 Ω.

122. For the circuit given below, the value of the Inverse hybrid parameter g21 is

a) 0.6 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω
c) 0.3 Ω
d) 0.2 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Inverse Hybrid parameter g21 is given by, g21 = V2V1, when I2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, and applying Kirchhoff’s law, we
get, V1 = I1 (10 + 10)
V2 = I1 10
∴ V2V1=I110I120 = 0.5
Hence g21 = 0.5 Ω.

123. For the 2 port network as shown below, the Z-matrix is

a) [Z1; Z1 + Z2; Z1 + Z2; Z3]

b) [Z1; Z1; Z1 + Z2; Z2]

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c) [Z1; Z2; Z2; Z1 + Z2]

d) [Z1; Z1; Z1; Z1 + Z2]
Answer: d
Explanation: z11 = V1I1, when I2 = 0
z22 = V2I2, when I1 = 0
z12 = V1I2, when I1 = 0
z21 = V2I1, when I2 = 0
Now, in the given circuit putting I1 = 0, we get,
z12 = Z1 and z22 = Z1 + Z2
And putting I2 = 0, we get,
z21 = Z1 and z11 = Z1.

124. Which one of the following parameters does not exist for the two-port network in the circuit
given below?

a) h
b) Y
c) Z
d) g
Answer: c
Explanation: Y-parameter = 1Z[1; -1; -1; 1]
And from the definition of the Y parameters, ∆Y = 0. Therefore the Y-parameter exists.
Since ∆Y = 0, so by property of reciprocity, ∆h = 0 and ∆g = 0.
Hence both hybrid and inverse hybrid parameters exist.
But the Z-parameters cannot exist here because if one terminal is opened the circuit will become
invalid.
∴ Z- parameters do not exists.

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125. In the circuit given below, the value of the Inverse hybrid parameter g11 is

a) 10 Ω
b) 0.133 Ω
c) 5 Ω
d) 2.5 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Inverse Hybrid parameter g11 is given by, g11 = I1V1, when I2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, we get,
V1 = I1 ((5 || 5) + 5)
= I1 ((5×55+5)+5)
= 7.5I1
∴ I1V1=17.5 = 0.133
Hence g11 = 7.5 Ω.

126. In the circuit given below, the value of the Inverse hybrid parameter g21 is

a) 10 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω

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c) 5 Ω
d) 2.5 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Inverse Hybrid parameter g21 is given by, g21 = V2V1, when I2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, and applying Kirchhoff’s law, we
get, V1 = I1 (5 + 5)
V2 = I1 5
∴ V2V1=I15I110 = 0.5
Hence g21 = 0.5 Ω.

127. The short-circuit admittance matrix of a two port network is as follows.

[0; -0.5; 0.5; 0]
Then the 2 port network is
a) Non-reciprocal and passive
b) Non-reciprocal and active
c) Reciprocal and passive
d) Reciprocal and active
Answer: b
Explanation: The network is non reciprocal because Y12 ≠ Y21 and Y12 is also negative which
means either energy storing or providing device is available. So network is active. Therefore
the network is Non- reciprocal and active.

128. If a two port network is passive, then we have, with the usual notation, the relationship as

a) h21 = h12
b) h12 = -h21
c) h11 = h22
d) h11 h22 – h12 h22 = 1
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2 ……… (1)
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2................(2)
And, V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2................(3)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2.................(4)
Now, (3) and (4) can be rewritten
as, I1 = V1h11–h12V2h11.........(5)
And I2 = h21V1h11+(−h21h12h11+h22)V2...............(6)
Therefore using the above 6 equations in representing the hybrid parameters in terms of the Y

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parameters and applying ∆Y=0, we

get, h11 h22 – h12 h22 = 1 [hence proved].

129. For the circuit given below, the value of the Inverse hybrid parameter g22 is

a) 7.5 Ω
b) 5 Ω
c) 6.25 Ω
d) 3 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Inverse Hybrid parameter g22 is given by, g22 = V2I2, when V1 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal X-X’ we get,
-5 I2 – 5 I1 + V2 = 0
-5 I1 – 5(I1 – I2) = 0
Or, 2I1 = I2
Putting the above equation in the first equation, we get,
-7.5 I2 = -V2
Or, V2I2 = 7.5
Hence g22 = 7.5 Ω.

130. In two-port networks the parameter g11 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current ratio
c) Open circuit voltage ratio
d) Open circuit input admittance
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, g11 = I1V1, when I2 = 0.

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Since the second voltage terminal is short circuited when the ratio of the current and voltage is
measured, therefore the parameter g11 is called as Open circuit input admittance.

131. In two-port networks the parameter g21 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current ratio
c) Open circuit voltage ratio
d) Open circuit input admittance
Answer: c
Explanation: We know that, g21 = V2V1, when I2 = 0.
Since the second output terminal is short circuited when the ratio of the two voltages is
measured, therefore the parameter g21 is called as Open circuit voltage ratio.

132. In two-port networks the parameter g12 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current gain
c) Open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) Open circuit output admittance
Answer: c
Explanation: We know that, g12 = I1I2, when V1 = 0.
Since the primary terminal is short circuited and the ratio of the two currents is measured,
therefore the parameter g12 is called as Short circuit current ratio.

133. In two-port networks the parameter g22 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current ratio
c) Open circuit voltage ratio
d) Open circuit input admittance
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that, g22 = V2I2, when V1 = 0.
Since the primary voltage terminal is short circuited and the ratio of the voltage and current in
second loop is measured, therefore the parameter g22 is called as Short circuit current ratio.

Advanced Problems Involving Parameters

134. For the circuit given below, the value of Transmission parameter A and C are

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a) A = -0.7692 + j0.3461 Ω, C = 0.03461 + j0.023 Ω

b) A = 0.7692 + j0.3461 Ω, C = 0.03461 + j0.023 Ω
c) A = -0.7692 – j0.3461 Ω, C = -0.03461 + j0.023 Ω
d) A = 0.7692 – j0.3461 Ω, C = 0.023 + j0.03461 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: V = [20 + (-j10) || (j15 − j20)] I1
V1 = [20+(−j10)(−j5)−j15] I1
= [20 – j103] I1
I0 = (−j10−j10−j5) I1 = 23I1
V2 = (-j20) I0 + 20I’0
= –j403I1+20I1=(20–j403)I1
∴ A = V1V2=(20−j103)I120−j403)I1 = 0.7692 + j0.3461 Ω
∴ C = I1V2=120−j40/3 = 0.03461 + j0.023 Ω.

135. For the circuit given below, the value of the Transmission parameter B and D are

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a) D = 0.5385 + j0.6923 Ω, B = -6.923 + j25.385 Ω

b) D = 0.6923 + j0.5385 Ω, B = 6.923 + j25.385 Ω
c) D = -0.6923 + j0.5385 Ω, B= 25.385 + j6.923 Ω
d) D = -0.5385 + j0.6923 Ω, B = -6.923 + j25.385 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Z1 = (−j15)(−j10)−j15−j10−j20 = j10
Z2 = (−j10)(−j20)−j15 = −j403
Z3 = (j15)(−j20)−j15 = j20
-I2 = 20−j40/320−j403+j20I1=3−j23+j I1
∴ D = −I1I2=3+j3−j2 = 0.5385 + j0.6923 Ω
V1 = [j10 + 2(9+j7)] I1
= jI1 (24 – j18)
So, B = –V1I2=−jI1(24−j18)−3−j23+jI1
= 613(-15+j55)
∴ B = -6.923 + j25.385 Ω.

137. For the circuit given below, the value of the Transmission parameters A and C are

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a) A = 1, C = 0
b) A = 0, C = 1
c) A = Y, C = 1
d) A = 1, C = Y
Answer: d
Explanation: V1 = V2
∴ A = V1V2 =1
And V1 = ZI1
∴ C = I1V2=1Z = Y.

138. For the circuit given below, the value of the Transmission parameters B and D are

a) B = Y, D = 1
b) B = 1, D = 0
c) B = 0, D = 1
d) B = 0, D = Y
Answer: c
Explanation: V1 = V2 = 0
And I2 = -I1
∴ B = V1I2 = 0
∴ D = −I1I2 = 1.

139. For the circuit given below, the values of the h parameter is given as follows h = [16, 3; -2,
0.01]. The value of the ratio V2V1 is

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a) 0.3299
b) 0.8942
c) 1.6
d) 0.2941
Answer: d
Explanation: Replacing the given 2-port circuit by an equivalent circuit and applying nodal
analysis, we get,
V2 = (20) (2I1) = 40 I1
Or, -10 + 20I1 + 3V2 = 0
Or, 10 = 20I1 + (3) (40I1) = 140I1
∴ I1 = 114 and V2 = 4014
So, V1 = 16I1 + 3V2 = 13614
And I2 = (100125) (2I1) = −870
∴ V2V1=40136 = 0.2941.
140. For the circuit given below, the values of the h parameter is given as follows h = [16, 3; -2,
0.01]. The value of the ratio I2I1 is

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a) 0.3299
b) 0.8942
c) -1.6
d) 0.2941
Answer: c
Explanation: Replacing the given 2-port circuit by an equivalent circuit and applying
nodal analysis, we get,
V2 = (20) (2I1) = 40 I1
Or, -10 + 20I1 + 3V2 = 0
Or, 10 = 20I1 + (3) (40I1) = 140I1
∴ I1 = 114 and V2 = 4014
So, V1 = 16I1 + 3V2 = 13614
And I2 = (100125) (2I1) = −870
∴ I2I1 = -1.6.
141. If for a circuit the value of the h parameter is given as h = [8, 2/3; -2/3, 4/9]. Then the value
of the voltage source V is
a) 2.38 V
b) 1.19 V
c) 1.6 V
d) 3.2 V
Answer: b
Explanation: 8I1 + 23V2 = 10
V2 = 23I1 (5||94)
= 23I1 (4529)=3029I1
I1 = 2930V2
(8)(2930) V2 + 23V2 = 10
V2 = 300252 = 1.19 V.

142. For a 2-port network, the value of the h parameter is as h=[600, 0.04; 30, 2×10-3]. Given
that, ZS = 2 kΩ and ZL = 400 Ω. The value of the parameter Zin is
a) 250 Ω
b) 333.33 Ω
c) 650 Ω
d) 600 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Zin = hie – hrehfeRL1+hoeRL

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= h11 – h12h21RL1+h22RL
= 600 – 0.04×30×4001+2×10−3×400 = 333.33 Ω.

143. For a 2-port network, the value of the h parameter is as h=[600, 0.04; 30, 2×10-3]. Given
that, ZS = 2 kΩ and ZL = 400 Ω. The value of the parameter Zout is
a) 650 Ω
b) 500 Ω
c) 250 Ω
d) 600 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Zout = Rs+hie(Rs+hie)hoe−hrehfe
= Rs+h11(Rs+h11)h22−h21h12
= 2000+6002600×2×10−3−30×0.04 = 650 Ω.

144. For the circuit given below, the value of the g11 and g21 are

a) g11 = –1R1+R2, g21 = R2R1+R2

b) g11 = 1R1−R2, g21 = –R2R1+R2
c) g11 = 1R1+R2, g21 = R2R1+R2
d) g11 = 1R1−R2, g21 = R2R1−R2
Answer: c
Explanation: I1 = V1R1+R2
Or, g11 = I1V1=1R1+R2
By voltage division, V2 = R2R1+R2V1
Or, g21 = V2V1=R2R1+R2.

