4 Mythology and Folklore

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Mythology and Folklore
Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES
University Town, Northern Samar
Web: http://uep.edu.ph ; Email: [email protected]
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
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MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE
First Semester, School Year 2020-2021
LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD
All photos are from www.google.com/search

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Module 4
MYTHS AND FOLKLORE
OF
INDIA, CHINA, JAPAN, SUMERIAN &
BABYLONIA, & THE AMERICANS
(USA, PERU, & GUATEMALA)
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Module No. 04 discusses some myths and tales from India, China,
Japan, Sumerian, Babylonia, and selected American territories, to wit: USA,
Peru, and Guatemala.
Introductory part remarks are provided for you, to have a background

of the tales and where they came from. For India, the two (2) famous epics,
Mahabharata and Ramayana were chosen aside from the creation story.
Somehow the epics discuss the role played by the gods in the battle of
mortals.
Creation stories from China, Japan, Sumerian, Babylonian, and the

Americans – U.S.A., Peru, and Guatemala are also discussed. Each tale
provides a narrative of the beliefs of the specific group of people of their
origins.
Discussion of the tales should not be limited to the text. The purpose is
to go beyond the simple stories, as to the beginnings. It should be a
springboard in drawing inferences, analyzing traits and culture, and learning
their sociological as well as political values.
Dr. Leah A. De Asis

Course Professor
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4
Myths & Folklore of India,
China, Japan, Sumerian &
Babylonia, & The
Americans (USA, Peru, &
Guatemala)
Learning Outcomes
4.1 The Epics of India  Discuss the plot and themes

4.1.1 The Mahabharata of the epics;
(Vyasha)  Illustrate in a matrix the
beliefs, traits, and values of
4.1.2 The Ramayana
the Hindus;
(Valmiki)
 Compare and contrast
4.2 The Creation of the Universe Hindu gods to the Greek or
and Human Beings (Chinese Roman gods;
Myths)  Explore other ways in
4.3 Amaterasu (Japan) recognizing the unique
4.4 Bull of Heaven (Sumerian & culture of the Hindus.
Babylonian)  Distinguish Chinese
4.5 The Taming of the Sun literature from Japanese
(Hawaii, USA) and Ancient Sumerian;
4.6 The Children of the Sun  Identify the unique culture of
the societies under study;
(Peru)
 Examine the characters –
4.7 The Creation (Guatemala)
their traits, values, and
4.8 The Woman Who Fell from judgment; and
the Sky (USA)  Write a precise critical
analysis.
Introductory Remarks
Like Greece, ancient India has two (2) great epics, the Mahabharata
and the Ramayana. Both were first composed about 500 B.C. but have been
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expanded through the centuries by many who always enjoyed popularity with
the people. Many generations of priests and philosophers added their
thoughts to the poems to insure themselves future audiences.
“The Mahabharata” is the story of a great war that took place about
1300 B.C. Eight hundred years later, the poet Vyasa compiled in writing the
many tales, songs, and poems commemorating the heroes of that war. During
the 8th centuries of oral tradition, the historical basis of the poem had been
greatly eroded, but even after it was written down the Mahabharata assumed
no final form, many different authors adding passages of moral instruction as
well as their own favorite stories of heroes. In spite of attempts between 500
and 700 A.D. to fix the length and content of the epic, it continued to grow and
now contains over 90, 000 couplets – seven (7) times the length of the Iliad
and the Odyssey combined.
The triumph of virtue is demonstrated in the Mahabharata, as its

heroes overcome many trials
and eventually restored to their
rightful places. The teachings
of the cult of Krishna gradually
came to dominate the epic, the
best-known expression of
these teachings being the
Bhagavad Gita, a long
devotional discourse which the
god Krishna addresses to the
hero Arjuna before he goes
into battle. The Bhagavad Gita, is likely to be more familiar to Western
readers than the rest of the epic, for it has often been translated and
published as a self-contained work.
The Ramayana by Valmiki, is the story of Prince Rama’s banishment

from his northern kingdom into the wilderness of Southern India and his many
adventures there. The story takes place at a time when there were two (2)
kingdoms in Northern India, Kosala and Vidaha; both famed for their piety and
learning.
In this poem, the historical setting is idealized. The poet looks back to it
as a remote golden age. Ayodha, the capital of Kosala, is the beautiful seat of
learning, whose king is an ideal monarch, serving his loyal people. Rama, the
eldest prince, is praised for his fortitude and filial duty. And Sita, his wife, is
the epitome of faithful devotion to her husband. For centuries, the Indian
people have looked up to these heroes as models for virtuous behavior.
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Unlike the heroic and stirring Mahabharata, the Ramayana is subdued

in tone. Reflection upon moral purpose, introspection and faithful endurance
are its hallmarks. And the trials portrayed in it are expressed in terms that are
personal rather than national or divine.
The growth of the Ramayana differs from that of Mahabharata in that it

grew, not by incorporating additional incidents and passages, but by repeating
and varying the same basic story.
4.1.1. The Mahabharata

Vyasa
Vyasa is the legendary author of Mahabharata, Vedas, and Puranas,

some of the most important works in the Hindu tradition. He is called Veda
Vyasa (the one who classified the
Vedas). He is considered one of the
seven (7) Chiranjivis (long-lived, or
immortals), who are still in existence
according to Hindu tradition. It is
said that he was the expansion of
the god Vishnu, who came in
Dvapara Yuga to make all the Vedic
knowledge from oral tradition
available in written form. Due to his
dark complexion, Vyasa was also
given the name Krishna, in addition to the name Dwaipayana, meaning
“island-born”.
Characters:
Character Description
Yudhishtra The eldest of the Pandava brothers, Yudhisthira is their leader
as both king and commander in battle. A bad series of dice
games he plays lands him, his wife, and his brothers in exile
for 13 years, which precipitates a war between the Pandavas
and Duryodhana. Yudhisthira is described as living fully by
dharma, and in turn always has the gods on his side.
Arjuna One of the Pandavas brothers, Arjuna is dubbed the "wealth-
winner." He is the greatest warrior of all the brothers, having
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been trained by his future military opponent Drona. Arjuna is a

skilled archer and popular with women.
Karna Karna is technically the oldest of the Pandava brothers, but
was raised by adoptive parents, and therefore does not
consider himself part of the family. He fights alongside
Duryodhana, and is ultimately killed by Arjuna. The Pandavas
are devastated to later learn that Karna was one of their own.
Dhritarashtra The blind king of Hastinapur who believes his blindness is a
curse upon him, he gives birth to 100 sons who are demons
incarnate. The most powerful of these sons is Duryodhana,
who leads the 100 brothers into war against the Pandavas.
From early on, Dhritarashtra is well aware that fate is working
against Duryodhana, and the blind king pleads with his son
over and over to compromise with the Pandavas, lest he
violate dharma.
Draupadi The wife of the five Pandava brothers, Draupadi is a
celebrated princess who is widely regarded as the most
beautiful woman in the world. During their years in exile,
Draupadi must pose as a maidservant and suffer a series of
indignities, including an attempted rape by one of
Duryodhana's brothers. The humiliation she suffers ends up
being one of the causes of the great battle that
the Mahabharata revolves around.
Duryodhana The leader of 100 demon brothers who are all born of the blind
king Dhritarashtra, Duryodhana is portrayed as living in
flagrant violation of dharma. He is motivated by greed,
jealously, and a desire for retribution, tricking Yudhisthira into
a dice game that ultimately robs the Pandavas of their
kingdom, and gladly engaging them in war when they return
from exile and seek what is rightfully theirs. Duryodhana hides
in a lake after all his warriors are killed, and is ulimately killed
by Bhima. In the afterlife, he resides in hell.
Bhima The strongest of the Pandavas, Bhima is often the brother who
kills the brothers' greatest enemies and protectors them from
their most skilled aggressors. Bhima is often described as
"wolf-bellied" and is ruthless in acts of violence.
Krsna The god who assists the Pandavas throughout the story,
Krsna helps them understand their dharma as rulers and
fighters in the war, and constantly reassures them that any
violent act they have trepidation about is mandated by faith.
His speech on dharma and action to Arjuna is known as the
"Bhagavad Gita," and has been accepted as central to the
Hindu tradition alongside the traditional Vedic texts.
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Drona At the time of the story, Drona is an 85-year-old man who

