and Acceleration Due to Gravity 85

n nder Gravity
M o t i o nU n d e

EXPERIMENT 7
icing a simple pendulum, plot its L-T graph and use it to find the effective length ofsecond's
AIM.

pendulum.

APPARATUS

split cork, thread, bob, Vernier Callipers, stopclock/watch, metre scale

clamp with stand,
a
A

of chalk.
and a piece

THEORY

(called bob) tied to o n e

1. Simple Pendulum. Anidealsimplependulumconsists ofaheavypointmass
inextensible, flexible and weightless string. There is no ideal simple pendulum.
end of a perfectly
afine cotton stitching
make a simple pendulum by tying a metallic sphericalbob to
In practice, we
thread.
Pendulum. The distance between the point of suspension of thependulum
2. Length of Simple
the bob), is called the length ofthe simple pendulum. It is represented
andits C.G. (whichis C.G.of

by the symbol 1.
radius of the
of thread + length of hook of bob + mean

Length of simple pendulum

=
length
spherical bob

1= + h +r
1.e.,
Pendulum. Time taken by the bob of the simple pendulum to
3. Time Period of the Simple
time period of the simple
pendulum. It is represented
called the
make o n e complete vibration, is

by the symbol T.
formula,
The time period is given by the

T-2T

4T

be calculated.
ing the value of Tand g, I
can
Kno
 Comprchemsiue Practical
ical Ph.Physics
86
DIAGRAM

Split Clamp
cork S S

Stand Thread

M 130 cm
Ms 120 cm
M110cm
Table
Ma100 cm
M2 90 cm
M,80cm

Hook
Th
Lab Bob
floor G
5 cm 5 cm
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. (a) Simple Pendulum.

(6) Effective length of simple pendulum, l=l+h+r
(c) Marks on thread.

PROCEDURE
1. Find the vernier constant and zero error of the vernier callipers and record it (ash
Experiment 1).
2. Determine the mean diameter of the spherical bob (as in Experiment 1). Find the mean radis
of the bob.
3. Find the length h of the hook attached to the bob by metre scale and record it.
4. Take a cotton thread about 2 metres longand tie its one end with the hook.
Put ink marks, M, M2, Ma, . o n the thread as distance of 80 cm, 90 cm, 100 cm, 110
120 cm, 130 cm, . . rom the centre of gravity of the bob. These distances give effectiveleng
( of the simple pendulum.
Pass the thread fro
through the two split parts of a cork with the thread coming out jus
80 cm mark.

Tight the two half cork pieces between the clamp.

oraton
Fixtheclamp inastand kept ona table at sucha heightthat the bob isjust 2 cm above the labords
floor
Mark a
point A on the floor just below the position of bob at rest (mean position)
10. Draw a straight line CAB, 10 cm long in direction along which bob will move when os w h e n oscillating

A is middle point of CB.

 a n d Accel ation Due to Gravity
Gravity
der 87
t and
and tthe zero error ot the
he
11 Findthe
least
count
stopclock/watch. Bring its hands at zero
position.
by hand to ove
ver position B on the
t h e bob
M o v e
right of A and leave. See that the bob returns
over
lineBc
without spinning.

returns from C toA

Whenthebo and starts moving to right of A, start the stopclock/w.atch and
c o u n t z e r o .

tawards
towards B to right extreme, returns from
right
e bob goes extreme and goes
towards C to
I4.
hen
left extreme. Whe: bob crosses A from towards C, count one.

In this
count upto 19. Become alert when bob starts the 20th vibration.
Just
a n 20th
wlhen 20th vibration is completed, count 20 and at once
stop the stopclock/watch.
16.
tataltime notingpositions ot both the hands of the clock/watch. This time is time for twenty
vibrations.

s Repeat steps 13 to 18 two times more for same length,

10
19. Move the clamp up by
cm.