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145. For the circuit given below, the value of the g12 and g22 are

a) g12 = –R2R1+R2, g22 = R3 + R1R2R1+R2

b) g12 = R2R1+R2, g22 = -R3 + R1R2R1+R2
c) g12 = –R2R1+R2, g22 = R3 – R1R2R1+R2
d) g12 = R2R1+R2, g22 = -R3 – R1R2R1+R2
Answer: a
Explanation: I1 = –R2R1+R2I2
Or, g12 = I1I2=−R2R1+R2
Also, I2 (R3 + R1 //R2)
= I2 (R3+R1R2R1+R2)
∴ g22 = V2I2=R3+R1R2R1+R2.
146. For the circuit given below, the value of g11 and g21 are

a) g11 = 0.0667 – j0.0333 Ω, g21 = 0.8 + j0.4 Ω

b) g11 = -0.0667 – j0.0333 Ω, g21 = -0.8 – j0.4 Ω
c) g11 = 0.0667 + j0.0333 Ω, g21 = 0.8 + j0.4 Ω
d) g11 = -0.0667 + j0.0333 Ω, g21 = 0.8 – j0.4 Ω
Answer: c

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Explanation: V1 = (12-j6) I1
Or, g11 = I1V1=112−j6 = 0.0667 + j0.0333 Ω
g21 = V2V1=12I1(12−j6)I1
= 22−j = 0.8 + j0.4 Ω.

147. For the circuit given below, the value of g12 and g22 are

a) g12 = 0.8 + j0.4 Ω, g22 = 2.4 + j5.2 Ω

b) g12 = -0.8 + j0.4 Ω, g22 = -2.4 – j5.2 Ω
c) g12 = 0.8 – j0.4 Ω, g22 = 2.4 – j5.2 Ω
d) g12 = -0.8 – j0.4 Ω, g22 = 2.4 + j5.2 Ω
Answer: d
Explanation: I1 = −1212−j6I2
Or, g12 = I1I2 = -g21 = -0.8 – j0.4 Ω
V2 = (j10 + 12 || -j6) I2
g22 = V2I2 = 2.4 + j5.2 Ω.

Inner Relationships of Different Parameters

148. For the given information Z11 = 3, Z12 = 1, Z21 = 2, Z22 = 1. Find the value of Y11.
a) 1
b) -1
c) 2
d) -2
Answer: a
Explanation: Y11 = Z22/∆z and ∆z=3-2=1 and Z22 = 1. So on substituting we get Y11= 1/1=1.

149. From the information provided in question 1, find the value of Y12.
a) -2
b) 2

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c) -1
d) 1
Answer: c
Explanation: Y12= -Z12/∆z and ∆z=3-2=1 and Z12 = 1. So on substituting we get Y12=- 1/1=-1.

150. From the information provided in question 1, find the value of Y21.
a) 2
b) -2
c) 1
d) -1
Answer: b
Explanation: We have the relation Y21=- Z21/∆z. ∆z=3-2=1 and given Z21 = 2. On substituting we
get Y21=- 2/1=-2.

151. From the information provided in question 1, find the value of Y22.
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: c
Explanation: The relation between Y22 and Z11 is Y22= Z11/∆z and ∆z=3-2=1 and given Z11 = 3.
On substituting we get Y22= 3/1=3.

152. The value ∆y in the question 1 is?

a) 0
b) 1
c) 2
d) 3
Answer: b
Explanation: ∆y is the determinant of y parameters. The value ∆y is (Y11)(Y22)-(Y12)(Y21). On
substituting the values we get ∆y = (1)(3)-(-2)(-1)=1.

153. The product of ∆y and ∆z in the question 1 is?

a) 3
b) 2
c) 1
d) 0
Answer: c

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Explanation: ∆y is the determinant of y parameters and ∆z is the determinant of z

parameters. And we obtained ∆y = 1 and ∆z = 1. So their product = (1) (1) = 1.

154. The relation between Z11 and Y parameters is?

a) Z11 = Y22/∆y
b) Z11 = -Y22/∆y
c) Z11 = Y12/∆y
d) Z11 = (-Y12)/∆y
Answer: a
Explanation: V1=(Y22/∆y)I1-(Y12/∆y)I2. The relation between Z11 and Y parameters is Z11 =
Y22/∆y.

155. The relation between Z12 and Y parameters is?

a) Z12 = Y12/∆y
b) Z12 = (-Y12)/∆y
c) Z12 = (-Y22)/∆y
d) Z12 = Y22/∆y
Answer: b
Explanation: V1=(Y22/∆y)I1-(Y12/∆y)I2. The relation between Z12 and Y parameters is Z12 = (-
Y12)/∆y.

156. The relation between Z21 and Y parameters is?

a) Z21 = Y21/∆y
b) Z21 = Y12/∆y
c) Z21 = (-Y21)/∆y
d) Z21 = (-Y12)/∆y
Answer: c
Explanation: V2=(-Y21/∆y)I1+(Y11/∆y)I2. The relation between Z21 and Y parameters is Z21 = (-
Y21)/∆y.

157. The relation between Z22 and Y parameters is?

a) Z22 = (-Y11)/∆y
b) Z22 = Y21/∆y
c) Z22 = (-Y21)/∆y
d) Z22 = Y11/∆y
Answer: d
Explanation: V2=(-Y21/∆y)I1+(Y11/∆y)I2. The relation between Z22 and Y parameters is Z22 =
Y11/∆y.

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Inter Connection of Two-Port Networks

158.In the circuit shown below, find the Z-parameter Z11.

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: c
Explanation: The Z –parameter Z11 is V1/I1, port 2 is open circuited. V1 = (1+2)I1 => V1/I1 = 3
and on substituting, we get Z11 = 3Ω.

159. In the circuit shown in question 1, find the Z-parameter Z12.

a) 4
b) 3
c) 2
d) 1
Answer: c
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z12 is V2/I1 |I2=0. On open circuiting port 2 we obtain the
equation, V1 = (2) I2 => V1/I1 = 2. On substituting we get Z12 = 2Ω.

160. In the circuit shown in question 1, find the Z-parameter Z21.

a) 2
b) 4
c) 1
d) 3
Answer: a
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z21 is V2/I1 |I2=0. On open circuiting port 2, we get V2 = (2)I1 =>
V2/I1 = 2. On substituting we get Z21 = 2Ω.

161. In the circuit shown in question 1, find the Z-parameter Z22.

a) 3
b)2
c) 4
d) 1

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Answer: a
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z21 is V2/I2 |I1=0. This parameter is obtained by open circuiting
port 1. So we get V2 = (2 + 1)I2 => V2 = 3(I2) => V2/I2 = 3. On substituting Z21 = 3Ω.

162. In the circuit shown below, find the Z-parameter Z11.

a) 10
b) 15
c) 20
d) 25
Answer: b
Explanation: The Z –parameter Z11 is V1/I1, port 2 is open circuited. V1 = (10 + 5)I1 => V1/I1 =
15 and on substituting, we get Z11 = 2.5Ω.

163. In the circuit shown in question 5, find the Z-parameter Z12.

a) 15
b) 10
c) 5
d) 1
Answer: c
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z12 is V2/I1 |I2=0. On open circuiting port 2 we obtain the
equation, V1 = (5) I2 => V1/I1 = 5. On substituting we get Z12 = 5Ω.

164. From the circuits shown in question 1 in question 5, find the combined Z-parameter Z11.
a) 8
b) 18
c) 28
d) 38
Answer: b
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z11 is Z11 = Z11x + Z11y and Z11x = 3, Z11y = 15. On substituting we
get Z11 = 3 +15 = 18Ω.

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165. From the circuits shown in question 1 in question 5, find the combined Z-parameter Z12.
a) 4
b) 5
c) 6
d) 7
Answer: d
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z12 is Z12 = Z12x + Z12y and we have Z12x = 2, Z12y. On substituting
we get Z12 = 2 + 5 = 7Ω.

166. From the circuits shown in question 1 in question 5, find the combined Z-parameter Z21.
a) 7
b) 6
c) 5
d) 4
Answer: a
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z21 is Z21 = Z21x + Z21y and we have Z21x = 2, Z21y = 5. On
substituting we get Z21 = 2 + 5 = 7Ω.

167. From the circuits shown in question 1 in question 5, find the combined Z-parameter Z22.
a) 38
b) 28
c) 18
d) 8
Answer: b
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z22 is Z22 = Z22x + Z22y and we have Z22x = 3, Z22y = 25. On
substituting we get Z22 = 3 +25 = 28Ω.

Terminated Two-Port Network

168. Calculate the Z –parameter Z11 in the circuit shown below.

a) 1.5
b) 2.5
c) 3.5
d) 4.5

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Answer: b
Explanation: The Z –parameter Z11 is V1/I1, port 2 is open circuited. V1 = (1+1.5)I1 => V1/I1 =
2.5 and on substituting, we get Z11 = 2.5Ω.

169. Determine the Z-parameter Z12 in the circuit shown in question 1.

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: a
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z12 is V2/I1 |I2=0. On open circuiting port 2 we obtain the
equation, V1 = (1.5) I2 => V1/I1 = 1.5. On substituting we get Z12 = 1.5Ω.

170. Determine the Z-parameter Z21 in the circuit shown in question 1.

a) 4
b) 3
c) 2
d) 1
Answer: d
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z21 is V2/I1 |I2=0. On open circuiting port 2, we get V2 =
(1.5)I1 => V2/I1 = 1.5. On substituting we get Z21 = 1.5Ω.

171. Determine the Z-parameter Z22 in the circuit shown in question 1.

a) 1
b) 3
c) 2
d) 4
Answer: c
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z21 is V2/I2 |I1=0. This parameter is obtained by open circuiting
port 1. So we get V2 = ((2+2)||4)I2 => V2 = 2(I2) => V2/I2 = 2. On substituting Z21 = 2Ω.

172. Find the value of V1/I1 in the circuit shown in question 1.

a) 1.25
b) 2.25
c) 3.25
d) 4.25
Answer: b

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Explanation: We have the relation V1/I1=Z11– Z12Z21/(ZL+Z21) and ZL is the load impedance and
is equal to 2Ω. On solving V1/I1=2.5-1/(2+2)=2.25Ω.

173. Determine the input impedance of the network shown in question 1.

a) 4.25
b) 3.25
c) 2.25
d) 1.25
Answer: b
Explanation: From the figure by inspection we can say that the source resistance is 1Ω. So Z in =
(V1/I1) + Source resistance. We had V1/I1 = 2.25. On substituting Zin=1+2.25=3.25Ω.

174. Determine the value of source admittance in the circuit shown below.

a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 4
Answer: a
Explanation: From the figure the value of the admittance parallel to the current source is 1 mho
and this is the value of source admittance. So Ys = 1 mho.

175. Find the value of I2/V2 in the circuit shown in question 7.

a) 7/6
b) 6/7
c) 7/12
d) 12/7
Answer: c
Explanation: The relation between I2/V2 and Y-parameters is
I2/V2=(5/8×1+5/8×1/2-1/16)/(1+1/2)=7/12 mho.

176. The value of the Y-parameter Y22 in the circuit shown in question 7.
a) 12/7
b) 6/7

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c) 7/6
d) 7/12
Answer: d
Explanation: The relation between Y22 and I2/V2 is Y22= I2/V2. We have the relation I2/V2 =
(Y22Ys+Y22Y11-Y21Y12)/(Ys+Y11). On substituting their values in the equation we get Y22 = 7/12
mho.