fights like a 16-year-old. Even though he fights on behalf of
Duryodhana, he shares a close bond with the Pandavas,
having trained Arjuna as a warrior. Like many in Duryodhana's
army, and unlike Duryodhana himself, Drona is a strict
adherent of dharma, and lays down his weapons to accept his
death at the Pandava's hand when he violates his dharma on
the battlefield.
Vyasa As depicted in the story, Vyasa is the narrator of the entirety of
the Mahabharata epic, dictating the tale to Ganesha. The
historical Vyasa is popularly considered to have written the
Mahabharata and is considered one of the seven immortal
beings in the Hindu tradition.
Summary:
Some 14 centuries B.C., the king of a Northern Indian nation dies,

leaving five (5) sons, all the offsprings of gods, in the care of his blind brother,
who succeeded him. Although the five (5) princes are raised along with the
blind king’s 10 hundred sons, a fierce jealousy grows among the cousins.
Yudhishthir, oldest of the five (5), is the rightful heir to the throne, but
Duryodhan, oldest of the hundred, is very ambitious and wants the crown for
himself. His devious tricks lead eventually to the great war which climaxes the
epic.
Arjuna, Yudhishthir’s younger brother, is a skilled archer and receives

armor and weapons from the gods. Each brother is skilled in some area, but,
in spite of their regal birth
and divine lineage, the five
(5) princes and their mother
spend much of their lives in
exile. Duryodhan drives
them from the palace and
attempts to burn them in
their small home, but they
escape and disguise
themselves as hermit
priests. In this guise, and
through Arjuna’s skill in
archery, they win the hand of the beautiful princess Draupadi, who marries
Yudhishthir. With her powerful father behind them, the brother force
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Duryodhan to give them their inheritance. He divides the kingdom giving

Yudhishthir the richest portion.
After his ritualistic coronation, Yudhishthir becomes a powerful and

benevolent king. He is well-loved, but has a fatal weakness-gambling.
Duryodhan exploits this weakness by sending an emissary with loaded dice,
who wins Yudhishthir’s crown, lands, wealth, brothers, and wife Draupadi.
Yudhishthir himself has to become a slave to pay his debt.
Duryodhan greatly insults Draupadi, but his father, the blind former
king, grants her three (3) wishes in an attempt to make up for his son’s
rudeness. She asks for the freedom of her husband and his brothers and
Duryodhan grants it on condition that they go into exile.
For 12 years, the five (5) brothers and Draupadi live as hermits in the
forest. During the 13th year, they conceal themselves as servants in the
household of a powerful neighboring king. On one occasion, during the king’s
absence, Duryodhan’s soldiers raid his cattle. The prince is unable to protect
his father’s property, but the five (5) brothers come to his aid and drive the
soldiers out. When they reveal their identities, the king, in gratitude, gives his
daughter in marriage to Arjuna’s son.
Gathered for the wedding, the leaders and elders from the neighboring
kingdoms support Yudhishthir’s claim to his former throne. He petitions
Duryodhan to return it to him now that the specified terms of the exile have
been fulfilled. Duryodhan refuses.
Both Yudhisthir and Duryodhan now enlist allies from neighboring

kingdom and prepare for a monumental war. As they are drawn up for battle,
the god Krishna appears to Arjuna and attempts to answer his questions
about the validity of war.
After 18 days of slaughter, Yudhisthir is victorious and resumes his

position as king. However, many of his friends and kinsmen, including
Arjuna’s son, have been killed, and the victory is a hollow one.
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How’s Mahabharata so far? Quite familiar, isn’t it? You may

take a moment of break. Enjoy a cup of coffee. And try to re-
imagine the plots of the epic.
Assessment
Kindly answer the items below.
1. What is the main theme of Mahabharata?

2. Give a vivid characterization of each of the major characters. Discuss
the flaws of their flaws.
3. How are the women portrayed in this epic? Elaborate.
4. Do we have living embodiments of Yudhishthira, Arjuna, Duryodhan,
and Draupadi in our present times? Discuss.
5. What moral values have you learned from the epic?
6. Discuss the custom, unwritten laws, and traditions of the Hindus. Write
your comment.
7. Identify the parallel motifs such as betrayals, greed, celebrations, and
others which are found in the epic.
8. Discuss the human truths stressed in the epics.
9. Write compositions on:
9.1 Betrayal and Greed
9.2 Hollow Victory
9.3 Brotherhood/Sisterhood
9.4 Gambling and Consequences
10. How does the epic end?
11. Comment on:
11.1 “I’d rather be in hell with my loved ones than in heaven with my
enemies.”
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4.1.2 The Ramayana

Valmiki
Valmiki is celebrated as the harbinger-poet in Sanskrit Literature. He is

revered as Adi Kavi, the first poet, author of Ramayana, the first epic poem.
British satirist Aubrey Menen says that
Valmiki was recognized as a “literary
genius,” and thus was considered “an
outlaw,” because of his philosophic
skepticism.
He is quoted as being the

contemporary of Rama. Menen further
says that Valmiki is the first author in all
history to bring himself into his own
composition. He was born as Agni to a
Brahmin named Pracheta of Bhrigu
Gotra. Agni Sharma, was his name but was rechristened as Valmiki. He learnt
the scriptures from Narada and became the foremost of ascetics, revered by
everyone.
Characters:
Rama The son of King Dasaratha and Queen Kausalya, Rama is the
prince of Ayodya. He is an avatara of Vishnu, the Blue God
and the sustainer of worlds. He is also a virtuous, strong, and
just man in his own right. He is married to Sita, whom he
loves deeply. He has a strong bond with his brother
Lakshmana as well.
Sita Sita's father, King Janak, found her lying in a furrow on
sanctified ground and decided to raise her as his daughter.
She marries Rama, and loves him so much that she follows
him into exile. She is famed for her virtue and beauty, and is
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regarded as an avatara of the goddess Lakshmi, Vishnu's

consort.
Ravana Ravana is a rakshasa who performed penance for the God
Siva for many years, and in return received a great blessing
from the God: he cannot be killed by any God, demon, or
other divine being. His arrogance combined, with great
intelligence and power, has led him to rule over much of the
earth, spreading terrible evil everywhere he goes.
Lakshmana Son of King Dasaratha, and brother of Rama. He is deeply
devoted to his brother, whom he follows through many
dangerous adventures and quests. He is married to Sita's
younger sister, Urmila.
King King of Ayodhya, father of Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata, and
Dasaratha Shatrughna. Of all his three sons, he loves Rama most
deeply, and tries to shelter the boy from any danger. He is a
good king: kind, just and well-liked by his people.
Viswamitra Viswamitra is a great sage and wise man who was once a
king. Through long meditation, he gained a number of magical
powers. He takes Rama on a quest to defeat a demon and to
lift the bow of Siva, the first step in the future king's great
journey.
Ganga Ganga is a goddess, the daughter of Himavan. Because of
her incomparable beauty, she was given to the Devas, and
she became the Milky Way. Later, Siva brought her down to
earth and she became the river Ganges.
Siva Siva is part of the great trinity in Hindusim, along with Vishnu
and Brahma. He is a great ascetic, and often sits in
meditation. He is able to tame the power of other gods,
devas, and supernatural beings, and he often grants
blessings and wishes to those who sit in dedication meditation
('tapasya'). His wife is Parvati.
Lava Along with Kusha, one of the youths to whom Valmiki taught
the Ramayana that he received from Narada. He is one of the
sons of Rama, but he does not know this.
Kusha Along with Lava, one of the youths to whom Valmiki taught
the Ramayana that he received from Narada. He is one of the
sons of Rama, but he does not know this.
Vasishta Guru to King Dasaratha, he offers religious advice to the king
and the royal family.
Rishyaringa A great rishi; he presides over the sacrifice that King
Dasaratha offers in order to get a son. He is sometimes
depicted as a combination of a deer and a man.
Tataka A beautiful woman who was transformed into a demon
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(rakshasi) when she tried to seduce the rishi Agastya. As a