Taase the cork pieces and pull the thread out to increase its length by 10 cm. Now effective
length of pendulum becomes 90 cm. Bob will be again 2 cm above the laboratory floor.

1Repeat steps 13 to 19 two times to take in all the two observations for this new length. Repeat

step 20.

22 Repeat step 21 and then steps 13 to 19 to take two observations each for lengths 90 cm,
100 cm, 110 cm, 120 cm and 130 cm.
23 Record all the observations as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS
Vernier constant of Vernier Callipers (V.C.) = ... cm.
Zero of vernier
error
callipers (e):
(i)...cm, ii)...cm, (iit)....cm.
Mean zero error, (e) =
.... cm

Mean zero correction (c) = -e = ... cm

Observed diameter of the bob:
) . . cm, (ii) ... cm, (iii).... cm.
Mean observed diameter, do . . . Cm
Mean corrected diameter, d = do +C = ..... Cm

Mean radius of the

bob,
Length of hook of the bob, h=.. CII
Standard value of g 980 cm =

s
88
Comprehenoiue Practical p
2. Least count of stop clock/watch
= ,S
hysk
..S
of stop clock/watch
=

Zero error GH

Zero correction of stop clock/watch =.. S .

Table for Length () and time (T)

Timefor 20 vibrations
Length of
Time period
.No.
Mean Ts
of Thread Pendulum
20
Obs 1=7 +h+r
(s) (s) (
(s) (ap
(s)
(cm) (cm)
37 36 36 1.8
. 78.4 80.0 35
3.24

38 38 38 38 1.9
2 88.4 90.0 3.61

40 40 40 40 2.0
98.4 100.0 4.00

108.4 110.0 41 42 42 42 2.1 4.41

44 44 2.2
5 118.4 120.0 43 45 4.84

6. 128.4 130.0 47 45 46 46 2.28 5.20

(Note. Observations are given as sample and 2 is taken as 10)

CALCULATIONS
(a) With the table
For each length, write mean time for 20 vibrations,

t= t+tas
3
Write mean values of t in column (3) of above table.

t
For each length, find time period T= s and write its value in column 4 and write vau
alued

20

T in column 5 of the above table.

1-T graph. Plot a graph between l (column, 2b) and T2 (column 5) by taking alon

X-axis and T along Yaxis. The graph comes to be a

straight line.
 and Acceleration Due to Gravity
rGravity 89

GRAPH

Graph between I and T for a

simple pendulum
Scale
X-axis: 1 cm = 10 cm of

5.2 Y-axis: 1 cm =0.4 s of T

4.8

4.4

4.0

3.6

3.2

2.6 90 X
070 80 100 110 120 130
Length of pendulum () in cm

Fig. Graph between l and T" for a simple pendulum. It is a straight line.

The graph is a straight line because,

T2andT2oc1
From this graph, for T = 4, I comes to be 100 cmn.
Hence for second's pendulum (T =2 s) length comes to be 100 cm.

RESULT
Experimental length =100 cm
Actual length 99.4 cm
=

Error 0.6
=
cm

Percentage error = 0.6 x100 = 0.6%

99.4
This error is
within the limit of the experimental error
PRECAUTIONS
1.
lhread should
be strong, weightless and inextensible.
oint of
suspension should be fixed in a igid support.
90 Comprehensiue Practical Physi,
3. Lower faces of split cork should be in same level.
4. Splitting should be perpendicular to the plane of vibration of the pendulum
m.
5. Amplitude should be small to have sin 0 = 6. [when 0< 18°]

6. The bob should move along a straight line.

7. The bob should not spin during vibration.
8. Place of experiment should be free from disturbances of building vibrai

current.
vibrations o
9. Laboratory fan should be switched off.
10. Length of pendulum should include length of hook and radius of bob.
11. Counting should be proper and started from zero.