177. The value of the Z-parameter Z22 in the circuit shown in question 7.
a) 6/7
b) 7/12
c) 12/7
d) 7/6
Answer: c
Explanation: The Z-parameter Z22 is inverse of the Y-parameter Y22 i.e., Z22 = 1/Y22. We got
Y22 = 7/12. So on substituting we get Z22 = 12/7 mho.

Image Parameters
178. A network is said to be symmetrical if the relation between A and D is?
a) A = D
b) A = 2 D
c) A = 3 D
d) A = 4 D
Answer: a
Explanation: We know V1=AV2-BI2 and I1=CV2-DI2. If the network is symmetrical, then the
relation between A and D is A = D.

179. The relation between Z11 and Z12 if the network is symmetrical is?
a) Z11 = 2 Z12
b) Z11 = Z12
c) Z11 = 3 Z12
d) Z11 = 4 Z12
Answer: b
Explanation: For a network to be symmetrical A=D. So the relation between Z11 and Z12 for the
network is symmetrical is Z11 = Z12.

180. The relation between Z12 and Z11 and B and C parameters if the network is symmetrical is?
a) Z11 = Z12 = B/C

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b) Z11 = Z12 = C/B

c) Z11 = Z12 =√(B/C)
d) Z11 = Z12 = √(C/B)
Answer: c
Explanation: For symmetrical network, A=D. On substituting this we get the relation between
Z12 and Z11 and B and C parameters if the network is symmetrical is
Z11 = Z12 =√(B/C).

181. Determine the transmission parameter A in the circuit shown below.

a) 3/4
b) 4/3
c) 5/6
d) 6/5
Answer: d
Explanation: We know V1=AV2-BI2 and I1=CV2-DI2. A=(V1/V2) |I2=0. On solving we get the
transmission parameter A as A = 6/5.

182. Determine the transmission parameter B in the circuit shown in question 4.

a) 17/5
b) 5/17
c) 13/5
d) 5/13
Answer: a
Explanation: The transmission parameter B is -V1/I2 |V2=0. On short cicuiting the port 2, from
the circuit we get -I2 = (5/17)V1 => -V1/I2 = 17/5. On substituting we get B = 17/5.

183. Determine the transmission parameter C in the circuit shown in question 4.

a) 2/5
b) 1/5
c) 4/5
d) 3/5

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Answer: b
Explanation: The transmission parameter C is I1/V2 |I2=0. This parameter is obtained by open
circuiting the port 2. So we get V2 = 5I1 => I1/V2 = 1/5. On substituting, we get C = 1/5.

184. Determine the transmission parameter D in the circuit shown in question 4.

a) 3/5
b) 4/5
c) 7/5
d) 2/5
Answer: c
Explanation: The transmission parameter D is -I1/I2 |V2=0. This is obtained by short circuiting
the port 2. We get I1 = (7/17)V1 and -I2 = (5/17)V1. On solving, we get -I1/I2 = 7/5. On
substituting we get D = 7/5.

185. The value of Z11 in the circuit shown in question 4 is?

a) 1.8
b) 2.8
c) 3.8
d) 4.8
Answer: c
Explanation: The relation between Z11 and ABCD parameters is Z11=√(AB/CD). We know A =
6/5, B = 17/5, C = 1/5, D = 7/5. On substituting, Z11 = √((6/5×17/5)/(1/5×7/5))=3.8Ω.

186. The value of Z12 in the circuit shown in question 4 is?

a) 1.1
b) 2.2
c) 3.3
d) 4.4
Answer: d
Explanation: The relation between Z12 and ABCD parameters is Z12=√(BD/AC). We got B =
17/5, D = 7/5, A = 6/5, C = 1/5. On substituting Z12=√(BD/AC) = √((17/5×7/5)/(6/5×1/5))=4.4Ω.

187. Determine the value of Ø in the circuit shown in question 4.

a) 0.25
b) 0.5
c) 0.75
d) 1
Answer: c

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Explanation: Ø is called image transfer constant and it is also used to describe reciprocal
networks and this parameter is obtained from the voltage and current ratios. We know Ø= tanh-
1
⁡√(BC/AD) = tanh-1⁡√(17/42)=0.75.

Series-Series Connection of Two Port Network

188. In the circuit given below, the value of R is

a) 2.5 Ω
b) 5.0 Ω
c) 7.5 Ω
d) 10.0 Ω

Answer: c
Explanation: The resultant R when viewed from voltage source = 1008 = 12.5
∴ R = 12.5 – 10 || 10 = 12.5 – 5 = 7.55 Ω.

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189. In the circuit given below, the number of chords in the graph is

a) 3
b) 4
c) 5
d) 6
Answer: b
Explanation: Given that, b = 6, n = 3
Number of Links is given by, b – n + 1
= 6 – 3 + 1 = 4.

190. In the circuit given below, the current through the 2 kΩ resistance is _

a) Zero
b) 1 mA
c) 2 mA
d) 6 mA

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Answer: a
Explanation: We know that when a Wheatstone bridge is balanced, no current will flow through
the middle resistance.
Here, R1R2=R3R4
Since, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 1 kΩ.

191. How many incandescent lamps connected in series would consume the same total power
as a single 100 W/220 V incandescent lamp. The rating of each lamp is 200 W/220 V?
a) Not possible
b) 4
c) 3
d) 2
Answer: d
Explanation: In series power = 1P
Now, 1P=1P1+1P2
= 1200+1200
Or, P = 2002 = 100 W.

192. Two networks are connected in series parallel connection. Then, the forward short-circuit
current gain of the network is
a) Product of Z-parameter matrices
b) Sum of h-parameter matrices
c) Sum of Z-parameter matrices
d) Product of h-parameter
matrices Answer: b
Explanation: The forward short circuit current gain is given by,
h21 = I2(s)I1(s), when V2 = 0
So, when the two networks are connected in series parallel combination,
[h11, h12; h21, h22] = [ h’11 + h’11, h’12 + h’12; h’21 + h’21, h’22 + h’22] So, h21 of total network will be
sum of h parameter matrices.

193. The condition for a 2port network to be reciprocal is

a) Z11 = Z22
b) BC – AD = -1
c) Y12 = -Y21
d) h12 = h21
Answer: b

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Explanation: If the network is reciprocal, then the ratio of the response transform to the
excitation transform would not vary after interchanging the position of the excitation.

194. The relation AD – BC = 1, (where A, B, C and D are the elements of a transmission matrix
of a network) is valid for
a) Both active and passive networks
b) Passive but not reciprocal networks
c) Active and reciprocal networks
d) Passive and reciprocal
networks Answer: d
Explanation: AD – BC = 1, is the condition for reciprocity for ABCD parameters, which shows
that the relation is valid for reciprocal network. The ABCD parameters are obtained for the
network which consists of resistance, capacitance and inductance, which indicates that it is a
passive network.

195. For a 2 port network, the transmission parameters are given as 10, 9, 11 and 10
corresponds to A, B, C and D. The correct statement among the following is?
a) Network satisfies both reciprocity and symmetry
b) Network satisfies only reciprocity
c) Network satisfies only symmetry
d) Network satisfies neither reciprocity nor symmetry
Answer: a
Explanation: Here, A = 10, B = 9, C = 11, D = 10
∴A=D
∴ Condition for symmetry is satisfied.
Also, AD – BC = (10) (10) – (9) (11)
= 100 – 99 = 1
Therefore the condition of reciprocity is satisfied.

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196. In the circuit given below, the equivalent capacitance is

a) C4
b) 5C13
c) 5C2
d) 3C
Answer: b
Explanation: The equivalent capacitance by applying the concept of series-parallel combination
of the capacitance is,
1CEQ=1C+1C+15C/3
= 1C+1C+35C=1C(5+5+35)
Or, CEQ = 5C13
123 c Energy delivered during talk
time E = ∫ V(t)I(t) dt
Given, I (t) = 2 A = constant = 2 ∫ V(t)dt
= 2 × Shaded area
= 2 × 12 × (10 + 12) × 60 × 10
= 13.2 kJ.
197. In the circuit given below, the 60 V source absorbs power. Then the value of the
current source is

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a) 10 A
b) 13 A
c) 15 A
d) 18 A
Answer: a
Explanation: Given that, 60 V source is absorbing power, it means that current flow
from positive to negative terminal in 60 V source.
Applying KVL, we get, I + I1 = 12 A..........................(1)
Current source must have the value of less than 12 A to satisfy equation (1).

198. In the circuit given below, the number of node and branches are

a) 4 and 5
b) 4 and 6
c) 5 and 6
d) 6 and 4

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Answer: b
Explanation: In the given graph, there are 4 nodes and 6 branches.
Twig = n – 1 = 4 – 1 = 3
Link = b – n + 1 = 6 – 4 + 1 = 3.

199. A moving coil of a meter has 250 turns and a length and depth of 40 mm and 30 mm
respectively. It is positioned in a uniform radial flux density of 450 mT. The coil carries a
current of 160 mA. The torque on the coil is?
a) 0.0216 N-m
b) 0.0456 N-m
c) 0.1448 N-m
d) 1 N-m
Answer: a
Explanation: Given, N = 250, L = 40 × 10-3, d = 30 × 10-3m, I = 160 × 10-3A, B = 450 × 10-3 T
Torque = 250 × 450 × 10-3 × 40 × 10-3 × 30 × 10-3 × 160 × 10-3
= 200 × 10-6 N-m = 0.0216 N-m.

200. In the circuit given below, the equivalent inductance is

a) L1 + L2 – 2M
b) L1 + L2 + 2M
c) L1 + L2 – M
d) L1 + L2
Answer: a
Explanation: Since, in one inductor current is leaving to dot and in other inductor current is
entering to dot.
So, LEQ = L1 + L2 – 2M.

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201. In the figure given below, the pole-zero plot corresponds to

a) Low-pass filter
b) High-pass filter
c) Band-pass filter
d) Notch filter
Answer: d
Explanation: In pole zero plot the two transmission zeroes are located on the jω-axis, at the
complex conjugate location, and then the magnitude response exhibits a zero transmission at ω –
ωC.

202. In the circuit given below, the maximum power that can be transferred to the resistor RL is

a) 1 W

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b) 10 W
c) 0.25 W
d) 0.5 W
Answer: c
Explanation: For maximum power transfer to the load resistor RL, RL must be equal to 100 Ω.
∴ Maximum power = V24RL
= 1024×100 = 0.25 W.

Relation between Transmission Parameters with Short

Circuit Admittance and Open Circuit Impedance Parameters
203. For a T shaped network, if the Short-circuit admittance parameters are y11, y12, y21, y22, then
y12 in terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) y12 = DB
b) y12 = C−AB
c) y12 = – 1B
d) y12 = AB
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that, V1 = AV2 – BI2 ……… (1)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(2)
And, I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2...............(3)
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2................(4)
Now, (1) and (2) can be rewritten as, I2 = ABV2–1BV1...................(5)
And I1 = CV2 – D (ABV2–1BV1)=DBV1+(C−AB)V2......................(6)
Comparing equations (3), (4) and (5), (6), we
get, y11 = DB
y12 = C−AB
y21 = – 1B
y22 = AB.