demon, she drinks the blood of living creatures and kills
anything she can see. In one of his first great acts, Rama
breaks her curse by slaying her.
Kaikeyi The third and youngest wife of King Dasaratha, and mother of
Bharata. She is famed for her beauty. After she saved the life
of Dasaratha in battle, he offered to grant anything she would
ask of him. She later calls in this favor to have Bharata
crowned king and Rama sent into the forest, inspired by the
worlds of her maid, Manthara.
Sumitra Second wife of Dasaratha. She is the mother of Lakshmana
and Shatrughna.
Kausalya The first wife of Dasaratha and mother of Rama. She is the
oldest wife, and very kind and wise. She does not have a
close relationship with her husband, but she loves her son
Rama very deeply. Rama is her greatest joy in her life.
Manthara An old maid of Kaikeyi's. She is a wicked woman, and gives
Kaikeyi the idea to ask Dasaratha to exile Rama and crown
Bharata king instead.
Guha King of the hunters, he rules near the wilderness in
Shringiberapura. He is fiercely loyal to Rama.
Bharata Son of King Dasaratha and Queen Kaikeyi, he is half-brother
to Rama, Lakshmana, and Shatrughna. He is devoted to his
brother Rama, and he tries desperately to undo the damage
committed by his mother Kaikeyi.
Shatrughna Son of King Dasaratha and Queen Sumitra (she drank two
sips from the sacred cup, and consequently had twins). His
twin brother is Lakshmana, and his half-brothers are Rama
and Bharata. He follows his brother Bharata everywhere.
Sumantra Chief counselor of Dasaratha. He is the one who unwillingly
brings Rama into exile.
Surpanakha The sister of Ravana, she is a powerful rakshasi. She
attempts to seduce Rama and kill Sita, but the princely
brothers attack her. She tries to muster the rakshasa army
against Rama.
Maricha A rakshasa, uncle of Ravana. Rama defeated him with a
purifying magical weapon, and he renounced his evil ways to
become a rishi.
Khara A rakshasa, cousin to Ravana. He rules the area of
Janasthana, near the forest of Rama's exile. He is very
powerful, and likes to kill rishis and despoil sacred rituals.
Jatayu A powerful golden eagle who speaks in the voice of a human
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being. He was loyal to King Dasaratha, and pledges his

service to Rama. He dies defending Sita from Ravana.
Kabandha A terrible rakshasa who has the form of a body with no legs or
head -- only arms and a gaping mouth. He was transformed
into this ugly shape by Indra; formerly, he was a celestial
archer. He tells the brothers to seek Sugriva, the prince of
vanaras.
Sugriva The rightful king of the vanaras, a race of magical monkeys.
He was usurped by his brother Vali, and pledges his service
to Rama and Lakshmana if they can restore him to his throne.
Hanuman Advisor to Sugriva. He is the son of the wind god Vayu and a
vanari woman.
Angada A vanara youth, son of Vali and nephew of Sugriva. He is
brave and intelligent.
Vibheeshana Young brother of Ravana. Though he is a rakshasa, he is
wise and good. When Ravana refuses to listen to his counsel,
he joins Rama's army.
Sampati A great golden eagle, brother of Jatayu. His wings were
burned when he flew too close to the son.
Jambavan King of the Riksharaj (magical bears). He is an ally of Sugriva
and Rama. He is known for his gentle wisdom and quiet
strength.
Indrajit The favorite son of Ravana, and his most powerful warrior. He
earned his name after he captured Indra, the king of the gods.
Kumbhakarna Ravana's brother. He is a giant with infinite strength who
sleeps for six months at a time before waking up and eating
everything he can see.
Agastya An elderly and extremely powerful rishi who blesses Rama.
Later when Rama is king of Ayodhya, he comes to Rama's
palace and tells him secret tales about the people he met on
his journeys.
Summary:
Rama, heir to throne of the Kosalas; marries the beautiful Sita,

daughter of the king of the
Videhas. Although he is a faithful
son, his step-mother tricks his
father into banishing him for 14
years and into making her son,
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Eharat, heir apparent. Rama is told of this decision as he is preparing for his
coronation, but he accepts his father’s will without complaining. Followed by
his wife Sita and a brother, Lakhsman, he goes into exile. His father soon dies
of grief.
When Rama’s brother Eharat, who has been absent from home, learns
of his mother’s trick, he is horrified and follows Rama to urge him to return.
But Rama says he has promised his father to live the life of a hermit for 14
years and will not go back until then. So Eharat places Rama’s sandals on the
throne and administers the kingdom of Rama’s deputy.
Rama, Sita, and Lakshman wander from place to place, encountering

many adventures. At one point, they injure a shedemon, who inspires his
brother Ravan, the king of Ceylon, to avenge her. She tricks Rama and
Lakshman into leaving Sita alone in the forest, whereupon Ravan abducts her
and carries her off to his palace. There she maintains her honor, refusing to
submit to Ravan’s propositions.
Meanwhile, Rama and Lakshman wander around morning and

searching for Sita. Finally, a friendly chief with magical powers discovers her
in Celyon and defeat Ravan in a great battle.
News of Rama’s victory reaches his home, the people send for him to
come back. Sita’s reputation has been tarnished because she was so long in
Ravan’s court, but, she undergoes an ordeal by fire to prove her faithfulness
to Rama, and he accepts her again as his wife. They return to Kosala, where
Rama is consecrated as king.
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Since what’s presented is just the summary of the selection, you are advised
to read the full text of the story. You may scan through books or other
references.
Assessment
1. What are the beliefs of the Hindus? Compare/contrast them with our
beliefs.
2. Comment on these spoken lines:
2.1 “A wife’s position is always beside her husband. Don’t leave me
behind. I’ll die without you.” (Sita to Rama)
2.2 “You have only two choices help me carry out my plan or prepare
for death.” (Ravana to Maricha)
2.3 “I do not want to return home secretly, I want Rama to defeat
Ravana and take me back with honor.” (Sita to Hanuman)
2.4 “You bear the stain of a woman who has lived with a man other
than her husband. No man of honor can accept such behaviour in
his wife.” (Rama to Sita).
2.5 “Don’t I know she is pure? I had to test her for the sake of the world
so that truth may be known to all.” (Rama to Agni)
3. In your analysis, what could have been the thoughts of King Dasaratha
to suffer death after Rama’s banishment? Justify your answer.
4. What power does Kaikeyi have which enables her to request for the
banishment of Rama, and the throne for her son Bharata? What about
in politics today? Elaborate.
5. What is an “ordeal of the fire?” If you were Sita would you undergo this
kind of test to prove your innocence?
6. Would you like to have a man like Rama? Why?
7. Write a paragraph or two on:
7.1 Pride and Honor
7.2 Leadership and Sacrifice
7.3 Promise and Blackmail
7.4 Love and Trials
8. Who would be Manthara today? Discuss.
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9. Can we blame Sita in deciding to return a Laksmi? Discuss.
Note: Read the whole text to answer the questions.
4.1.3 The Creation, Death, and Rebirth of the Universe (India)
Characters:
Vishnu in three (3) forms:
 Brahma – the creator

 Vishnu – the preserver of life
 Shiva-Rudra – the destroyer of life
Hindu Concept of Life:
 Reincarnation. Birth, death, and rebirth process