12. Clock/watch should be accurate.

13. Length of pendulum should be increased in steps of 10 cm to bring appreciable change in
period.
14. Metre scale used should be accurate.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The string may not be weightless and inextensible.
2. Point of suspension may not be
rigid.
3. The amplitude may not be small.
4. The bob may spin.
5. The air currents may disturb vibrations.
6. There may be an error in counting.
7. The stop clock/watch may be inaccurate.
8. There may be delay in starting and stopping the
stopclock/watch.
 EXPERIMENT 1
diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body using Vernier Callipers.
GATM: To measure

APPARATUS

Vernier Callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob)

or a cylinder and a magnifying lens.

THEORY
Nth division of main
O If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of
scale reading (M.S.R.) =N.
scale, then main
with any division of main scale, then vernier scale
If nth division of vernier scale coincides
reading(V.S.R.)
= nx (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier calipers)
= nx (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R. (L.C. = V.C.)

= N+nx (V.C.).

DIAGRAM

c Main Scale
E
8 9 10
3 5 6 7
ululhuluulunluhuluuhunauhunl
Junlhulhu

A
Sphere
Fig. Vernier Callipers-Measuring diameter of a sphere.

PROCEDURE
etermine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier callipers and record
it stepwise.
 Comprchoaiue Practical Phye
34 with the fixed ind the zev
jaw AC and find
in close contact zero
err M
2. Bring the movable jaw BD zero error,
record zero error as nil.
there is no
three times and record them. If
d BBand
between the two jaws A and and ad:.
the sphere or cylinder adjust
place
Tighten screthej,
3. Open the jaws, undue pressure on it. Tighten
without any the
DB, such that it gently grips the body
attached to the vernier scale V.
scale on the main scale. Record
mark of the vernier the
.

4. Note the position of the zero

is called m R
scale reading just before the zero mark of the
vernier scale. This reaaing ()is called main s
reading (M.S.R.).
which coincides with some division
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division on of tP

main scale.
90° for measuring the diameter in a perpendiei
dicu
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the body by
direction.
Record the observations in each ca
7. Repeat steps 3, 4, 5 and 6 for three different positions. et
a tabular form.
8. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
9. Take mean of different values of diameter and show that in the result with proper unit.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers
1 M.S.D. = 1 mm

10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.

1V.S.D. = 10 M.S.D. = 0.9 mm

Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D. = (1-0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.

2. Zero error (i) ... m, (i)... cm, (ii)... cm.

Mean zero error (e) = . . c .

Mean zero correction (<) = - e = . . Ccm.

3. Table for the Diameter (D)

Vernier Scale Reading
Main Scale Total Reading
Serial No.of No. of Vernier Value
Observed Corrected
Reading (N) division n x (V.C.)]
Observations
(cm) coinciding (n) D=N+n D=D,+
V.C.
(a) A OB
1 D, (a)=
b) D,(6) =
(a) A OB
2 D, (a)=
6)O
D, (b) =
(a)A B
3-
D (a) =
C6) D, b) =
MeasurementofLength
35
CALCULATION

Mean corected diameter,

D D,a) + D, (b) + D, (a) + D, (b) + D, (a) + D, (b)
6

RESULT
The diameter of the given sphere/cylinder is... cm.

PRECAUTIONS

1 Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling, if necessary).
9. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.

3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pressure on it
from the jaws).
4 Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least at three different
places.
SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The vernier scale may be loose on main scale.

2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.

EXPERIMENT 1A
AIM: To measure intermal diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter using Vernier
Callipers and hence find its volume.

APPARATUUS
Vernier Callipers, a beaker or a calorimeter, magnifying glass.

THEORY
) For measuring internal diameter and depth. Same as in Experiment 1A
(ii) For volume:
Volume ofbeaker or calorimeter internal area of cross-section x depth
2
or

where, D internal diameter of beaker/calorimeter

d depth of beaker/calorimeter.
36 Comprehensive Practical Ph
DIAGRAM
Phyig
A B

Main Scale

TITTIT TTTTTTT TTTTITTT

5 6 7 8 9 10
0

Beaker

Fig. (a) Internal diameter of beaker.