204. For a T shaped network, if the Short-circuit admittance parameters are y11, y12, y21, y22, then
y21 in terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) Y21 = DB
b) Y21 = C−AB
c) Y21 = – 1B
d) Y21 = AB

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Answer: c
Explanation: We know that, V1 = AV2 – BI2 ……… (1)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(2)
And, I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2...............(3)
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2................(4)
Now, (1) and (2) can be rewritten as, I2 = ABV2–1BV1...................(5)
And I1 = CV2 – D (ABV2–1BV1)=DBV1+(C−AB)V2......................(6)
Comparing equations (3), (4) and (5), (6), we
get, y11 = DB
y12 = C−AB
y21 = – 1B
y22 = AB.

205. For a T shaped network, if the Short-circuit admittance parameters are y11, y12, y21, y22, then
y22 in terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) y22 = DB
b) y22 = C−AB
c) y22 = – 1B
d) y22 = AB
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, V1 = AV2 – BI2..............(1)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(2)
And, I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2...............(3)
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2................(4)
Now, (1) and (2) can be rewritten as, I2 = ABV2–1BV1...................(5)
And I1 = CV2 – D (ABV2–1BV1)=DBV1+(C−AB)V2......................(6)
Comparing equations (3), (4) and (5), (6), we
get, y11 = DB
y12 = C−AB
y21 = – 1B
y22 = AB.
206. For a T-network if the Open circuit Impedance parameters are z11, z12, z21, z22, then z11 in
terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) z11 = AC
b) z11 = ADC–B
c) z11 = 1C

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d) z11 = DC
Answer: a
Explanation: We know that, V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2....................(1)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2........................(2)
And V1 = AV2 – BI2..............(3)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(4)
Rewriting (3) and (4), we get,
V2 = 1CI1+DCI2......................(5)
And V1 = A(1CI1+DCI2)–BI2=ACI1+(ADC–B)I2....................(6)
Comparing (1), (2) and (5), (6), we
get, z11 = AC
z12 = ADC–B
z21 = 1C
z22 = DC.
207. For a T-network if the Open circuit Impedance parameters are z11, z12, z21, z22, then z12 in
terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) z12 = AC
b) z12 = ADC–B
c) z12 = 1C
d) z12 = DC
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that, V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2....................(1)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2........................(2)
And V1 = AV2 – BI2..............(3)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(4)
Rewriting (3) and (4), we get,
V2 = 1CI1+DCI2......................(5)
And V1 = A(1CI1+DCI2)–BI2=ACI1+(ADC–B)I2....................(6)
Comparing (1), (2) and (5), (6), we
get, z11 = AC
z12 = ADC–B
z21 = 1C
z22 = DC.

208. For a T-network if the Open circuit Impedance parameters are z11, z12, z21, z22, then z21 in
terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as

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a) z21 = AC
b) z21 = ADC–B
c) z21 = 1C
d) z21 = DC
Answer: c
Explanation: We know that, V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2....................(1)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2........................(2)
And V1 = AV2 – BI2..............(3)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(4)
Rewriting (3) and (4), we get,
V2 = 1CI1+DCI2......................(5)
And V1 = A(1CI1+DCI2)–BI2=ACI1+(ADC–B)I2....................(6)
Comparing (1), (2) and (5), (6), we
get, z11 = AC
z12 = ADC–B
z21 = 1C
z22 = DC.

209. For a T-network if the Open circuit Impedance parameters are z11, z12, z21, z22, then z22 in
terms of Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) z22 = AC
b) z22 = ADC–B
c) z22 = 1C
d) z22 = DC
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2....................(1)
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2........................(2)
And V1 = AV2 – BI2..............(3)
I1 = CV2 – DI2......................(4)
Rewriting (3) and (4), we get,
V2 = 1CI1+DCI2......................(5)
And V1 = A(1CI1+DCI2)–BI2=ACI1+(ADC–B)I2....................(6)
Comparing (1), (2) and (5), (6), we
get, z11 = AC
z12 = ADC–B

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z21 = 1C
z22 = DC.
210. For a T shaped network, if the Short-circuit admittance parameters are y11, y12, y21, y22, then
y11 in terms of Inverse Transmission parameters can be expressed as
a) y11 = A′B′
b) y11 = – 1B′
c) y11 = (C′–D′A′B′)
d) y11 = D′B′
Answer: a
Explanation: We know that, V2 = A’V1 – B’I1 ……… (1)
I2 = C’V1 – D’I1......................(2)
And, I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V2...............(3)
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V2................(4)
Now, (1) and (2) can be rewritten as, I1 = – 1B′V2+A′B′V1...................(5)
And I2 = C’V1 – D’ (−1B′V2+A′B′V1)=(C′–D′A′B′)V1+D′B′V2..................(6)
Comparing equations (3), (4) and (5), (6), we
get, y11 = A′B′
y12 = – 1B′
y21 = (C′–D′A′B′)
y22 = D′B′.

Relation between Hybrid Parameters with Short Circuit Admittance

and Open Circuit Impedance Parameters
211. A periodic voltage v (t) = 1 + 4 sin ωt + 2 cos ωt is applied across a 1Ω resistance.
The power dissipated is
a) 1 W
b) 11 W
c) 21 W
d) 24.5 W
Answer: b
Explanation: Given that, v (t) = 1 + 4 sin ωt + 2 cos ωt
So, Power is given by,
Power, P = 121+422√1+222√1
= 11 W.

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212. A constant k high pass p section has a characteristic impedance of 300 Ω at f = ∞. At f = f c,

the characteristic impedance will be?
a) 0
b) ∞
c) 300 Ω
d) More than 300 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: For constant k high pass p section is given by,
Z = R1–(fdf)2√
At f = fd, denominator term is 0.
So, Z = infinite.

213. In the circuit given below, the current through R is 2 sin 8t. The value of R is

a) (0.18 + j0.72)
b) (0.46 + j1.90)
c) – (0.18 + j1.90)
d) (0.23 – 0.35 j)
Answer: d
Explanation: Here, Inductor is not given, hence ignoring the inductance. Let I1 and I2 are currents
in the loop then,
I1 = 2sin8t3
= 0.66 sin 8t
Again, I2 = −jX4X0.75I13.92−2.56j
= (0.23 – 0.35j) sin 8t
So, R = (0.23 – 0.35 j).

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214. Permeability is analogous to

a) Conductivity
b) Resistivity
c) Retentivity
d) Coercivity
Answer: a
Explanation: We know that resistance and reluctance are given by,
R = ρLA
And Reluctance = LμA
So, Permeability is analogous to conductivity.

215. A resistance and an inductance are connected in parallel and fed from 50 Hz ac mains.
Each branch takes a current of 5 A. The current supplied by source is
a) 10 A
b) 7.07 A
c) 5 A
d) 0 A
Answer: b
Explanation: The current is given by,
|5 – j5| = 52+52−−−−−−√
= 50−−√=52–√ = 7.07 A.

216. A triangular Pulse of 50 V peak is applied to a capacitor of 0.1 F. The change of

the capacitor and its waveform shape is
a) 10 rectangular
b) 5 rectangular
c) 5 triangular
d) 10 triangular
Answer: c
Explanation: We know that,
Q = CV
Or, 0.1 X 50 = 5
And it is a triangular pulse.

217. A periodic voltage v (t) = 1 + 4 sin ωt + 2 cos ωt is applied across a 1Ω resistance.

The power dissipated is
a) 1 W

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b) 11 W
c) 21 W
d) 24.5 W
Answer: b
Explanation: Given that, v (t) = 1 + 4 sin ωt + 2 cos ωt
So, Power is given by,
Power, P = 121+422√1+222√1
= 11 W.

218. A constant k high pass p section has a characteristic impedance of 300 Ω at f = ∞. At f = f c,

the characteristic impedance will be?
a) 0
b) ∞
c) 300 Ω
d) More than 300 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: For constant k high pass p section is given by,
Z = R1–(fdf)2√
At f = fd, denominator term is 0.
So, Z = infinite.

219. In the circuit given below, the current through R is 2 sin 8t. The value of R is

a) (0.18 + j0.72)
b) (0.46 + j1.90)
c) – (0.18 + j1.90)
d) (0.23 – 0.35 j)
Answer: d

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Explanation: Here, Inductor is not given, hence ignoring the inductance. Let I1 and I2 are currents
in the loop then,
I1 = 2sin8t3
= 0.66 sin 8t
Again, I2 = −jX4X0.75I13.92−2.56j
= (0.23 – 0.35j) sin 8t
So, R = (0.23 – 0.35 j).

220. Permeability is analogous to

a) Conductivity
b) Resistivity
c) Retentivity
d) Coercivity
Answer: a
Explanation: We know that resistance and reluctance are given by,
R = ρLA
And Reluctance = LμA
So, Permeability is analogous to conductivity.

221. A resistance and an inductance are connected in parallel and fed from 50 Hz ac mains.
Each branch takes a current of 5 A. The current supplied by source is
a) 10 A
b) 7.07 A
c) 5 A
d) 0 A
Answer: b
Explanation: The current is given by,
|5 – j5| = 52+52−−−−−−√
= 50−−√=52–√ = 7.07 A.

222. A triangular Pulse of 50 V peak is applied to a capacitor of 0.1 F. The change of

the capacitor and its waveform shape is
a) 10 rectangular
b) 5 rectangular
c) 5 triangular
d) 10 triangular
Answer: c

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Explanation: We know that,

Q = CV
Or, 0.1 X 50 = 5
And it is a triangular pulse.

223. A 10 μF capacitor is charged from a 5 volt source through a resistance of 10 kΩ.

The charging current offer 35 m sec. If the initial voltage on C is – 3 V is
a) 0.56 mA
b) 5.6 mA
c) 6 mA
d) 5 μA
Answer: a
Explanation: Initial current immediately after charging is given by,
VR=5+310000
= 0.8 mA
Now, i = i0e-t/RC
= 0.8 mA x et10kX10X10−6
= 0.8 X 10-3 X e35X10−310−1
= 0.56 mA.

Series-Parallel Interconnection of Two Port Network

224. If the diameter of a wire is doubled, the current carrying capacity of the wire is

a) Half
b) Twice
c) Four times
d) One-fourth
Answer: c
Explanation: Since diameter is doubled, area of cross-section becomes four times. Current
carrying capacity is proportional to area of cross-section.

225. Consider an RL series circuit having resistance R = 3 Ω, inductance L = 3 H and is

excited by 6V. The current after a long time after closing of switch is
a) 1 A
b) 2 A
c) 0 A
d) Infinity

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Answer: b
Explanation: At t = ∞ the circuit has effectively two 6Ω resistances in parallel.
So, REQ = 6X66+6
= 3612 = 3 Ω
Given voltage = 6 V
So, current = 2 A.

226. The energy stored in a coil is 108 J. The power dissipated instantaneously across the
blades of switch after it is opened in 10 ms is
a) 108 W
b) 1080 W
c) 10800 W
d) 108000 W
Answer: c
Explanation: Power dissipated instantaneously across the blades of the switch is given by,
Power, P = EnergyTime
Given that, Energy = 108 J and time = 10 X 10-3
So, P = 10810X10−3 = 10800 W.

