What is Computer?

A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and
processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output. It
renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can
save the output for future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical
calculations. The term "computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare"
which means to calculate.

A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions

through integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of
programs and represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It
also has a memory that stores the data, programs, and result of processing. The
components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires, transistors,
circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called
software.

It is believed that the Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented
by Charles Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles
Babbage is also known as the father of the computer.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

o Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

o Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and
storage.
o Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a
computer.
 o Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
o Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input
data, e.g., a keyboard.
o Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

Computers are divided into different types based on different criteria. Based on
the size, a computer can be divided into five types:

1. Micro Computer
2. Mini Computer
3. Mainframe Computer
4. Super Computer
5. Workstations

1. Micro Computer:

It is a single-user computer which has less speed and storage capacity than the other
types. It uses a microprocessor as a CPU. The first microcomputer was built with 8-
bit microprocessor chips. The common examples of microcomputers include
laptops, desktop computers, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets, and
smartphones. Microcomputers are generally designed and developed for general
usage like browsing, searching for information, internet, MS Office, social media,
etc.

2. Mini Computer:

Mini-computers are also known as "Midrange Computers." They are not designed
for a single. They are multi-user computers designed to support multiple users
simultaneously. So, they are generally used by small businesses and firms.
Individual departments of a company use these computers for specific purposes. For
example, the admission department of a University can use a Mini-computer for
monitoring the admission process.

3. Mainframe Computer:

It is also a multi-user computer capable of supporting thousands of users

simultaneously. They are used by large firms and government organizations to run
their business operations as they can store and process large amounts of data. For
example, Banks, universities, and insurance companies use mainframe computers to
store the data of their customers, students, and policyholders, respectively.

4. Super Computer:

Super-computers are the fastest and most expensive computers among all types of
computers. They have huge storage capacities and computing speeds and thus can
perform millions of instructions per second. The super-computers are task-specific
and thus used for specialized applications such as large-scale numerical problems in
scientific and engineering disciplines including applications in electronics,
petroleum engineering, weather forecasting, medicine, space research and more. For
example, NASA uses supercomputers for launching space satellites and monitoring
and controlling them for space exploration.

5. Work stations:

It is a single-user computer. Although it is like a personal computer, it has a more

powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor than a microcomputer. In
terms of storage capacity and speed, it comes between a personal computer and
minicomputer. Work stations are generally used for specialized applications such as
desktop publishing, software development, and engineering designs.

Benefits of Using a Computer:

o Increases your productivity: A computer increases your productivity. For

example, after having a basic understanding of a word processor, you can
create, edit, store, and print the documents easily and quickly.
o Connects to the Internet: It connects you to the internet that allows you to
send emails, browse content, gain information, use social media platforms, and
more. By connecting to the internet, you can also connect to your long-distance
friends and family members.
o Storage: A computer allows you to store a large amount of information, e.g.,
you can store your projects, ebooks, documents, movies, pictures, songs, and
more.
o Organized Data and Information: It not only allows you to store data but
also enables you to organize your data. For example, you can create different
folders to store different data and information and thus can search for
information easily and quickly.
o Improves your abilities: It helps write good English if you are not good at
spelling and grammar. Similarly, if you are not good at math, and don't have a
great memory, you can use a computer to perform calculations and store the
results.
o Assist the physically challenged: It can be used to help the physically
challenged, e.g., Stephen Hawking, who was not able to speak used computer
to speak. It also can be used to help blind people by installing special software
to read what is on the screen.
 o Keeps you entertained: You can use the computer to listen to songs, watch
movies, play games and more.

The computer has become a part of our life. There are plenty of things that we do in
a day are dependent on a computer. Some of the common examples are as follows:

1. ATM: While withdrawing cash from an ATM, you are using a computer that
enables the ATM to take instructions and dispense cash accordingly.
2. Digital currency: A computer keeps a record of your transactions and balance
in your account and the money deposited in your account in a bank is stored as
a digital record or digital currency.
3. Trading: Stock markets use computers for day to day trading. There are many
advanced algorithms based on computers that handle trading without involving
humans.
4. Smartphone: The smartphone that we use throughout the day for calling,
texting, browsing is itself a computer.
5. VoIP: All voice over IP communication (VoIP) is handled and done by
computers.