 Dharma. Ideal state, definite pattern of righteous behavior and a way of
civilization
 Unending cycle of time and life
Cycle of the Universe:
 Creation to disintegration to
dissolution to re-creation,
over and over again
Discussion:
Hindu ages reveal the moral

disintegration of society and show
how people bring suffering upon
themselves through their selfish
and unjust treatment of one
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another. The last age is always a time of cruelty, pain, grief, and unnecessary
death.
In the cycle, men start from the beginning which the Hindu calls Maha
Yuga or Great Age. This is the beginning of Krita Yuga or the age of virtue
and moral perfection. During this period, there are no houses; and people live
in harmony with nature. They are unselfish and happy. They work for pleasure
rather than necessity. Sorrow and frustration do not exist. Dharma walks in
four (4) legs.
The second period is known as Treta Yuga which means three (3). It
refers to the fact that Dharma now walks less. Virtue and moral perfection still
exist but they have declined by one fourth (1/4). People during this period are
devoted to the pursuit of knowledge, which they consider the highest virtue.
Greed exists. Greedy people control the gift-giving trees. Life becomes
difficult because the learned and powerful have the control of many things.
People were no longer satisfied. The strong and powerful dominant the weak.
The third period is Dvapara Yuga. Dva means two (2). Eternal Dharma
now totters unsteadily on two (2) of its four (4) feet, creating a precarious and
shitting balance between good and evil. Virtue and perfection still exist, but
they have declined to one half (1/2) that of Krita Yuga. Vishnu is still the ruling
god. In here, disease, misfortune, suffering, and death are parts of human
existence. People are more passionate and greedy. War is a commonplace.
There is deterioration of
moral conduct.
The fourth period is

Kali Yuga or the Dark Age.
Kali means quarrel and war.
Dharma drags along on only
one (1) of its four (4) feet, and
virtue barely exists. This age
is one fourth (1/4) the length
of the Golden Krita Yuga.
The great god Vishnu

is the ruling god, in his form
of Shiva-Rudra, the destroyer
of life on earth. In this age,
people achieve noble rank in
the society based on the
material possessions. Sexual passion alone binds husband and wife together
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in marriage. Sex is the only source of enjoyment. People live in fear of

hunger, disease, and death. Only the poor are honest and the only remaining
virtue is charity. They live in isolation valley to escape oppression.
At the end of 1000 Maha Yugas which is one (1) day of the life of the
world, Vishnu will take on the form of Shiva-Rudra and will destroy life on
earth. The sun will become so hot for 100 years. Heaven, earth, and the
underworld will be burn up. Famine will come. There will be drought then
everything will perish. There will be thunder and complete darkness. Just as
the great flood begins to bury all life, a large golden egg will appear. This egg
contains the seeds of all forms of life that existed in the world before the flood.
As the world drowns, the egg will float safely upon the waters of the
boundless ocean. For the remainder of the 1000 Maha Yugas, that night in
the life of the world, Vishnu will sleep and the world will lie asleep also.
At the end of the long night of 1000 Yugas, Vishnu will be awakened. A
marvelous lotus flower will emerge from his navel and Vishnu will emerge
from the lotus flower in his creative form of Brahma, the creator of life and the
world. The lotus will become the foundation of the three (3) worlds. One he
emerged from the blossom, Brahma will rest upon it. He will open the egg to
begin the process of rebirth. Vishnu will usher in the next day in the life of the
world, a new period of 1000
Maha Yugas, and a new
cycle starts again.
The image of all the

three (3) worlds complete
with gods, demons, and
humans exist within
Brahma. First, Brahma will
bring water, fire, air, wind,
sky, and earth with
mountains and trees upon
earth. Then he will create
the forms of time, as a way
of organizing the universe.
Soon after, Brahma will
concentrate upon creating gods, demons, and human beings. The demons
will be from his buttocks. He will cast off his body, creating the darkness we
call night, which belongs to the enemies.
Taking a second body, Brahma will bring forth the gods from his face.
He will cast off this body as well, creating the lightness we call day which
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belongs to the gods. From successive bodies, Brahma’s power of

concentration will bring forth human beings and Rakshasas, snakes and birds.
Goats from his mouth, sheep from his chest, cows from his stomach, other
animals from his arms, horses from his feet, and plant life from the hair on his
body.
Assessment
1. Identify the beliefs of the Hindus/Indians stressed in the tale.

2. Do you believe somehow in the cycle of life and the four (4) periods of
life as presented in the tale? Elaborate.
3. Compare this creation story from the creation story in the Philippine
folklore.
4. Research on the beliefs and practices of the Hindus/Indians.
5. What is the difference between reincarnation and transmigration of the
soul? Explain.
6. Discuss the events in each of the four (4) Maha Yugas. Are these
happening right now? Elaborate.
7. Name other Hindu gods and goddesses and their functions. You may
write these in matrix form.
8. Do you believe in reincarnation? Elaborate.
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4.2 The Creation of the Universe and Human Beings (Chinese

Myths)
Discussion:
Chinese myths were not so authentic because they were ordered

burnt. Han Dynasty emperors instituted the teachings of Confucius as the
state religion banned religions that involve nature worship. Then later, Han
Scholars started retrieving oral lore, legends, and folktales.
The Chinese have three (3) basic creation myths involving Yin and
Yang, and Nu Kua and P’an Ku (coiled antiquity).
Myth Number I
Yin (shaded) and Yang (Sunlit) arise out of chaos and represent
complementary essences in the universe that one takes together and
comprise the whole. Yin is the female principle in nature – heavy, dark,
earthly, passive, submissive, and cool. Yang on the other hand is the male
principle – light, bright, celestial, active, aggressive, and warm. Yin is the
moon while Yang is the sun. Yin is the earth and Yang is heaven.
In her earliest from Nu Kua is

a great goddess on mother goddess
who functions as an independent
divinity. She creates human form.
P’an Ku is a semi-divine giant.
According to the myth, in the

beginning there was only chaos.
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Chaos gave birth to two (2) gods. They wove the fabrics that became
heavens. They molded that substance that became the earth. The gods
divided their creations into Yin and Yang. Yang gathered to himself all that
was bright and light, and like mist he drifted upward into heaven (round) and
becomes one of them. Yin, the female counterpart, the dark and heavy sank
downward into the earth (square).
Yang hot breath becomes intense, which gives birth to fire or the sun.
Yin’s cold breath becomes water. Her watery breath turns into the moon.
Later, stars spin off from the sun and the moon. Being part of Yang, the sun,
the moon, and the stars all settled in the sky while being part of Yin, rivers,
seas, rainwater, and dust settled on earth.
The complex essence of Yang and Yin becomes the four (4) seasons.
The essence of the four (4) seasons becomes the things in nature.
Substances become hard or soft, the vapor turns into insects and the vapor
which was pure takes the form of human beings.
Myth Number II
Nu Kua, the creator and preserver of human life, the great goddess or
mother goddess, created the first people. She herself was formed like a
human being, except that instead of having
legs, she has the tail of a dragon.
Nu Kua, glides over the earth and

admired all the beautiful forms that have
emerged from P’an Ku’s corpse. She loves
trees, flowers but more interested in the
fish and the animals, for they were more
active. She observes the fish and the
animals and believes that they are not
intelligent. She decides to create creatures
whic would be superior to all other living
things. Nu Kua uses the Yellow River’s
yellow earth of the riverbed to form human
beings. She infuses with Yang and they
become men, masculine, and strong. She
also infuses Yin and creates women –
submissive and frail. She creates other men and women. Nu Kua uses twisted
rope.
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The people whom Nu Kua has fashioned by hand form the rich yellow
earth of the riverbed were high brown, wealthy, and intelligent. Those who
have fallen in drops from her rope were low-born, poor common folks. All of
them start their settlement, build their home and farm in order to survive.
In time, it comes to pass, that Kung Kung, an age-old god gets angry at
another god. Kung Kung rams his head into one of the mountains that support
the sky. The mountain falls and tears a great hole in the sky and the earth
creaks open into many places. It was a horrifying scene. Only few human
beings and animals survived. Nu Kua saves few. He goes to the Yellow River
chooses five (5) different colors of stone. She melted them to cover the
heavens. He repairs Kung Kung’s destruction which results the land to lower
than the rest of China. Rivers flow eastward across that land and into the sea.
Myth Number III
P’an Ku is the creator of the universe. In the beginning there was an

egg like that of a chicken which contains the whole universe. Within the egg is
a chaotic mass. Heaven and earth are identical, always dark. From within this
dark mass, P’an Ku, the first being is formed.
P’an Ku brings order into the universe. He breaks open the world egg.
Yang, the lighter part becomes the heaven and Yin, the darker part become
the earth. He realizes that not life will exist if the heavens are not high. For 18,
000 years P’an Ku goes through nine (9) transformations. He works
constantly to keep the heavens from crushing the earth. He gets tired and has
fallen asleep until he dies.
P’an Ku coprs gives shapes

and substance to the universe. His
head becomes the mountain of the
East, his feet, the mountain of the
West. P’an Ku’s right arms turns into
the mountain on the north, left arm,
the mountain of the south, while his
torso, is the mountain of the center.
These five (5) sacred mountains
define the four (4) corners of the
square earth and its center.
From the hair on the head of