227. A parallel RLC circuit with R1 = 20, L1 = 1100 and C1 = 1200 is scaled giving R2 = 104,
L2 = 10-4 and C2, the value of C2 is
a) 0.10 nF
b) 0.3 nF
c) 0.2 nF
d) 0.4 nF
Answer: c
Explanation: K1 = R2R1
= 10420 = 5 X 102 = 500 Ω
And L1L2=kωk1
Or, kωk1=L1L2Xk1
Or, 10−210−4X5X102 = 5 X 104
Or, C2 = C1kω.k1=0.5X10−25X104X500
= 0.02 X 10-8 = 0.2 nF.
228. Barletts Bisection Theorem is applicable to
a) Unsymmetrical networks
b) Symmetrical networks
c) Both unsymmetrical and symmetrical networks

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d) Neither to unsymmetrical nor to symmetrical networks

Answer: b
Explanation: A symmetrical network can be split into two halves. So the z parameters of the
network are symmetrical as well as reciprocal of each other. Hence Barletts Bisection
Theorem is applicable to Symmetrical networks.

229. The Thevenin’s equivalent of a network is a 10 V source in series with 2 Ω resistances. If a

3 Ω resistance is connected across the Thevenin’s equivalent is
a) 10 V in series with 1.2 Ω resistance
b) 6 V in series with 1.2 Ω resistance
c) 10 V in series with 5 Ω resistance
d) 6 V in series with 5 Ω resistance
Answer: b
Explanation: The Thevenin equivalent voltage is given by,
VTH = 10X35
=6V
And the Thevenin equivalent Resistance is given by,
RTH = 3X25 = 1.2 Ω.

230. A magnetic circuit has an iron length of 100 cm and air gap length 10 cm. If μr = 200 then
which of the following is true?
a) Mmf for iron and air gap are equal
b) Mmf for iron is much less than that for air gap
c) Mmf for iron is much more than that for air gap
d) Mmf for iron and air gap are not
equal Answer: a
Explanation: We know that, MMF for air = B4πX10−7 X 10
Where B is the magnetic field intensity.
Also, MMF for iron = BX100200(4πX10−7)
= BX0.54πX10−7.

231. Two coils X and Y have self-inductances of 5 mH and 10 mH and mutual inductance of 3
mH. If the current in coils X change at a steady rate of 100 A/s, the emf induced in coil Y is

a) 0.3 V
b) 0.5 V
c) 1 V

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d) 1.5 V
Answer: a
Explanation: The emf is given by,
V = Mdidt
= 31000 X 100 = 0.3 V
Hence, the emf induced in coil Y is given by 0.3 V.

232. A 50 Hz current has an amplitude of 25 A. The rate of change of current at t = 0.005 after i
= 0 and is increasing is _
a) 2221.44 A/s
b) 0
c) -2221.44 A/s
d) -3141.6 A/s
Answer: b
Explanation: The current i (t) is given by,
i = 25 sin 314.16 t and didt = 250 X 314.16 cos⁡ωt
Now, at t = 0.005, I = 25 X 314.16 cos (314.16 X 0.005)
= 0.

233. Consider a series RL circuit in which current 12 A is flowing through R and current 16 A
is flowing through L. The current supplied by the sinusoidal current source I is
a) 28 A
b) 4 A
c) 20 A
d) Cannot be
determined Answer: c
Explanation: Current I (t) is given by,
I (t) = 162+122−−−−−−−−√
= 256+144−−−−−−−−√
= 400−−−√
= 20 A.

234. Consider a circuit having resistances 16 Ω and 30 Ωis excited by a voltage V. A

variable resistance R is connected across the 16 Ω resistance. The power dissipated in 30 Ω
resistance will be maximum when value of R is
a) 30 Ω
b) 16 Ω

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c) 9 Ω
d) 0
Answer: c
Explanation: We know that,
When R = 0, circuit current = V30 A
And Power dissipated = V230 Watts.
This is the maximum possible value which occurs for R = 0 Ω.

235. Consider a cube having resistance R on each of its sides. For this non-planar graph, the
number of independent loop equations are
a) 8
b) 12
c) 7
d) 5
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that the number of equations is given by,
L=B–N+1
Where, B = Number of Branches, N = Number of
Nodes Here, B = 12 and N = 8.
So, L = 12 – 8 + 1 = 5.

236. Given two voltages, 50 ∠0 V and 75 ∠- 60° V. The sum of these voltages is
a) 109 ∠- 60° V
b) 109 ∠- 25° V
c) 109 ∠- 36.6° V
d) 100 ∠- 50.1° V
Answer: c
Explanation: The voltages can be written in the form,
50 + j 0.75∠-60°
= 37.5 – j 64.95
So, sum = (50 + 37.5) – j 64.95
= 87.5 – j 64.95 = 109∠-36.6°.

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237. For the circuit given below, the value of z21 parameter is

a) z21 = 0.0667 Ω
b) z21 = 2.773 Ω
c) z21 = 1.667 Ω
d) z21 = 0.999 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: z11 = V1I1 = 2 + 1 || [2+1 || (2+1)]
z11 = 2 + 1 || (2 + 34) = 2 + 1×1141+114=2+1115 = 2.733
I0 = 11+3 I’0 = 14 I’0
And I’0 = 1 + 114 I1 = 415 I1
Or, I0 = 14×45I1=115I1
Or, V2 = I0 = 115I1
z21 = V2I1=115 = z12 = 0.0667
z22 = V2I2 = 2+1 || (2+1||3) = z11 = 2.733
∴ [z] = [2.733:0.0667; 0.0667:2.733] Ω.

238. For the circuit given below, the value of z11 parameter is

a) z11 = 1.775 + j5.739 Ω

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b) z11 = 1.775 – j4.26 Ω

c) z11 = -1.775 – j4.26 Ω
d) z11 = 1.775 + j4.26 Ω
Answer: d
Explanation: z1 = 12(j10)12+j10−j5=j12012+j5
z2 = j6012+j5
z3 = 5012+j5
z12 = z21 = z2 = (−j60)(12−j5)144+25 = -1.775 – j4.26
z11 = z1 + z12 = (j120)(12−j5)144+25 + z12 = 1.775 + j4.26
z22 = z3 + z21 = (50)(12−j5)144+25 + z21 = 1.7758 – j5.739
∴ [z] = [1.775 + j4.26; -1.775 – j4.26; -1.775 – j4.26; 1.775 – j5.739] Ω.

Advanced Problems on Two Port Network

239. For the circuit given below, the value of the z12 parameter is

a) z12 = 1 Ω
b) z12 = 4 Ω
c) z12 = 1.667 Ω
d) z12 = 2.33 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: z11 = V1I1 = 1 + 6 || (4+2) = 4Ω
I0 = 12I1
V2 = 2I0 = I1
z21 = V2I1 = 1Ω
z22 = V2I2 = 2 || (4+6) = 1.667Ω
So, I’0 = 22+10I2=16I2
V1 = 6I’0 = I2

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z12 = V1I2 = 1Ω
Hence, [z] = [4:1; 1:1.667] Ω.

240. For the network of figure, z11 is equal to

a) 53 Ω
b) 32 Ω
c) 2 Ω
d) 23 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: From the figure, we can infer that,
Z11 = 1 + 1X23
= 1 + 23
= 53 Ω.
241. For the circuit given below, the value of z11 parameter is

a) z11 = 4 + j6 Ω
b) z11 = j6 Ω
c) z11 = -j6 Ω
d) z11 = -j6 + 4 Ω

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Answer: a
Explanation: z12 = j6 = z21
z11 – z12 = 4
Or, z11 = z12 + 4 = 4 + j6 Ω
And z22 – z12 = -j10
Or, z22 = z12 + -j10 = -j4 Ω
∴ [z] = [4+j6:j6; j6:-j4] Ω.

242. In a series RLC circuit excited by a voltage 3e-t u (t), the resistance is equal to 1 Ω and
capacitance = 2 F. For the circuit, the values of I (0+) and I (∞), are
a) 0 and 1.5 A
b) 1.5 A and 3 A
c) 3 A and 0
d) 3 A and 1.5 A
Answer: c
Explanation: I(s) = 6s+1–3s+0.5
Or, I(t) = 6 e-t – 3 e-0.5t
Putting, t = 0, we get, I(0) = 3A
Putting t = ∞, we get, I (∞) = 0.

243. For the circuit given below, the value of z12 parameter is

a) Z12 = 20 Ω
b) Z12 = 25 Ω
c) Z12 = 30 Ω
d) z12 = 24 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: z11 = V1I1=(20+5)I1I1 = 25Ω

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V0 = 2025V1 = 20 I1
-V0 – 4I2 + V2 = 0
Or, V2 = V0 + 4I1 = 20I1 + 4I1 = 24 I1
Or, z21 = V2I1 = 24 Ω
V2 = (10+20) I2 = 30 I2
Or, z22 = V2I1 = 30 Ω
V1 = 20I2
Or, z12 = V1I2 = 20 Ω
∴ [z] = [25:20; 24:30] Ω.

244. For the circuit given below, the value of the z22 parameter is

a) z22 = 1 Ω
b) z22 = 4 Ω
c) z22 = 1.667 Ω
d) z22 = 2.33 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: z11 = V1I1 = 1 + 6 || (4+2) = 4Ω
I0 = 12I1
V2 = 2I0 = I1
z21 = V2I1 = 1Ω
z22 = V2I2 = 2 || (4+6) = 1.667Ω
So, I’0 = 22+10I2=16I2
V1 = 6I’0 = I2
z12 = V1I2 = 1Ω
Hence, [z] = [4:1; 1:1.667] Ω.

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245. For the circuit given below, the value of z22 parameter is

a) z22 = 0.0667 Ω
b) z22 = 2.773 Ω
c) z22 = 1.667 Ω
d) z22 = 0.999 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: z11 = V1I1 = 2 + 1 || [2+1 || (2+1)]
z11 = 2 + 1 || (2 + 34) = 2 + 1×1141+114=2+1115 = 2.733
I0 = 11+3 I’0 = 14 I’0
And I’0 = 1 + 114 I1 = 415 I1
Or, I0 = 14×45I1=115I1
Or, V2 = I0 = 115I1
z21 = V2I1=115 = z12 = 0.0667
z22 = V2I2 = 2+1 || (2+1||3) = z11 = 2.733
∴ [z] = [2.733:0.0667; 0.0667:2.733] Ω.

246. For the circuit given below, the value of z22 parameter is

a) z22 = 4 + j6 Ω

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b) z22 = j6 Ω
c) z22 = -j4 Ω
d) z22 = -j6 + 4 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: z12 = j6 = z21
z11 – z12 = 4
Or, z11 = z12 + 4 = 4 + j6 Ω
And z22 – z12 = -j10
Or, z22 = z12 + -j10 = -j4 Ω
∴ [z] = [4+j6:j6; j6:-j4] Ω.

247. For the circuit given below, the value of z22 parameter is

a) z22 = 1.775 + j5.739 Ω

b) z22 = 1.775 – j4.26 Ω
c) z22 = -1.775 – j5.739 Ω
d) z22 = 1.775 + j4.26 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: z1 = 12(j10)12+j10−j5=j12012+j5
z2 = j6012+j5
z3 = 5012+j5
z12 = z21 = z2 = (−j60)(12−j5)144+25 = -1.775 – j4.26
z11 = z1 + z12 = (j120)(12−j5)144+25 + z12 = 1.775 + j4.26
z22 = z3 + z21 = (50)(12−j5)144+25 + z21 = 1.7758 – j5.739
∴ [z] = [1.775 + j4.26; -1.775 – j4.26; -1.775 – j4.26; 1.775 – j5.739] Ω.