History of Computers

The first counting device was used by the primitive people. They used sticks, stones
and bones as counting tools. As human mind and technology improved with time
more computing devices were developed. Some of the popular computing devices
starting with the first to recent ones are described below;
Abacus

The history of computer begins with the birth of abacus which is believed to be the
first computer. It is said that Chinese invented Abacus around 4,000 years ago.

It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them. The beads
were moved by the abacus operator according to some rules to perform arithmetic
calculations. Abacus is still used in some countries like China, Russia and Japan. An
image of this tool is shown below;

Napier's Bones

It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John Napier

(1550-1617) of Merchiston. In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips
or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide. So, the tool became known as
"Napier's Bones. It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.
Pascaline

Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine. It was invented

between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-philosopher Biaise Pascal. It is
believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.

Pascal invented this machine to help his father, a tax accountant. It could only
perform addition and subtraction. It was a wooden box with a series of gears and
wheels. When a wheel is rotated one revolution, it rotates the neighboring wheel. A
series of windows is given on the top of the wheels to read the totals.

An image of this tool is shown below;

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm

Leibnitz in 1673. He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine. It was a
digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as instead of
gears it was made of fluted drums. See the following image;

Difference Engine
In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as "Father of
Modern Computer". It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple
calculations. It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of
numbers like logarithm tables.

Analytical Engine

This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830. It was a
mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input. It was capable of solving any
mathematical problem and storing information as a permanent memory.

Tabulating Machine
It was invented in 1890, by Herman Hollerith, an American statistician. It was a
mechanical tabulator based on punch cards. It could tabulate statistics and record or
sort data or information. This machine was used in the 1890 U.S. Census. Hollerith
also started the Hollerith?s Tabulating Machine Company which later became
International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.

Differential Analyzer

It was the first electronic computer introduced in the United States in 1930. It was an
analog device invented by Vannevar Bush. This machine has vacuum tubes to
switch electrical signals to perform calculations. It could do 25 calculations in few
minutes.
Mark I

The next major changes in the history of computer began in 1937 when Howard
Aiken planned to develop a machine that could perform calculations involving large
numbers. In 1944, Mark I computer was built as a partnership between IBM and
Harvard. It was the first programmable digital computer.
Generations of Computers

A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer

technology with time. In 1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to
perform the counting. It replaced the gears and other mechanical parts used for
counting in previous computing machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the
previous generation circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory
and power of computers. There are five generations of computers which are
described below;

First Generation Computers

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these
computers, vacuum tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory.
These computers were mainly depended on batch operating system and punch cards.
Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices in this
generation;

Some of the popular first generation computers are;

o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650
Second Generation Computers

The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These
computers used transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it
made transistor computers faster than the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic
disc and tapes were used as the secondary storage. Assembly language and
programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN, and Batch processing and
multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors.
A single IC can pack huge number of transistors which increased the power of a
computer and reduced the cost. The computers also became more reliable, efficient
and smaller in size. These generation computers used remote processing, time-
sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also, the high-level programming
languages like FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were
used in this generation.
Some of the popular third generation computers are;

o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated
(VLSI) circuits; a chip containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements.
These chips made this generation computers more compact, powerful, fast and
affordable. These generation computers used real time, time sharing and distributed
operating system. The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used
in this generation.

Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced
with ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration). It made possible the production of
microprocessor chips with ten million electronic components. This generation
computers used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++,
Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook

Types of Computer

We can categorize computer in two ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities
and size.