P’an Ku, chin and eyebrows became
the planets and the stars. His left eye became the sun and the right eye the
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moon. His breaths were the clouds and the winds, his voice, the lightning and
thunder. His perspiration and body fluids turned into the rain and dew. From
his flesh came the soil of the earth, his blood and semen turned into ocean
and river. His veins and muscles gave shape to the earth’s surface. His teeth
and bones became the rocks and minerals. The jade and pearl from his bone
marrow. The hair of his body became the trees, plants, and flowers.
The wind that has come forth from P’an Ku’s breath blew upon his skin
turned into fish, animals, and the black-haired people.
Assessment
Kindly answer substantively.
1. From the three (3) myths, draw your analysis regarding the beliefs of
the Chinese and their values.
2. How is Yang and Yin describe? Could you say that the Chinese are not
gender-sensitive? Explain.
3. How women are viewed by the Chinese? What about men?
4. Write a short plot of each of the three (3) myths.
5. Why do you think that in spite of the order to ban nature worship, Han
Dynasty’s scholars became interested in retrieving legends, oral lore,
and folktales?
6. Are there similarities with the myths of the Chinese and Filipinos?
7. Identify them.
8. Write an essay regarding your views of men and women in the present
time. (Center on the roles each plays in the society.)
9. Of these three (3) myths, which do you like best? Why?
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4.3 Amaterasu
Theocritus
Discussion:
Amaterasu, also known as Amaterasu-Ōmikami or Ōhirume-no-Muchi-

no-Kami is the Shinto sun goddess. She is also seen as the goddess of the
universe. As a major deity, she also appears in Japanese mythology,
especially in the two (2) earliest written records,
the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki.
The name Amaterasu is derived from

Amateru and means “shining in heaven”. The
meaning of her whole name, Amaterasu-
Ōmikami, is “the greatest august kami (deity) who
shines in the heaven”. According to the Kojiki and
Nihon Shoki chronicles in Japanese mythology,
the Emperors of Japan are considered to be direct descendants of
Amaterasu.
The Chinese greatly influenced the literature and arts of Japan.
Amaterasu myth is part of the Shinto religious tradition which assumes

that every aspect of nature contains a divine spirit. The myth reflects the
Shinto interest in fertility and rituals. It explains the separation between the
sun, the moon, the origin of food on earth, and the beginning of agriculture
and the silk worm.
The Japanese gods are anthropomorphic that means, they are human
in appearances, thoughts, speeches, and deeds.
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The myth reflects the logical connections that exist between the sun
and fertility. Without the sun, no plants would grow, and without plants, human
being would starve and die and so with the gods for they eat the same food.
Records of the worship of Amaterasu are found from the c. 712

CE Kojiki and c. 720 CE Nihon Shoki, the oldest records of Japanese history.
In Japanese mythology, Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, is the sister
of Susanoo, the god of storms and the sea, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of
the moon. It was written that Amaterasu had painted the landscape with her
siblings while she created ancient Japan. Amaterasu, the supreme Japanese
deity, was said to have been created by the divine couple Izanagi and
Izanami, who were themselves created by, or grew from, the originator of the
Universe, Amenominakanushi. All three deities were born from Izanagi when
he was purifying himself upon entering Yomi, the underworld, after breaking
the promise not to see dead Izanami and he was chased by her and Yakusan-
no-ikaduchigami, surrounding rotten Izanami.
Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi
was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susanoo from the washing of
the nose.
Izanagi set Amaterasu up as the ruler of the High Plains of

Heaven, Tsukuyomi as the ruler of the night and Susanoo as the ruler of the
seas. Originally, Amaterasu shared the sky with Tsukuyomi, her husband and
brother until, out of disgust, he killed the goddess of
food, Uke Mochi, when she pulled "food from her
rectum, nose, and mouth". This killing upset Amaterasu
causing her to label Tsukuyomi an evil god and split
away from him; separating night from day.
The texts also tell of a long-standing rivalry

between Amaterasu and her other brother, Susanoo. When Izanagi ordered
him to leave Heaven, he went to bid his sister goodbye. Amaterasu was
suspicious, but when Susanoo proposed a challenge to prove his sincerity,
she accepted. Each of them took an object belonging to the other and from it,
birthed deities. Amaterasu birthed three women from Susanoo's sword while
he birthed five men from her necklace.
Claiming the gods were hers because they were born of her necklace,
and the goddesses were his, she decided that she had won the challenge, as
his item produced women. The two were content for a time, but her brother
became restless and went on a rampage, destroying Amaterasu's rice fields,
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hurling a flayed pony at her loom, and killing one of her attendants in a fit of
rage. Amaterasu, who was in fury and grief, hid inside the Ama-no-Iwato
("heavenly rock cave"), thus effectively hiding the sun for a long period of
time. Eventually, she was persuaded to leave the cave and Susanoo was
punished by being banished from heaven. Both later amended their conflict
when Susanoo gave her the Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi sword as a reconciliation
gift. When they both reconciled the sun became visible again.
According to legend, Amaterasu bequeathed to her descendant Ninigi:

the mirror, Yata no Kagami; the jewel, Yasakani no Magatama; and the
sword, Kusanagi-no-Tsurugi. Collectively, the sacred mirror, jewel, and sword
became the three Imperial Regalia of Japan.
Assessment
1. What is Shinto religion? What are the existing religions of the Japanese
today?
2. What are the attributes of the Japanese gods? What make them
unique?
3. Pick out the characters in the story and describe each.
4. Discuss the relationship between the relationship of Amaterasu and her
brother, Susanoo. How is your relationship with your siblings?
5. Identify the human characteristics of the gods in the story. Elaborate
them by comparing them to the traits of the modern time.
6. Write essays on:
6.1 Conflict among siblings
6.2 Peer pressure
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4.4 Bull of Heaven (Sumerian and Babylonian)
Characters:
Gilgamesh Half-human and half-god, wicked and lustful King of Uruk,
but becomes good and heralded as a hero for killing the bull
of heaven thereby saving the people.
Enkidu Created from clay, equal to Gilgamesh in strength. He was
humanized by Shamnat.
Shamhat A prostitute who humanized Enkidu through love making.
Lady Wildcow Mother of Gilgamesh.
Ninsun
Lagulabanda Father of Gilgamesh.
Humbaba The guardian of the Cedar forest who was killed by
Gilgamesh and Enkidu.
Ishtar The goddess of love and war. She made sexual advances to
Gilgamesh but was turn down.
Shamash The god of justice and equity who was offered the heart of
the bull.
Antu and Anu Parents of Ishtar who were forced by Ishtar to release the
bull of heaven which caused destruction to the world.
Discussion:
In ancient Mesopotamian mythology,

the Bull of Heaven is a mythical beast fought
by the hero Gilgamesh. The story of the Bull
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of Heaven has two different versions: one recorded in an earlier Sumerian

poem and a later version in the standard Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the
Sumerian poem, the Bull is sent to attack Gilgamesh by the goddess Inanna
for reasons that are unclear. The more complete Akkadian account comes
from Tablet VI of the Epic of Gilgamesh, in which Gilgamesh rejects the
sexual advances of the goddess Ishtar, the East Semitic equivalent of Inanna,
leading the enraged Ishtar to demand her father Anu for the Bull of Heaven,
so that she may send it to attack Gilgamesh in Uruk. Anu gives her the Bull
and she sends it to attack Gilgamesh and his companion, the hero Enkidu,
who slay the Bull together.
Ancient Mesopotamian terracotta relief (c. 2250 — 1900 BC) showing