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248. For the circuit given below, the value of z22 parameter is

a) z22 = 20 Ω
b) z22 = 25 Ω
c) z22 = 30 Ω
d) z22 = 24 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: z11 = V1I1=(20+5)I1I1 = 25Ω
V0 = 2025V1 = 20 I1
-V0 – 4I2 + V2 = 0
Or, V2 = V0 + 4I1 = 20I1 + 4I1 = 24 I1
Or, z21 = V2I1 = 24 Ω
V2 = (10+20) I2 = 30 I2
Or, z22 = V2I1 = 30 Ω
V1 = 20I2
Or, z12 = V1I2 = 20 Ω
∴ [z] = [25:20; 24:30] Ω.

249. A capacitor of 220 V, 50 Hz is needed for AC supply. The peak voltage rating of
the capacitor is
a) 220 V
b) 460 V
c) 440 V
d) 230 V
Answer: c
Explanation: We know that,
Peak voltage rating = 2 (rms voltage rating)
Given that the RMS voltage rating = 220 V

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So, the Peak Voltage Rating = 2 X 220 V

= 440 V.

250. In the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h21 is

a) 10 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω
c) 5 Ω
d) 2.5 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h21 is given by, h21 = I2I1, when V2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, and applying Kirchhoff’s law, we get,
-5 I2 – (I2 – I1)5 = 0
Or, -I2 = I2 – I1
Or, -2I2 = -I1
∴ I2I1=12
Hence h21 = 0.5 Ω.

251. In two-port networks the parameter h22 is called

a) Short circuit input impedance
b) Short circuit current gain
c) Open circuit reverse voltage gain
d) Open circuit output admittance
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, h22 = I2V2, when I1 = 0.
Since the current in the first loop is 0 when the ratio of the current and voltage in second loop is
measured, therefore the parameter h12 is called as Open circuit output admittance.

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252. The short-circuit admittance matrix of a two port network is as follows.

[0; -0.5; 0.5; 0] Then the 2 port network is
a) Non-reciprocal and passive
b) Non-reciprocal and active
c) Reciprocal and passive
d) Reciprocal and active
Answer: b
Explanation: So, network is non reciprocal because Y12 ≠ Y21 and Y12 are also negative which
means either energy storing or providing device is available. So the network is active.
Therefore the network is Non- reciprocal and active.

253. A network contains linear resistors and ideal voltage source S. If all the resistors are
made twice their initial value, then voltage across each resistor is
a) Halved
b) Doubled
c) Increases by 2 times
d) Remains same
Answer: d
Explanation: The voltage/ resistance ratio is a constant (say K). If K is doubled then, electric
current will become half. So voltage across each resistor remains same as was initially.

254. A voltage waveform V(t) = 12t2 is applied across a 1 H inductor for t ≥ 0, with initial
electric current through it being zero. The electric current through the inductor for t ≥ 0 is
given by
a) 12 t
b) 24 t
c) 12 t3
d) 4 t3
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, I = 1L∫t0Vdt
= 1∫t012t2dt
= 4 t3.

255. The linear circuit element among the following is

a) Capacitor
b) Inductor
c) Resistor

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d) Inductor &
Capacitor Answer: c
Explanation: A linear circuit element does not change their value with voltage or current. The
resistance is only one among the others does not change its value with voltage or current.

256. Consider a circuit having resistance 10 kΩ, excited by voltage 5 V and an ideal switch S. If
the switch is repeatedly closed for 2 ms and opened for 2 ms, the average value of i(t) is

a) 0.25 mA
b) 0.35 mA
c) 0.125 mA
d) 1 mA
Answer: c
Explanation: Since i = 510×2X10−3 = 0.25 × 10-3 = 0.25 mA.
As the switch is repeatedly close, then i (t) will be a square wave.
So average value of electric current is (0.252) = 0.125 mA.

257. In the circuit given below the value of resistance Req is

a) 10 Ω
b) 11.86 Ω
c) 11.18 Ω
d) 25 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: The circuit is as shown in figure below.
Req = 5 + 10(Req+5)10+5+Req
Or, R2eq + 15Req = 5Req + 75 + 10Req + 50
Or, Req=125−−−√ = 11.18 Ω.

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258. A particular electric current is made up of two components a 10 A, a sine wave of

peak value 14.14 A. The average value of electric current is
a) 0
b) 24.14 A
c) 10 A
d) 14.14 A
Answer: c
Explanation: Average dc electric current = 10 A.
Average ac electric current = 0 A since it is alternating in nature.
Average electric current = 10 + 0 = 10 A.

259. Given that, R1 = 36 Ω and R2 = 75 Ω, each having tolerance of ±5% are connected in series.
The value of resultant resistance is
a) 111 ± 0 Ω
b) 111 ± 2.77 Ω
c) 111 ± 5.55 Ω
d) 111 ± 7.23 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: R1 = 36 ± 5% = 36 ± 1.8 Ω
R2 = 75 ± 5% = 75 ± 3.75 Ω
∴ R1 + R2 = 111 ± 5.55 Ω.

260. Consider a circuit having a charge of 600 C, which is delivered to 100 V source in a
1 minute. The value of Voltage source V is
a) 30 V
b) 60 V
c) 120 V
d) 240 V
Answer: d
Explanation: In order for 600 C charges to be delivered to 100 V source, the electric current must
be in reverse clockwise direction.
Now, I = dQdt
= 60060 = 10 A
Applying KVL we get
V1 + 60 – 100 = 10 × 20 ⇒ V1 = 240 V.

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261. The energy required to charge a 10 μF capacitor to 100 V is

a) 0.01 J
b) 0.05 J
c) 5 X 10-9 J
d) 10 X 10-9 J
Answer: b
Explanation: E = 12 CV2
= 5 X 10-6 X 1002
= 0.05 J.

262. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h11 is

a) 75 Ω
b) 80 Ω
c) 90 Ω
d) 105 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h11 is given by, h11 = V1I1, when V2=0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, we get,
V1 = I1 ((50||50) + 50)
= I1 ((50×5050+50)+50)
= 75I1
∴ V1I1 = 75.
Hence h11 = 75 Ω.

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263. For the circuit given below, the value of the hybrid parameter h21 is

a) 0.6 Ω
b) 0.5 Ω
c) 0.3 Ω
d) 0.2 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: Hybrid parameter h21 is given by, h21 = I2I1, when V2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, and applying Kirchhoff’s law, we get,
-50 I2 – (I2 – I1)50 = 0
Or, -I2 = I2 – I1
Or, -2I2 = -I1
∴ I2I1=12
Hence h21 = 0.5 Ω.

264. For the circuit given below, the value of the Inverse hybrid parameter g11 is

a) 0.133 Ω

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b) 0.025 Ω
c) 0.3 Ω
d) 0.25 Ω
Answer: a
Explanation: Inverse Hybrid parameter g11 is given by, g11 = I1V1, when I2 = 0.
Therefore short circuiting the terminal Y-Y’, we get,
V1 = I1 ((5||5) + 5)
= I1 ((5×55+5)+5)
= 7.5I1
∴ I1V1=17.5 = 0.133 Ω
Hence g11 = 0.133 Ω.

265.lerance. What is the tolerance limit for a series network?

a) 9%
b) 12.04%
c) 8.67%
d) 6.67%
Answer: d
Explanation: Error in 10 kΩ resistance = 10 × 5100 = 0.5 kΩ
Error in 5 kΩ resistance = 5 × 10100 = 5 kΩ
Total measurement resistance = 10 + 0.5 + 5 + 0.5 = 16 kΩ
Original resistance = 10 + 5 = 15 kΩ
Error = 16−1515 × 100 = 115 × 100 = 6.67%.

266.. A 200 μA ammeter has an internal resistance of 200 Ω. The range is to be extended to
500μA. The shunt required is of resistance
a) 20.0 Ω
b) 22.22 Ω
c) 25.0 Ω
d) 50.0 Ω
Answer: c
Explanation: Ish Rsh = Im Rm
Ish = I – Im or, IIm–1=RmRsh
Now, m = IIm
Or, m – 1 = RmRsh
∴Rsh = 25 Ω.

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267. A voltmeter has a sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V reads 200 V on its 300 V scale. When
connected across an unknown resistor in series with a millimeter, it reads 10 mA. The error due
to the loading effect of the voltmeter is
a) 3.33%
b) 6.67%
c) 13.34%
d) 13.67%
Answer: b
Explanation: RT = VTIT
VT = 200 V, IT = 10 A
So, RT = 20 kΩ
Resistance of voltmeter,
RV = 1000 × 300 = 300 kΩ
Voltmeter is in parallel with unknown resistor,
RX = RTRVRT–RV=20×300280 = 21.43 kΩ
Percentage error = Actual−ApparentActual × 100
= 21.43−2021.43 × 100 = 6.67%.

Filter Networks
268. The value of one decibel is equal
to? a) 0.115 N
b) 0.125 N
c) 0.135 N
d) 0.145 N
Answer: a
Explanation: The value of one decibel is equal to 0.115 N. One decibel = 0.115 N where N is the
number of nepers and N = loge(V1/V2).

269. A filter which passes without attenuation all frequencies up to the cut-off frequency fc and
attenuates all other frequencies greater than fc is called?
a) high pass filter
b) low pass filter
c) band elimination filter
d) band pass
filter Answer: b
Explanation: A filter is called a low pass filter if it passes all frequencies up to the cut-off

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frequency fc without attenuation and attenuates all other frequencies greater than fc. This
transmits currents of all frequencies from zero up to the cut-off frequency.

270. A filter which attenuates all frequencies below a designated cut-off frequency fc and passes
all other frequencies greater than fc is called?
a) band elimination filter
b) band pass filter
c) low pass filter
d) high pass filter
Answer: d
Explanation: A filter is called high pass filter if attenuates all frequencies below a designated cut-
off frequency fc and passes all other frequencies greater than fc. Thus the pass band of this filter
is the frequency range above fc and the stop band is the frequency range below fc.

271. A filter that passes frequencies between two designated cut-off frequencies and
attenuates all other frequencies is called?
a) high pass filter
b) band elimination filter
c) band pass filter
d) low pass filter
Answer: c
Explanation: A band pass filter passes frequencies between two designated cut-off frequencies
and attenuates all other frequencies. A band pass filter has two cut-off frequencies and will have
the pass band f2-f1; f1 is the lower cut-off frequency, f2 is the upper cut-off frequency.

272. A filter that passes all frequencies lying outside a certain range, while it attenuates
all frequencies between the two designated frequencies is called?
a) low pass filter
b) high pass filter
c) band elimination filter
d) band pass
filter Answer: c
Explanation: A band elimination filter passes all frequencies lying outside a certain range, while
it attenuates all frequencies between the two designated frequencies. It is also referred to as
band stop filter.

273. The expression of the characteristic impedance of a symmetrical T-section is?

a) ZOT=√(Z12/4-Z1Z2)

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b) ZOT=√(Z12/4+Z1)
c) ZOT=√(Z12/4+Z2)
d) ZOT=√(Z12/4+Z1Z2)
Answer: d
Explanation: For a T-section, the value of input impedance when it is terminated in Z o is
Zin=(Z1/2)+(Z2((Z1/2)+Zo))/((Z1/2)+Z2+Zo) and Zin=Zo. On solving, the expression of the
characteristic impedance of a symmetrical T-section is ZOT=√(Z12/4+Z1Z2).