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:

o Analogue Computer
o Digital Computer
o Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer

Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is

continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can
say that analogue computers are used where we don't need exact values always such
as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in
physical quantity and generally render output as a reading on a dial or
scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

Advantages of using analogue computers:

o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and

continuous representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help
of transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form
and vice versa.
o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue
computer. It provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors
and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue

computers. It was developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is
made of two rods. To perform the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up
with the markings on another rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations.
It performs integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential
calculations.
 o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming
instructions. Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display
of time, the zodiac, and the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow
users to set the length of the day as per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical
signals flow through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena.
Here, the mechanical interaction of components does not take place. The
voltage of the electrical signal generates the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer

Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high

speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and
1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All
modern computers like laptops, desktops including smartphones that we use at home
or office are digital computers.

Advantages of digital computers:

o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily

whenever you need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the
program without making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
 o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise,
temperature, humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer

Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like
an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can
process both continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert
them into digital form before processing. So, it is widely used in specialized
applications where both analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a
processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into
quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

Advantages of using hybrid computers:

o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the
analogue subsystem.
o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process
huge amount of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a
second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering
applications such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy
research. The first supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:

o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security
reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It
can run in NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration) that can execute any type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for
their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud
system. For example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock
market and bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate
results in brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from
exploring the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and
other pollutants in the atmosphere.
2) Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they
can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process high volume of data.

Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users

simultaneously. They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means
they can execute different processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe
computers make them ideal for big organizations like banking and telecom sectors,
which need to manage and process a high volume of data that requires integer
operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in

the banking sector.
o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper
installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and
input/output terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe
computers. If any error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the
performance.
 o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of
information and data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of

patients in order to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment,
medicine updates or disease updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large
amount of sensitive information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve
data related to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and
affiliated schools and colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and
branches use mainframe computers to handle and execute information related
to their inventory management, customer management, and huge transactions
in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer

It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and

can support 4 to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes
and departments for tasks such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A
minicomputer lies between the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.

 o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:

A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as

follows:

o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly

performs two primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any
abnormality occurs in the process, it is detected by the minicomputer and
necessary adjustments are made accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect,
store and share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the
records of their patients and customers respectively.
o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device
in larger systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central
processor or computer.

4) Workstation

Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific

applications. It has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed
graphic adapters. It generally performs a specific job with great expertise;
accordingly, they are of different types such as graphics workstation, music
workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:

o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for

business or professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a
personal computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and
editing.

Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or
can be used as a workstation.

o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or
computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix
memory errors before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple
internal hard drives to store or process data. RAID can be of different types,
for example, there can be multiple drives to process data or mirrored drives
where if one drive does not work than other starts functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving
parts, so the chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to
do less work while processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose
computer that is designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central
processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and
desktop computers are examples of microcomputers. They are suitable for personal
work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office
work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:

o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.

o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a
time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching
videos, etc.

1. What are the Three Main Types of Computers?

On the basis of data handling capabilities, the three main types of computers are:

o Analog computers
o Digital computers
o Hybrid computers
2. What is a Workstation?

A workstation is a kind of computer that can be used for software development,

desktop publishing, and creating engineering applications. Although a modest
amount of processing power is present in a workstation, it has relatively good
graphical capabilities.

3. What do you Understand by the Term Mainframe?

A mainframe is often very expensive and a very large type of computer. These kinds
of computers have the potential to support hundreds and even thousands of people in
one go. Furthermore, programs can run simultaneously, and concurrent execution is
possible in mainframe computers.

4. What are the advantages of Analog computers?

The advantages of Analog computers are that it represents the data within the
system's range and enables users for real-time computations. These as well carry out
the calculations without using transducers. Analog systems come in different types,
such as Hybrid computers, Digital computers, Castlerock, Electronic Analog
computers, slide rules, and differential analyzers. Each of these has advantages and
drawbacks of its own. Students who need a thorough explanation of each can go
through these on Javatpoint website.

5. What are slide rules?

The simplest analog computer system is the slide. It is used to carry out numerous
mathematical computations. These are made up of two rods. The rod slides off with
the marking on the other rod when there any calculations are made. In contrast,
differential calculations are performed using differential analyzers. These operate
using a wheel and disc system. Through Javatpoint, where correct explanations are
given that are simple for all pupils to understand, they can learn all the concepts
easily.