Gilgamesh slaying the Bull of Heaven, an episode described in Tablet VI of
the Epic of Gilgamesh. After defeating the Bull, Enkidu hurls the Bull's right
thigh at Ishtar, taunting her. The slaying of the Bull results in the gods
condemning Enkidu to death, an event which catalyzes Gilgamesh's fear for
his own death, which drives the remaining portion of the epic. The Bull was
identified with the constellation Taurus and the myth of its slaying may have
held astronomical significance to the ancient Mesopotamians. Aspects of the
story have been compared to later tales from the ancient Near East, including
legends from Ugarit, the tale of Joseph in the Book of Genesis, and parts of
the ancient Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven

In the Sumerian poem Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven, Gilgamesh
and Enkidu slay the Bull of Heaven, who has been sent to attack them by the
goddess Inanna, the Sumerian equivalent of
Ishtar. The plot of this poem differs substantially
from the corresponding scene in the later
Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh. In the Sumerian
poem, Inanna does not seem to ask Gilgamesh
to become her consort as she does in the later
Akkadian epic. Furthermore, while she is
coercing her father An to give her the Bull of
Heaven, rather than threatening to raise the
dead to eat the living as she does in the later epic, she merely threatens to let
out a "cry" that will reach the earth.
Epic of Gilgamesh
In Tablet VI of the standard Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, after
Gilgamesh rebuffs her sexual advances, Ishtar goes to Heaven, where she
complains to her mother Antu and her father Anu. She demands that Anu give
her the Bull of Heaven and threatens that, if he refuses, she will smash the
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gates of the Underworld and raise the dead to eat the living. Anu at first
objects to Ishtar's demand, insisting that the Bull of Heaven is so destructive
that its release would result in seven years of famine. Ishtar declares that she
has stored up enough grain for all people and all animals for the next seven
years. Eventually, Anu reluctantly agrees to give it to Ishtar, whereupon she
unleashes it on the world, causing mass destruction.
The Bull's first breath blows a hole in the ground that one hundred men
fall into and its second breath creates another hole, trapping two hundred
more. Gilgamesh and Enkidu work together to slay the Bull; Enkidu goes
behind the Bull and pulls its tail while Gilgamesh thrusts his sword into the
Bull's neck, killing it. Gilgamesh and Enkidu offer the Bull's heart to the sun-
god Shamash. While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are resting, Ishtar stands up on
the walls of Uruk and curses Gilgamesh. Enkidu tears off the Bull's right thigh
and throws it in Ishtar's face.
Ishtar calls together "the crimped courtesans, prostitutes and

harlots" and orders them to mourn for the Bull of Heaven. Meanwhile,
Gilgamesh holds a celebration over the Bull of Heaven's defeat. Tablet VII
begins with Enkidu recounting a dream in which he saw Anu, Ea,
and Shamash declare that either Gilgamesh or Enkidu must die as
punishment for having slain the Bull of Heaven. They choose Enkidu, who
soon grows sick, and dies after having a dream of the Underworld. Tablet VIII
describes Gilgamesh's inconsolable grief over his friend's death and the
details of Enkidu's funeral. Enkidu's death becomes the catalyst for
Gilgamesh's fear of his own death,
which is the focus of the remaining
portion of the epic.
Symbolism and Representation

Numerous depictions of the
slaying of the Bull of Heaven occur in
extant works of ancient Mesopotamian
art. Representations are especially
common on cylinder seals of
the Akkadian Empire (c. 2334 – 2154 BC). These show that the Bull was
clearly envisioned as a bull of abnormally large size and ferocity. It is unclear
exactly what the Bull of Heaven represents, however. Michael Rice
speculates that the Bull may represent an earthquake, since bulls in general
were widely associated with earthquakes in ancient cultures. He also posits
that the Bull may represent summertime, which was a period of drought and
infertility for people in ancient Mesopotamia. Assyriologists Jeremy Black and
Anthony Green observe that the Bull of Heaven is identified with the
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constellation Taurus and argue that the reason why Enkidu hurls the bull's
thigh at Ishtar in the Epic of Gilgamesh after defeating it may be an effort to
explain why the constellation seems to be missing its hind quarters.
Rice also argues for an astronomical interpretation of the slaying of the

Bull, noting that the constellation Canis Major was sometimes
iconographically represented in ancient Egyptian texts as a bull's thigh,
though he notes that there is no evidence of this identification in Sumer. He
also observes that thigh was often used in ancient Near Eastern texts as a
substitute for the genitals. Gordon and Rendsburg note that the notion of
flinging a bull's leg at someone "as a terrible insult" is attested across a wide
geographic area of the ancient Near East and that it recurs in the Odyssey, an
ancient Greek epic poem. Some scholars consider the Bull of Heaven to be
the same figure as Gugalanna, the husband of Ereshkigal mentioned by
Inanna in Inanna's Descent into the Underworld.
Influence on Later Stories

Cyrus H. Gordon and Gary A. Rendsburg note that the Near Eastern
motif of seven years of famine following the death of a hero is attested in
the Ugaritic myth of the death of Aqhat and that the theme of someone
predicting seven years of famine in advance and storing up supplies is also
found in the Hebrew story of Joseph from the Book of Genesis. According to
the German classical scholar Walter Burkert, the scene in which Ishtar comes
before Anu to demand the Bull of Heaven after
being rejected by Gilgamesh is directly paralleled
by a scene from Book V of the Iliad. In the Epic of
Gilgamesh, Ishtar complains to her mother Antu,
but is mildly rebuked by Anu. In the scene from
the Iliad, Aphrodite, the later Greek development of
Ishtar, is wounded by the Greek
hero Diomedes while trying to save her
son Aeneas. She flees to Mount Olympus, where
she cries to her mother Dione, is mocked by her
sister Athena, and is mildly rebuked by her father Zeus. Not only is the
narrative parallel significant, but so is the fact that Dione's name is a
feminization of Zeus's own, just as Antu is a feminine form of Anu. Dione does
not appear throughout the rest of the Iliad, in which Zeus's consort is instead
the goddess Hera. Burkert therefore concludes that Dione is clearly
a calque of Antu.
British classical scholar Graham Anderson notes that, in the Odyssey,

Odysseus's men kill the sacred cattle of Helios and are condemned to death
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by the gods for this reason, much like Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh. M. L.
West states that the similarities run deeper than the mere fact that, in both
cases, the creatures slain are bovines exempt from natural death. In both
cases, the person or persons condemned to die are companions of the hero,
whose death or deaths force the hero to continue his journey alone. He also
notes that, in both cases, the epic describes a discussion among the gods
over whether or not the guilty party must dieand that Helios's threat to Zeus if
he does not avenge the slaughter of his cattle in the Odyssey is very similar to
Ishtar's threat to Anu when she is demanding the Bull in the Epic of
Gilgamesh. Bruce Louden compares Enkidu's taunting of Ishtar immediately
after slaying the Bull of Heaven to Odysseus's taunt of the
giant Polyphemus in Book IX of the Odyssey. In both cases, the hero's
own hubris after an apparent victory leads a deity to curse him.
Assessment
1. Analyse the myth using any of the approaches in the study of literature.
2. How is Gilgamesh, the hero viewed by the Sumerian? Do we have
Gilgamesh in the modern time? Discuss.
3. What is your position regarding this famous line, “The end justifies the
means”. Elaborate.
4. Based from the tale, describe the values and traits of the Sumerian and
Babylonians.
5. Compare Ishtar to Aphrodite of the Greeks.
6. Love making and sexual advances were stressed in the tale – either to
humanize, to weaken or to blackmail other creatures. What is your
comment on this? Are these acts still done today (blackmail and
others)?
7. Why is the bull in heaven given importance in the tale? Discuss.
8. What could be the bull of heaven today? Discuss.
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4.5 The Taming of the Sun (Hawaii)
Characters
Maui The hero who tamed the sun to make life better for his mother
and everyone.
Hina-of-the- The mother of Maui who makes Kapa. She is a mentor who
fire guides Maui on what to do.
Hina-of-the- The sister of Maui who willingly offered her hair to be made
sea into nooses.
Grandmothe She helps Maui to make trap and nooses through her magical
r wood axe to trap the sun.
Summary:
This myth is about the