274. The expression of the open circuit impedance Zoc is?

a) Zoc=Z1/2+Z2
b) Zoc=Z2/2+Z2
c) Zoc=Z1/2+Z1
d) Zoc=Z1/2-Z2
Answer: a
Explanation: On open circuiting the port 2 of T-section, we get the expression of the open circuit
impedance Zoc as Zoc=Z1/2+Z2.

275. The expression of short circuit impedance Zsc is?

a) Zsc=(Z12-4Z1Z2)/(2Z1-4Z2)
b) Zsc=(Z12+4Z1Z2)/(2Z1+4Z2)
c) Zsc=(Z12-4Z1Z2)/(2Z1+4Z2)
d) Zsc=(Z12+4Z1Z2)/(2Z1-4Z2)
Answer: b
Explanation: On short circuiting the port 2 of T-section, we get the expression of short circuit
impedance Zsc as Zsc=(Z1/2)+((Z1/2)xZ2)/((Z1/2)+Z2). On solving we get
Zsc=(Z12+4Z1Z2)/(2Z1+4Z2).

Classification of Pass Band and Stop Band

276. The relation between α, β, ϒ is?
a) α = ϒ + jβ
b) ϒ = α + jβ
c) β = ϒ + jα
d) α = β + jϒ
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that the propogation constant is a complex function and the real part of
the complex propogation constant is a measure of the change in magnitude of the current or
voltage in the network known as attenuation constant and imaginary part is a measure of the

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difference in phase between the input and output currents or voltages known as phase shift
constant. ϒ = α + jβ.

277. If Z1, Z2 are same type of reactance, then |Z1/4 Z2| is real, then?
a) |Z1/4 Z2|=0
b) |Z1/4 Z2| < 0
c) |Z1/4 Z2| > 0
d) | Z1/4 Z2|>= 0
Answer: c
Explanation: If Z1 and Z2 are same type of reactances, then √(Z1/4 Z2) should be always positive
implies that |Z1/4 Z2|>0.

278. The value of α if Z1, Z2 are same type of reactance?

a) 0
b) π/2
c) π
d) 2π
Answer: a
Explanation: As sinhα/2 cos⁡β/2=0 and coshα/2 sin⁡β/2=x, the value of α if Z1, Z2 are same type
of reactance is α= 0.

279. The value of β if Z1, Z2 are same type of reactance?

a) 2π
b) π
c) π/2
d) 0
Answer: b
Explanation: The value of β if Z1, Z2 are same type of reactances, then
sinhα/2 cos⁡β/2=0 and coshα/2 sin⁡β/2=x. So the value of β is β= π.

280. The relation between Zoπ, Z1, Z2, ZoT is?

a) ZoT = Z1Z2/Zoπ
b) Zoπ = Z1Z2/ZoT
c) ZoT = Z1Z1/Zoπ
d) ZoT = Z2Z2/Zoπ
Answer: b
Explanation: The characteristic impedance of a symmetrical π-section can be expressed in terms
of T. Zoπ = Z1Z2/ZoT.

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Constant-K Low Pass Filter

281. A network either T or π, is said to be of the constant-k type if Z1 and Z2 of the network
satisfy the relation?
a) Z1Z2 = k
b) Z1Z2 = k2
c) Z1Z2 = k3
d) Z1Z2 = k4
Answer: b
Explanation: Z1,Z2 are inverse if their product is a constant, independent of frequency, k is real
constant, that is the resistance. k is often termed as design impedance or nominal impedance
of the constant k-filter.

282. In the circuit shown below, find the value of Z1.

a) jωL
b) 2 jωL
c) jωL/2
d) 4 jωL
Answer: a
Explanation: The constant k, T or π type filter is also known as the prototype because other more
complex networks can be derived from it. From the given figure, the value of Z1 is jωL.

283. In the circuit shown in the question 2, find the value of Z2.
a) jωC
b) 2 jωC
c) 1/jωC
d) 1/2 jωC
Answer: c
Explanation: From the prototype T section and prototype π section shown in figures, we get the
value of Z2 is 1/jωC.

284. The value of Z1Z2 in the circuit shown in the question 2 is?
a) L/C

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b) C/L
c) 1/LC
d) LC
Answer: a
Explanation: Z1 = jωL and Z2 = 1/jωC. So the product Z1Z2 is jωL x 1/jωC = L/C.

285. Determine the value of k in the circuit shown in the question 2.

a) √LC
b) √((L/C) )
c) √((C/L) )
d) √((1/CL) )
Answer: b
Explanation: We got Z1Z2 = L/C. And we know Z1Z2= k2. So k2 = L/C. So the value of k is
√(L/C).

286. The cut-off frequency of the constant k-low pass filter is?
a) 1/√LC
b) 1/(π√LC)
c) √LC
d) π√LC
Answer: b
Explanation: Z1/4Z2 = 0. Z1 = jωL and Z2 = 1/jωC. On solving the cut-off frequency of the
constant k-low pass filter is fc= 1/(π√LC).

287. The value of β in the attenuation band of constant k-low pass filter is?
a) 0
b) π
c) π/2
d) π/4
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that in the attenuation band, Z1/4Z2 < -1 i.e., f/fc < 1. So the value of β in
the pass band of constant k-low pass filter is β= π.

288. The value of α in the pass band of constant k-low pass filter is?
a) π
b) π/4
c) π/2
d) 0

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Answer: d
Explanation: We know that in the pass band, the condition is -1 < Z1/4Z2 < 0. So α= π.

Attenuators

289. The attenuation in dB in terms of input power (P1) and output power (P2) is?
a) log10 (P1/P2)
b)10 log10 (P1/P2)
c) log10 (P2/P1)
d) 10 log10 (P2/P1)
Answer: b
Explanation: The increase or decrease in power due to insertion or substitution of a new element
in a network can be conveniently expressed in decibels or in nepers. The attenuation in dB in
terms of input power (P1) and output power (P2) is Attenuation in dB = 10 log10 (P1/P2).

290. If V1 is the voltage at port 1 and V2 is the voltage at port 2, then the attenuation in dB is?
a) 20 log10 (V1/V2)
b) 10 log10 (V1/V2)
c) 20 log10 (V2/V1)
d) 10 log10 (V2/V1)
Answer: a
Explanation: If V1 is the voltage at port 1 and V2 is the voltage at port 2, then the attenuation in
dB is Attenuation in dB =20 log10 (V1/V2) where V1 is the voltage at port 1 and V2 is the voltage
at port 2.

291. What is the attenuation in dB assuming I1 is the input current and I2 is the output current
leaving the port?
a) 10 log10 (I1/I2)
b) 10 log10 (I2/I1)
c) 20 log10 (I2/I1)
d) 20 log10 (I1/I2)
Answer: d
Explanation: Assuming I1 is the input current and I2 is the output current leaving the port, the
attenuation in dB is Attenuation in dB =20 log10 (I1/I2) where I1 is the input current and I2 is the
output current leaving the port.

292. The value of one decibel is equal to?

a) log10 (N)

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b) 10 log10 (N)
c) 20 log10 (N)
d) 40 log10 (N)
Answer: c
Explanation: The value of one decibel is equal to 20 log10 (N). One decibel = 20 log10 (N) where
N is the attenuation.

293. The value of N in dB is?

a) N= anti log (dB)
b) N= anti log(dB/10)
c) N=anti log(dB/20)
d) N=anti
log(dB/40) Answer:
c
Explanation: The value of N in dB can be expressed as N=anti log(dB/20).

294. In the circuit shown below, find the value of I1/I2.

a) (R1-R2+R0)/R2
b) (R1+R2+R0)/R2
c) (R1-R2-R0)/R2
d) (R1+R2-R0)/R2
Answer: b
Explanation: R2(I1-I2)=I2(R1+R0)
=> I2(R2+R1+R0)I1R2. On solving, I1/I2=(R1+R2+R1)/R2.

295. Determine the value of N in the circuit shown in question 6.

a) (R1+R2-R0)/R2
b) (R1-R2-R0)/R2
c) (R1+R2+R0)/R2
d) (R1-R2+R0)/R2
Answer: c
Explanation: N = I1/I2. We got I1/I2=(R1+R2+R1)/R2. So on substituting we get N =
(R1+R2+R0)/R2.
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296. The value of the characteristic impedance R0 in terms of R1 and R2 and R0 in the circuit
shown in question 6 is?
a) R1+R2(R1+R0)/(R1+R0+R2)
b) R1+ R2(R1+R0)/(R1+R0+R2)
c) R2+ R2(R1+R0)/(R1+R0+R2)
d) R0+R2(R1+R2)/(R1+R0+R2)
Answer: b
Explanation: The value of the characteristic impedance R0 in terms of R1 and R2 and R0 when it
is terminated in a load of R0 is R0=R1+ R2(R1+R0)/(R1+R0+R2).

297. Determine the value of R1 in terms of R0 and N in the circuit shown in question 6 is?
a) R1= R0(N-1)/(N+1)
b) R1= R0(N+1)/(N+1)
c) R1= R0(N-1)/(N-1)
d) R1= R0(N+1)/(N-1)
Answer: a
Explanation: R0 = R1+(R1+R0)/N. On solving, the value of R1 in terms of R0 and N is R1= R0(N-
1)/(N+1).

298. Determine the value of R2 in terms of R0 and N in the circuit shown in question 6 is?
a) R2= NR0/(N2-1)
b) R2= 2 NR0/(N2-1)
c) R2= 3 NR0/(N2-1)
d) R2= 4 NR0/(N2-1)
Answer: b
Explanation: NR2 = R1+R0+R2. On substituting the value of R1, we get the value of R2 in terms
of R0 and N as R2= 2 NR0/(N2-1).

Inverse Network
299. The impedances Z1 and Z2are said to be inverse if?
a) Z1Z2 = R0
b) Z1 + Z2 = R0
c) 1/Z1+1/Z2=R0
d) Z1Z2 = R02
Answer: d
Explanation: The impedances Z1 and Z2 are said to be inverse if the geometric mean of the two
impedances is a real number.

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300. An inverse network may be obtained by?

a) Converting each series branch into another series branch
b) Converting each series branch into another parallel branch
c) Converting each parallel branch into another series branch
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c
Explanation: An inverse network may be obtained by converting each parallel branch into
another series branch and vice-versa and not by converting each series branch into another series
branch and not by converting each series branch into another parallel branch.

301. An inverse network may be obtained by converting each resistance element R into
a corresponding resistive element of value?
a) R02/R
b) R/R02
c) R0/R
d) R/R0
Answer: a
Explanation: To obtain the inverse network we have to convert each resistance element R into a
corresponding resistive element of value R02/R.

302. An inverse network may be obtained by converting each inductance L into a capacitance
of value?
a) L/R0
b) L/R02
c) R0/L
d) R02/L
Answer: b
Explanation: An inverse network may be obtained by converting Each inductance L should be
converted into a capacitance of value L/R02 to obtain the inverse network.

303. An inverse network may be obtained by converting each capacitance C into an

inductance of value?
a) CR02
b) CR0
c) R02/C
d) C/R02
Answer: a

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Explanation: An inverse network is obtained by converting each capacitance C into an

inductance of value CR02 where R0 is resistance.