6. What are digital computers?

All logical operations are completed quickly and efficiently by digital computers.
They work with digital or binary numbers. One of the numerous benefits of digital
computers is that they can store a large amount of data. Digital computers can
simply add new functionality. The cost of these computers is quite low, and the data
processing is done at high speed. The cost is quite low, and the data processing is
done quickly digitally. For further information about the different sorts of
computers, students can consult Javatpoint.

7. What are mainframe computers?

The mainframe is a type of computer that can be characterized as an expensive and

substantial computer system. This is very powerful as they have the potential to
support numerous users at the same time. These also facilitate different program
executions. It provides great performance with extensive memory management and
has a long lifespan. Another advantage of using a mainframe is that errors are often
quite infrequent, but when they do occur, the system automatically corrects them.
They also have a wide range of applications.

8. What do you understand about Hybrid computers?

Digital and analog computers are combined in order to create hybrid computers.
Although the accuracy and memory are close to digital computers, the speed is
similar to analogue computers. Before the process, these kinds of computers take the
analogue signals and transform them into digital signals. These are typically used in
specialist applications that combine analog and digital data. Hybrid computers have
the capability to resolve complicated problems in real-time and contain a very high
speed.

9. Which type of computer has two or more processors and it supports 4 to 200
users at one time.

A minicomputer is a multiprocessing computer of medium size. This type of

computer has two or more CPUs and can accommodate 4 to 200 users in one go.

Computer Parts or Components

Computer components are the essential building parts of developing a functional

computer system. The components that make up a computer are called computer
components. The processor (CPU), memory, and input/output devices are every
computer's three main building blocks. Initially computers were primarily used for
numerical computations because any information can be numerically encoded. The
ability of computers to interpret information for several purposes was quickly
recognized.

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory
Input devices

A computer system's input devices are important because they allow users to enter
commands and data. Keyboards, mice, scanners, and microphones are numerous
examples of input devices.
 o The keyboard is the most commonly utilized input device for inserting text and
queries into a computer system.
o Mice are another common input tool used to move the cursor on a computer
screen.
o Scanners are used for inputting physical documents or images into a computer
system.
o Microphones are used to input audio data into a system for computing. They
can be used for various tasks, including recording audio for podcasts,
participating in video conferences, and creating voice memos for later use.

CPU

A computer machine's "brain" is its central processing unit (CPU). It executes the
calculations and commands required for functioning of the computer device. The
CPU comprises some components: the control unit, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
and registers.
 o The CPU's control unit is a crucial component. It is in charge of reading and
decoding instructions from memory. The right part of the CPU receives and
executes these instructions from the control unit.
o The ALU, often known as the arithmetic logic unit, is another crucial CPU
part. The ALU operates addition, subtraction, comparison calculations, and
other logical and mathematical processes. These operations are carried out
using binary logic, which limits operations to the 0 and 1 digits.
o Registers are compact, high-speed data and instruction storage spaces within
the CPU. They are utilized to store data that is being processed by the CPU
momentarily. Registers are used to accelerate data processing because they are
much faster than other forms of memory, such as RAM.
o The CPU's clock speed is yet another crucial aspect that affects overall
performance. The clock speed, measured in GHz (gigahertz), controls what
number of commands the integral processing unit can process in a second.

Modern CPUs also have additional features like cache memory, virtualization
capability, and a couple of cores in addition to the abovementioned components. A
small, quick memory called a cache is used to store data and instructions that are
utilized frequently. A single CPU may run numerous operating systems thanks to
virtualization capability. The CPU can execute numerous tasks simultaneously
thanks to multiple cores, enhancing its performance and multitasking capabilities.

Primary Memory

The CPU has direct access to primary memory, sometimes referred to as random
access memory (RAM). The data and instructions that are currently being processed
are kept in primary memory. The data and instructions are accessed by the CPU
from primary memory when a computer programme is running. The information is
removed from primary memory once the programme is completed.