D
DB

Beaker

Fig. (b) Depth of beaker.

Measurement of Length 37

PROCEDURE

1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e., least count of the vernier callipers and record it

stepwise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error. Do it

three times and record it. If there is no zero error, then record, zero error as nil.

Measurement of internal diameter

3. Put the jaws C and D inside the beaker or calorimeter and open them till each of them touches
the inner wall of the beaker or calorimeter, without any undue pressure on the walls. Tighten
the screw attached to the vernier scale gently.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main

scale reading just before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale
reading (M.S.R.).
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the
main scale.

6 Repeat steps 4 and5 after rotating the vernier callipers by 90° for measuring internal diameter
in a perpendicular direction.

7. Find total reading and apply zero correction.

Measurement of depth

8. Keep the edge of the main scale ofvernier callipers on its peripheral edge. This should be done
in such a way that the tip of the strip is able to go freely inside the beaker along its depth.

9. Keep sliding the moving jaw of the vernier callipers until the strip just touches the bottom of
the beaker. Take care that it is just perpendicular to the bottom surface. Now, tighten the screw
of the vernier callipers.

10. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different positions along the circumference of the upper edge of
the beaker or calorimeter.
11. Find total reading and apply zero correction.

12. Take mean of two different values of internal diameter and four different values of the depth.

12 Calculate the volume by using proper formula and show that in the result with proper unit.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the vernier callipers

1 M.S.D. = 1 mm

10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.
9
1 V.S.D. = M.S.D. = 0.9 mm
10
38 Comprehenstve Practical Ph
v.C. 1 M.S.D. - 1 V.S.D. = (1 -0.9) mm
Vernier constant,
= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.

2. Zero error =({)... cm, (ü)... cm, (ii)..cm.

Mean zero error (e) = . . cmn

Mean zero correction (c) = - (e) = . . . Cm.

3. Table for the Internal Diameter (D)

Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading
Serial Main Scale
No. of Vernier Observed
No. Reading (N) Value
of Observations (cm) division
Inx (V.C.)]
D=N+n Correcte
coinciding (n) xV.C. D-D
1.
D
2.
D
3 D
4.
D
4. Table for the depth (d)

Serial Position Main Scale Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

No. Reading (N)
No. of Vernier Value Observed Correct
of Obs. (cm)
division
nx (V.C.)] N+n d=d
coinciding (n) x (V.C.)

at A
d
at B

at C
dg
at D
d

CALCULATIONS

Mean corrected internal diameter,

D= D,(a) + D, (b)
2
Mean corrected depth,

d=
d, +d +d, +d,
CIn

Volume of beaker/calorimeter
Cm°
Measurement of Length

RESULTT

beaker/calorimeter is cm3.
cms.
The volume of the

PRECAUTIONS

Same as given in Experiment 1.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1.
Same as given in Experiment
 EXPERIMENT 2
gauge.
of a given wire using
screw
diameter
AIM: To measure

APPARATUS

half-metre scale and magnifying lens.

Screw gauge, wire,

THEORY
lies ahead of Nth ditsts
faces A andB, the edge of the cap isic
1. If with the wire between plane N.
linear scale, then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) =

lies over reference line, then, circular scale resa

If nth division of circular scale
= n x (L.C.)
(C.S.R.) (L.C. is least count of screw gauge)
Total reading (T.R.) =L.S.R. + C.S.R. =N+nx (L.C.).
diameter and I be the mean length of the wire,
2. IfD be the mean

volume of the wire, V= t|

DIAGRAM
Wire
AB S H
K

U
R

Fig. Screw gauge measuring diameter of the wire.

Measurement of Length
41
PROCEDURE

1 Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.).