304. Consider the network shown below. Find the value of capacitance C1‘ after converting the
inductance L1 into a capacitance.

a) R02/L1
b) R0/L1
c) L1/R02
d) L1/R0
Answer: c
Explanation: An inverse network may be obtained by converting Each inductance L should be
converted into a capacitance of value L/R02 to obtain the inverse network. The value of
capacitance C1‘ after converting the inductance into a capacitance is L1/R02. C1’ = L1/R02.

305. In the network showed in question 6, find the value of inductance L1‘ after converting the
capacitance into an inductance.
a) C1/R02
b) R02/C1
c) C1R0
d) C1R02
Answer: d
Explanation: An inverse network is obtained by converting each capacitance C into an
inductance of value CR02 where R0 is resistance. The value of inductance L1‘ after converting the
capacitance into an inductance is L1‘ = C1R02.

306. From the network showed in question 6, find the value of resistance R1‘ after converting the
resistance R1.
a) R1/R0
b) R0/R1

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c) R1/R 20
d) R02/R1
Answer: d
Explanation: To obtain the inverse network we have to convert each resistance element R into a
corresponding resistive element of value R02/R. The value of resistance R1‘ after converting R1 is
R1‘ = R 20/R .

307. The value of the capacitance C2‘ after converting the inductor into the C2‘ in the network
showed in question 6.
a) L2/R02
b) L2/R0
c) R02/L2
d) R0/L2
Answer: a
Explanation: An inverse network may be obtained by converting Each inductance L should be
converted into a capacitance of value L/R02 to obtain the inverse network. The value of the
capacitance C2‘ after converting the inductor into the capacitance is
C2‘ = L2/R 20.

308. The value of the inductor L2‘ after converting the capacitor into the L2‘ in the network
showed in question 6.
a) R02/C2
b) C2R02
c) C2R0
d) R02/C2
Answer: b
Explanation: An inverse network is obtained by converting each capacitance C into an
inductance of value CR02 where R0 is resistance. The value of the inductor L2‘ after converting
the capacitor into the inductance is L2‘ = C2R02.

Advanced Problems on Filters

309. In the circuit given below, C= C1 = C2. The gain of the multiple-feedback band-pass filter is

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a) A0 = R2R1
b) A0 = R1R2
c) A0 = R22R1
d) A0 = R12R2
Answer: c
Explanation: The total output C = CINPUT + COUTPUT that is the gain capacitor.
∴ The total Resistance is equal to the Resistance input and Resistance output.
Again, the total resistance gain = R1R2R1+R2
Hence, the gain = A0 = R22R1.

310. Two network functions are given

below. H1 = 1s2+2√s+1, H2 = 1s3+2s2+2s+1
The frequency response indicates that the filter is
a) Low-pass
b) Band-pass
c) High-pass
d) Band reject
Answer: a
Explanation: | H1 |2 = 1[(jω)2+2√jω+1][(jω)2+2√jω+1]
Similarly, | H2 |2 = 11+ω6
Therefore at ω = 0, 1 and ∞, we have | H |2 = 1, 12 and 0 respectively.
Hence, the filter is a Low-pass filter.

311. A particular band-pass function has a network function as H(s) = 3ss2+4s+3 then, its quality
factor Q is

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a) 34
b) 23√
c) 3√2
d) 3√4
Answer: d
Explanation: H(s) = Kss2+as+b
Then, quality factor is given as b√a
Here, b = 3, a = 4
∴ Q = 3√4.

312. In which of the filter circuits given below, will the bandwidth be equal to the
critical frequency?
a) Low-pass
b) High-pass
c) Band-pass
d) Band-stop
Answer: a
Explanation: Bandwidth can be calculated by considering,
Largest positive value – Smallest Positive Value
Here, in case of the Low-pass filter only, the largest positive value will of course be the
critical frequency, beyond which frequencies have to be blocked. Hence, the bandwidth in a
Low-pass filter equals the critical frequency.

313. In the circuit given below, the Roll-off of the filter is

a) 20 dB/decade
b) 40 dB/decade
c) 60 dB/decade

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d) 80 dB/decade
Answer: a
Explanation: The given filter is a first order Band Pass Filter.
Also, the Roll-off of the filter is depends upon the order of the filter.
For a first order it is 20dB/decade, for second order it is 40dB/decade, and so on.
Therefore, the Roll-off of the filter = 20 dB/decade.

314. The circuit given below, represents which filter?

a) Low-pass
b) High-pass
c) Band-pass
d) Band-stop
Answer: b
Explanation: From the given circuit, we can infer that Roll off of the Filter circuit is
80dB/decade. This Roll-off value is obtained as second order high pass filter followed by another
2nd order HPF results in an HPF.
Therefore the circuit represents a High-pass Filter.

315. A Low-pass filter circuit has a cut-off frequency of 1.23 kHz. The bandwidth of the filter is

a) 2.46 kHz
b) 1.23 kHz
c) 0.615 kHz
d) 3.69 kHz
Answer: b
Explanation: The bandwidth is defined as the highest cut-off frequency to the lowest cut-off
frequency. Here the lowest cut-off frequency is Zero.

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For a Low-pass filter therefore, Cut-off Frequency = Bandwidth of the filter

∴ Bandwidth = 1.23 kHz.

316. For the circuit given below, the Roll-off value of the filter is

a) 20 dB/decade
b) 40 dB/decade
c) 60 dB/decade
d) 80 dB/decade
Answer: d
Explanation: The given filter is a first order Band Pass Filter. Also, the Roll-off of the filter is
depends upon the order of the filter. For a first order it is 20dB/decade, for second order it is
40dB/decade, and so on.
Therefore, the Roll-off of the filter = 20 dB/decade.
Roll of first order low pass Butterworth filter is 20dB/decade.
Now here two stages of second order Low-pass Butterworth filter are cascaded
∴ Roll-off = 20*4 = 80 dB/decade.

317. For providing a Roll-off greater than 20dB/decade/pole, filters with which
characteristics are useful?
a) Butterworth
b) Chebyshev
c) Bessel
d) Butterworth & Bessel
Answer: b
Explanation: Roll off is a term commonly refers to the steepness of the transmission function wrt
to the frequency.
For a Chebyshev filter, the Roll-off value greater than 20. This characteristic feature is useful
when a rapid roll-off is required because it provides a Roll-off rate of more than 20.

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On the other hand, both Butterworth and Bessel have the Roll-off rate less than or equal to 20
dB/decade/pole.

318. In a moving iron meter, the deflection torque is proportional to?

a) Square of the current through the coil
b) Current through the coil
c) Sine of measurand
d) The Square root of the
measurand Answer: a
Explanation: We know that Td = 12I2dldθ
Hence, the deflection torque is proportional to the square of the current through the coil.

319. The filter which passes all frequencies above fc by attenuating significantly, all
frequencies below fc is
a) Low-pass
b) High-pass
c) Band-pass
d) Band-stop
Answer: b
Explanation: A high-pass filter is one which passes all frequencies above fc by attenuating
significantly, all frequencies below fc.

320. The circuit given below represents which type of filter circuit?

a) Low-pass Filter
b) High-pass Filter

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c) Band-pass Filter
d) Band-stop Filter
Answer: c
Explanation: The given circuit is a first order Band Pass Filter. Also, the Roll-off of the filter
depends upon the order of the filter. For a first order it is 20dB/decade, for second order it is
40dB/decade, and so on.

321. The circuit given below represents which type of filter circuit?

a) Low-pass Filter
b) High-pass Filter
c) Band-pass Filter
d) Band-stop Filter
Answer: b
Explanation: We know that the position of Resistance (R) and Capacitance (C) determines
whether it is Low-pass Filter or High-Pass Filter. If R is connected directly to source and the
capacitor connected in parallel to it, then it is a Low-pass Filter and if the position of R and C are
inter change then high pass filter is formed.
Here since R and C are in series and also R is not connected directly to the power source, hence
the filter is a High-pass Filter.

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322. For the circuit given below, the cut-off frequency of the filter is

a) 5283 kHz
b) 5283 Hz
c) 2653.1 kHz
d) 2653.1 Hz
Answer: d
Explanation: We know that, F = 12π×R×C
Where, R = 1200 Ω, C1 = 0.05×10-6 F
∴ F = 12π×1200×C
= 12π×60×10−6
= 1062π×60 = 2653.1 Hz.

323. In the circuit given below, the value of R is

a) 12 Ω
b) 6 Ω
c) 3 Ω

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d) 1.5 Ω
Answer: b
Explanation: The resistance of parallel combination is given by,
Req = 403 – 10 = 3.33 Ω
Or, 13.33=112+115+115
Or, R = 6 Ω.

324. In the circuit given below, M = 1. The resonant frequency is

a) 145.3 Hz
b) 0.1453 Hz
c) 1.453 Hz
d) 14.53 Hz
Answer: d
Explanation: IEQ = L1 + L2 + 2M
LEQ = 5 + 5 + 2 × 1
= 10 + 2 = 12 H
∴ FO = 12πLC√
= 12π12×0.1√
= 0.1453 Hz.

325. A thermistor is used for

a) Over voltage protection
b) Temperature alarm circuit
c) Automatic light control
d) Automatic sensor
Answer: b
Explanation: The resistance of a thermistor decreases with increases in temperature. It is used to
monitor the hot spot temperature of electric machines.

326. The filter which passes all frequencies above fc by attenuating significantly, all
frequencies above fc is

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a) Low-pass
b) High-pass
c) Band-pass
d) Band-stop
Answer: b
Explanation: A high-pass filter is one which passes all frequencies above fc by attenuating
significantly, all frequencies below fc.

327. For a Band Pass Filter, the slope of the filter is given as 80dB/decade. The order of the
Band Pass Filter is
a) 10
b) 8
c) 4
d) 6
Answer: b
Explanation: The Bode plot is a logarithmic plot which helps in fitting a large scale of values
into a small scale by the application of logarithm. Plotting the slope 80dB/decade on the Bode
plot, we get n=8. Hence the order of the Band Pass Filter is 8.

328. In which of the filter circuits given below, will the bandwidth be equal to the
critical frequency?
a) Low-pass
b) High-pass
c) Band-pass
d) Band-stop
Answer: a
Explanation: Bandwidth can be calculated by considering,
Largest positive value – Smallest Positive Value
Here, in case of the Low-pass filter only, the largest positive value will of course be the
critical frequency, beyond which frequencies have to be blocked. Hence, the bandwidth in a
Low-pass filter equals the critical frequency.

329. For providing a Roll-off greater than 60dB/decade/pole, filters with which
characteristics are useful?
a) Butterworth
b) Chebyshev
c) Bessel

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 NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS (ECEG-3102)

d) Butterworth &
Bessel Answer: b
Explanation: Roll off is a term commonly refers to the steepness of the transmission function
with respect to the frequency. For a Chebyshev filter, the Roll-off value greater than 60. This
characteristic feature is useful when a rapid roll-off is required because it provides a Roll-off rate
more than 60. On the other hand, both Butterworth and Bessel have the Roll-off rate less than or
equal to 60 dB/decade/pole.

330. A Low-pass filter circuit has a cut-off frequency of 50 kHz. The bandwidth of the filter is

a) 24.6 kHz
b) 50 kHz
c) 61.5 kHz
d) 36.9 kHz
Answer: b
Explanation: The bandwidth is defined as the highest cut-off frequency to the lowest cut-off
frequency. Here the lowest cut-off frequency is Zero.
For a Low-pass filter therefore, Cut-off Frequency = Bandwidth of the filter
∴ Bandwidth = 50 kHz.

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