Primary memory is classified into two types: random access memory (RAM) and
read-only memory (ROM).

o RAM is the most common form of primary memory and is used to store data
and instructions that the CPU wishes to access frequently. RAM is volatile,
which means that its contents are lost when the computer is turned off. But
RAM can be effortlessly and quickly written to and read from, making it a
really perfect storage medium for temporary data and instructions.
o ROM is a form of memory this is used to store data and instructions that don't
change. ROM is non-volatile, which means that its contents aren't lost while
the computer is turned off. ROM is used to keep firmware and the laptop's
basic input/Output machine (BIOS), that are required for the computer to boot
up and function well.
Other primary memory types, including cache memory, are sometimes used in
computer systems. High-speed memory called cache saves information and
instructions, which might be utilized often. By lowering the time, the CPU has to
wait for data to be received from RAM or secondary storage devices, it is used to
speed up the processing of records.

Secondary Memory:

Secondary memory, also called auxiliary storage, is a type of computer memory that
is used to store data and programs that aren't currently being utilized by the CPU. In
contrast to primary memory, secondary memory is non-volatile, which means that its
contents are not lost when the computer is turned off.

There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives
(HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB
flash drives. These devices have varying storage capacities, read and write speeds,
and different capabilities that make them appropriate for different types of
applications.
 o Hard disc drives are the most typical secondary memory tool in computing
devices and laptop computers. They come in various sizes and speeds and keep
data on magnetic discs. However, solid-state drives employ flash memory to
store data and are typically quicker and more reliable despite being extra high-
priced than HDDs.
o Optical discs are a secondary memory that reads and writes data to discs using
lasers. They are frequently used for data backup, distribution of software, and
other digital information. Small, portable storage devices known as USB flash
drives are connected to a computer's USB connection.

Users can store a lot of data and programmes in secondary memory, which is useful
since it makes them accessible fast and readily when needed. Users can also protect
crucial data from loss due to system crashes or other issues by using secondary
memory devices as backups.

Output Devices:

Output devices are hardware components of a computer system that are used to
show or send data from the pc to the user or any other device. They enable
customers to view and engage with the information and applications the computer is
processing. Speakers, projectors, printers, and monitors are a few examples of output
devices.
o Monitors are the most frequently used output devices used to show data on a
computer machine. They may be used to show photos, videos, and different
forms of data and exist in various sizes and resolutions.
o Printers are another form of output device this is used to print hard copies of
papers and other styles of data. They include inkjet and laser printers and are
available in various sizes and brands. While laser printers utilize toner to make
speedy, high-volume prints, inkjet printers employ liquid ink to produce high-
quality prints.
o Speakers are used to output sound from a computer system. They can be
connected externally or incorporated into the computer system. They enable
users to interact with other forms of multimedia material, view videos, and
listen to music.
o Projectors are output device that displays huge images and videos on a screen
or wall. They are frequently utilized in presentations and other occasions that
call for a sizable display.
Operations of Computer Components

The operations of computer components are given below:

Computer components collaborate to carry out the numerous tasks necessary for a
computer system to run. The following are some of the major operations carried out
by computer components:

1. Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and information

into the computer. Keyboards, mice, and scanners are used as input devices to
help with the process. These tools are used to enter information and
instructions into a computer system. Data is transferred to the CPU for
processing after inputting by an input device.
2. Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful
information. This process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes
the raw data from storage, processes it and then sends back the processed data
to storage. The CPU performs arithmetic computations, logical operations, and
data transport processes.
3. Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to store
data and instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for processing
and also stores the processed data before displaying it as output. The primary
memory, sometimes called RAM, is where the CPU processes the data and
instructions. Hard disc drives and solid-state drives, which serve as secondary
memory, offer long-term storage for data and programmes that are not
currently used.
4. Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through output
devices like monitor, printer and speakers. These devices display or produce
 the results of the processing performed by the CPU. The results are sent to an
output device for display or printing after the CPU has finished processing the
data and instructions.
5. Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of
CPU. The control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right
manner and sequence. The main circuit board connects all the parts of the
computer. It also regulates the data flow between them, ensuring they function
properly and connecting them all.