Hawaiian demigod Maui who goes
on a quest to tame the sun to make
life easier for his mother and
everyone. This explains the sunny
and rainy seasons.
Life then was easy until the

sun travels too fast making the day
and night shorter. People find work
difficult to do as a result they suffer.
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Maui has seen how his mother, Hina-of-the-fire suffers, too. His mother
makes bark of cloth called kapa, because of the change of climate, instead of
a week work to finish the product; it would take her a year to finish one. As a
son, it pains Maui to see the hardship of his mother that he decided to
challenge the sun. He has to see his grandmother to seek help from her. He is
willing to risk his life for this cause.
Hina-of-the-fire gives Maui the direction on how to reach his

grandmother whom he has not seen yet. Hina-of-the-fire is also willing to help
others. She knows the need to tame the sun for she feels its heat so much
since she lives in an island.
Maui’s grandmother lives on the side of Mt. Haleakala near the place
when the sun rises. She owns a magical axe which could be used in fighting
against the sun.
Hina-of-the-fire told Maui that upon his arrival at the Wiliwili tree very
early in the morning, the rooster will crow three (3) times as an announcement
of the sun’s arrival. Maui has seen his grandmother putting bananas outside
as an offering to the sun. At the third crowing, Maui steals the bananas. Her
mother notices that the bananas were gone so she tries to find out who has
stolen it. She has seen a stranger. Maui introduces himself as the son of
Hina-of-the-fire.
Maui’s grandmother tells him to make 16 strong ropes from coconut

fibers and nooses from his sister’s hair. It takes Maui a month to finish the
task. His grandmother helps him how to set the nooses (loop with running
knot, bond) as trap and how to
tie the ropes in the Wiliwili tree.
At the end of the month,

Maui waited for the sun to rise
up. He succeeded in catching
the 16 sun rays by the nooses.
The sun was not able to move.
Maui introduces himself and
begs the sun not to be selfish.
The sun says he is in hurry so
that he could have more than
enough time to sleep and he
cannot be persuaded to change
his routine. The sun threatens
Maui that he will burn Maui to
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death if the rays will not be released. Maui gets his grandmother’s magical
axe and waves it to the sun. The sun responded by turning his soaring face
upon Maui but failed to burn Maui. Maui keeps on striking the sun until the sun
finally gives up.
The fight between Maui and the sun ends with an agreement. The sun
will travel slowly throughout the half of the year. This explains the summer
and rainy seasons.
Assessment
1. What is the main theme of the tale?

2. What are the values stressed in the tale? Are these still observed
among us?
3. Discuss the importance of cooperation, sacrifice, commitment,
perseverance, selflessness, and social pressure in the society.
4. How are the Mauies described today? (They are the islanders in
Hawaii and New Zealand.)
5. What is the message of the tale to:
5.1 The powerful
5.2 The people
6. Recall events in our history where cooperation, sacrifice, and
determination of the masses toppled down powerful figures. Discuss.
7. Write essays on:
7.1 Self-sacrifice
7.2 Self determination
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4.6 The Children of the Sun (Peru)
Summary:
Long time ago, lands were covered with shrubs, small trees, and tall
mountains. The inhabitants were unmannered and uncivilized. They lived like
wild animals, naked, and barbaric. However, they were contented and happy.
After a while, the people started feeling uneasy with their naked bodies.
They learned how to use animal skins, leaves, and barks of trees to cover
their bodies. They ate grass, wild berries, roots of plants, and at times human
flesh.
Father Sun looked down from heaven and pitied them. He decided to
send one of his sons, Manco Capac and one of his daughters, Mama Ocllo
Huaco to earth and told them to settle at Lake Titicaca to teach the people on
how to improve their living.
Father Sun told his children of the good things he does everyday, like
providing the people with light. He provides them heat to comfort them from
cold. He gave them plants to eat, sunshine, and rain, but despite of these, the
people live like wild animals.
They do not know how to
build houses, they do not
have laws to follow, and no
tools to use in farming.
Father Sun instructed

his children to act as rulers
of all the races in the region
of Lake Titicaca. They
should be good rulers –
Major 06 139
treat the people with tenderness. He gave his children a golden rod, a two-
finger thick and shorter than the arm.
The golden rod will guide the children of the Sun in finding a fertile soil
where they could start cultivating the soil. Father Sun told them to bury the
golden rod whenever they sleep or when they stop to eat. When they come to
a place when the rod sinks into the earth with one thrust, they should
establish the sun’s sacred city Cuzco or City of the Sun.
When Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo Huaco went down to Lake
Titicaca, they started examining the soil. After several trials, they succeeded
in sinking the rod at Ayar Cachi and Ayar Ucho. The rod sank and
disappeared. They establish the sacred city or Cuzco per instruction of their
father.
The siblings, went near and far to gather the people to the sacred city.
People were astonished and
impressed with how the brother
and sister looked. They were
amazed of the pierced ears and
regal bearing of the two (2).
Manco Capac taught the

men on how to cultivate the soil
while Mama Oclla Huaco taught
the women to weave and sew.
The Incas or the people became
educated. In honor of the Sun,
their protector, the Incas built a
temple right where the golden rod
disappeared.
Manco Capac, aside from teaching the Incas agriculture, he also taught
them how to make weapons – bow and arrow. He prepared them to defend
themselves from wild beasts and invaders. The Incas extended their kingdom
and on their way on becoming a great people.
Major 06 140
You certainly deserve a break. Go somewhere. Try to find

your favorite sweets, delicacies, or whatever food which
would satisfy your craving. Then get back a little while.
Assessment
1. Are there similarities in the concern of Father Sun to the earth people
with the Biblical story of Jesus Christ coming to earth? Discuss.
2. Why are they called children of the sun?
3. Research on the Inca’s civilization. Write a brief account.
4. Describe the children of the Father Sun.
5. What is the main theme of the tale?
6. Which is better, to live like barbarians with contentment and happiness
or civilized yet in fear? How will you settle this should you be given an
opportunity to solve social crisis?
7. Father Sun is definitely a leader. What are his qualities which are
seldom seen among the leaders of today? Elaborate.
8. For you, what is the essence of life? Discuss.
9. If you were Father Sun, how will you solve the pandemic crisis that the
world is facing today?
Major 06 141
4. 7 The Creation (Guatemala)
Discussion:
The best known legends of Guatemala are the Tatuana, the Cadeja,
the Sombreron or the treasure of the flowery place.
The legends were compiled mostly by the Guatemalan writer Miguel

Angel Asturias, in 1930. Miguel Angel Asturias was inspired by the Popol-Vuh,
the sacred book of the Maya community. This literary initiative was the seated
basis for later European writers to compile various traditional stories of the
American Indian people (Ocasio, 2004).
The legends of Guatemala have been interpreted today as a way to

pressure the past and the indigenous tradition in times where the
development of cities predominates and the use of the Spanish language and
its traditions. The legends are the legends of the people.
The Creation Story tells of the story of how Tepeu and Gucumatz, the
creators of mankind created everything.
This is the story:
In the beginning there were only

the sky and the sea surrounded by
eternal darkness. It was still and quiet
because there were no creatures to
disturb it. The creators were hidden in
the water and green feathers. Tepeu
Major 06 142
and Gucumatz decided to create the earth, mountains, and valleys by pushing
back the sea. They planted pines and cypress in the rich soil. The animals
were crated to break the silence. They wanted the animals to praise them, but
only the hiss, roars, and groans could be heard. Then they decided to create
man, to praise, and call them by their names.
The first man was made of mud. He was too soft and weak. His words
were meaningless so they decided to destroy him.
The second humans were created from the wood because it was
stronger. The creatures praised the creators. They have thrived on the land
and built villages. Tepeu and Gucumatz observed them and found out that
these humans although stronger than the first don’t have mental and
emotional capacity to praise them, so again, they destroyed them by flood of
sap that turned the wood beings into tree like creatures. An eagle came down
and tore their eyes, a bat came and ripped off their heads, a jaguar mangled
their bones. These wood beings were almost destroyed and those which
survived became monkeys.
The last of the humans were created out of cornmeal dough of different
colors. These are yellow, black, and white. They praised the creators and
thanked them for all the gifts they received. Afterward, the creators were
threatened by them, and feared that they were too perfect so they blew fog
into their eyes that
limited their knowledge.
The creators also