9 Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record it stepwise.
3. Bring the plane face B in contact with
plane face A and find the zero error. Do it three times
and record them. If there is no zero
error, then record zero error as nil.
4, Move the face B away from face A. Place the wire
lengthwise over face A and move the face B
towards face A using the ratchet head R. Stop when R turns
(slips) without moving the screw.
5. Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the cap.
The reading (N) is called linear scale
reading (L.S.R.).
6. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over reference line.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the wire by 90° for measuring diameter in a perpendicular
direction.

8. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 and 7 for five different positions separated equally throughout the length
of the wire. Record the observations in each set in a tabular form.
9. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
10. Take mean of different values of diameter.

11. Measure the length of the wire by stretching it along a half-metre scale. Keeping one end of
wire at a known mark, note the position of other end. Difference in position of the two ends
of the wire gives the length of the wire. Do it three times and record them.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Determination of Least Count of the Screw

Gauge
1 L.S.D. = 1 mm

Number of full rotations given to screw = 44

Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm

Hence, pitchp= 1 =*4 mm 1 mm

Number of divisions on circular scale = 100

mm
Hence, least count, 100 = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.

2. Zero Error. (ii) ... mm,

(i) .... mm, (iii).. mm.
Mean zero error (e) = ... mm

Mean zero correction (c) = - e = ..... Mm.

42 Comprchense Practical Phvsi
3. Table for diameter (D)

Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

Linear Scale
Serial No. of Value Observed
Reading (N)
No. of Circular
Correcte
Observations Scale division on nx(L.c)] D,=N+n D D,t
mm)
reference line xL.C.

(n) (mm) (mm) mm)

a)A OB D, (a)=

D,(6)=
(a)AOB D (a)=
2
D, (6) =
(6)
(a) A B D, (a) =

D,(6)=
CALCULATIONS
Length of the wire, 1 = (). . c , (i). Cm, (ü)... Cm.
Mean diameter of the wire,
n- D,(a)+D,(6) +.... +D, (a) + D,(b)

INIn = . . . . Cm

Mean length of the wire,

Cm
3
Volume of the wire,

V-2

RESULT
The volume of the given wire is . . cmn°.

PRECAUTIONS
1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not byc
2. The screw should move freely without friction.
Measurement of Length 43

3. The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added algebraically.
4. For same set ot observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid back-
lash error of the screw.

5. At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions
and then the mean of the two be taken.
6. Readings should be taken atleast for five different places equally spaced along the whole length
of the wire.

7. Error due to parallax should be avoided.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The screw may have friction.

The screw gauge may have back-lash error.

3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.

4. The wire may not be uniform.

EXPERIMENT 2A
AIM: To measure thickness of a given sheet using screw gauge.

APPARATUS

Screw gauge, sheet (it must be rigid) and magnifying lens.

THEORY
Same as in Experiment 2.

PROCEDURE
Steps 1 to 6 are same as in Experiment 2.
7. Repeat steps 4,5,6 for 5 different positions spread equally throughout the surface of the sheet.
Record observation in tabular form.
8. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
9. Take mean of different values of thickness.

OBSERVATIONS
1. Determination of least count of the screw gauge.

Same as in Experiment 2.
2. Zero Error.

ame as in Experiment 2.
44
Conprehensive Practical Physic
3. Table for the thickness (t) M-

Total Reading P
Linear Scale Circular Scale Reading
Serial
No. Reading (N) No. of Circular Value Observed
of mm) tN+n
Corrected
Scale division on n x (L.C.)] t ttt
Observations reference line xL.C.

() (mm) (mm) (mm)

1 t
2
3 t
4 t
CALCULATIONS
1. Find value of t for each observation and write the observed value t, in column (4a).
2. Write corrected value of t in column (46).
3. Find mean of values of t recorded in column (46).
Mean thickness of the sheet. t - t 2 tt3 +t, mm.
4
RESULT
The thickness of the given sheet is.... mm.

PRECAUTIONS
Same as in Experiment 2.
SOURCES OF ERROR
Same as in Experiment 2.