created women to be the
wives of the men. They
lived in darkness. They
begged the creators for
dawn and light. The
prayers were granted.
Major 06 143
Assessment
1. How are prayers viewed among the Guatemalans? Do you believe in

prayers? Elaborate.
2. Compare the tale to any creation story in the Philippines.
3. How gods are described in the tale?
4. What is the purpose of the gods to create human?
5. Trial and error processed was used by the gods in creating perfect
human. Why is so the gods could not perfect their creation? Are they
inferior to other gods in the creation tales from other countries? What is
then the purpose of such circumstance? (Opinion based on the beliefs
of the Guatemalans.)
6. What are the beliefs of the Guatemalans which are shared by the rest
of the world regarding gods?
7. Write a paragraph about:
7.1 Egoism
7.2 Ungratefulness
8. Discuss the central theme of the tale.
Major 06 144
4. 8 The Woman Who Fell From the Sky (U.S.A.)
Characters
Atahensic The woman who fell from heaven. The mother of Earth
woman.
Loon The one who helped Atahensic.
Earth Woman The mother of twin – The Good and The Evil.
Eagwelhoewe The inhabitants in the great island which was formed.
Good Twin Ruler of the West.
Evil Twin Ruler of the East.
Summary:
In the beginning there were two (2) worlds, the Upper where the Divine
Sky people lived and the Lower where Great Water covered it and those
which can swim lived. The chieftain of the sky people has a lovely daughter
named Atahensic.
Atahensic got ill. The chieftain dreamt that his daughter could only be
cured if she stays beside the corn tree. To save his daughter, the chieftain
ordered his men to uproot the tree and bring it near Atahensic. When the tree
was uprooted, a hole in the
Upper was formed. The sky
people got angry at the
chieftain, they kicked Atahensic
into the hole. Atahensic has
fallen from the sky.
Atahensic could not

survive in water. She was
saved by Loon. He asked the
help of the sea animals which
formed a raft out of their bodies
to save her. The sea animals
got tired. A great Turk
volunteered to carry Atahensic
at his back.
Major 06 145
Some animals like Muskrat, Beaver, and Otter, a dove volunteered to

dive into the bottom of the great water to get sand, but failed.
Atahensic soon learned to swim. She enjoyed the company of the

water animals when she faced west, the west wind impregnated her and she
gave birth to Earth woman. Earth woman after a while gave birth to twin –
Good and Evil. It was said that Evil wanted to be the first to be borne, thus, he
passed through the Earth woman’s armpit which caused Earth woman’s
death.
The twins were not friends. They divided the earth into two (2), the East
part for Good and the West part for Evil. They created creatures – huge
creatures, but changed them. The once huge animals become the humans
today.
Fights between Good and Evil continued, but later on agree to have a
race. They agree to tell each other their secret fear. Good said that his fear is
a white rose, while Evil said his is the buck’s horn. They also agree that the
loser will be banished from the earth.
The race started. Evil produced a white rose to defeat Good, however,
Good used the wild rose as his food. Good told a lie about his fear. Evil was
defeated, begs for his life. As agreed, Evil was banished from the earth. Evil
swore that those who will die will live with him forever in the underworld.
Good started creating the first man and the first woman. These
creatures will breathe life into their nostrils. After creating the first man and the
Major 06 146
first woman, Good disappeared from the great island. Afterwards, six (6) pairs
of Eagwehoewe people came to life.
Assessment
1. Describe the woman who fell from the sky (Atahensic)?

2. What qualities of a father and villagers are shown in the tale?
3. How did Atahensic survive?
4. How did Good twin win over Bad twin? Can the act of Good twin be
considered moral? Why? Discuss.
5. What trait of the Americans is stressed in the act of the sky people to
kick Atahensic into the hole in spite of her being the daughter of a
chieftain? Discuss.
6. Draw inferences on the following:
6.1 To save his daughter, the chieftain ordered his men to uproot the
tree and bring it near Atahensic.
6.2 Atahensic learned to swim to survive.
6.3 Loon asked the help of sea animals to save Atahensic.
6.4 Evil twin wanted to be the first to be borne, passed to Earth
woman’s armpit which caused Earth woman’s death.
6.5 The twins were not friends.
7. U.S.A is divided into two (2), the East Coast and the West Coast. What
are the states in the East Coast and the West Coast? Do you think the
tale has something to do with their traits, values, and culture? (Good
Twin and Bad Twin). Argue.
8. Write a paragraph or two (2).
8.1 Treachery
8.2 People Power
8.3 Self-Preservation
Major 06 147
Suggested Readings
Asturias, Miguel Angel. Compilation on the Eleven Legends and Myth of

Guatemala.
Chaucer, Geoffrey. Canterbury Tales.
Hodag (North American). Storytelling Book.
Najavo (U.S.A.), The Emergence.
Sherman, Josepha. Railroad Folklore.
References
Bascara, Linda. World Literature.
Concepcion, S.C. World Literary Gems.
Mahabharata Study Guide. Grade Saver.

https://www.gradesaver.com/mahabharata/study-guide/character-list
Myth Folklore
https://aminoapps.com/c/mythfolklore/page/blog/amaterasu-the
sun-goddess/er5b_V3t3uE0vBpKDnDdpgGrlK6GZQR2a6
Ramayana Study Guide. Grade Saver.

https://www.gradesaver.com/th
ramayana/study-guide/character-list
Rosenburg, Donna. World Mythology. USDA: NTC Pub. Group, 1998.
Sherman, Josepha. Storytelling, An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore.

Sharpes Reference, 2011.

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Major 06 103

Mythology and Folklore

Republic of the Philippines

LEAH A. DE ASIS, EdD

All photos are from www.google.com/search

Introductory part remarks are provided for you, to have a background

Creation stories from China, Japan, Sumerian, Babylonian, and the

Dr. Leah A. De Asis

4.1 The Epics of India  Discuss the plot and themes

The triumph of virtue is demonstrated in the Mahabharata, as its

The Ramayana by Valmiki, is the story of Prince Rama’s banishment

Unlike the heroic and stirring Mahabharata, the Ramayana is subdued

The growth of the Ramayana differs from that of Mahabharata in that it

4.1.1. The Mahabharata

Vyasa is the legendary author of Mahabharata, Vedas, and Puranas,

been trained by his future military opponent Drona. Arjuna is a

Drona At the time of the story, Drona is an 85-year-old man who

Some 14 centuries B.C., the king of a Northern Indian nation dies,

Arjuna, Yudhishthir’s younger brother, is a skilled archer and receives

Duryodhan to give them their inheritance. He divides the kingdom giving

After his ritualistic coronation, Yudhishthir becomes a powerful and

Both Yudhisthir and Duryodhan now enlist allies from neighboring

After 18 days of slaughter, Yudhisthir is victorious and resumes his

How’s Mahabharata so far? Quite familiar, isn’t it? You may

Kindly answer the items below.

1. What is the main theme of Mahabharata?

4.1.2 The Ramayana

Valmiki is celebrated as the harbinger-poet in Sanskrit Literature. He is

He is quoted as being the

regarded as an avatara of the goddess Lakshmi, Vishnu's

(rakshasi) when she tried to seduce the rishi Agastya. As a

being. He was loyal to King Dasaratha, and pledges his

Rama, heir to throne of the Kosalas; marries the beautiful Sita,

Rama, Sita, and Lakshman wander from place to place, encountering

Meanwhile, Rama and Lakshman wander around morning and

Kindly answer the items below.

9. Can we blame Sita in deciding to return a Laksmi? Discuss.

Note: Read the whole text to answer the questions.

4.1.3 The Creation, Death, and Rebirth of the Universe (India)

Vishnu in three (3) forms:

 Brahma – the creator

Hindu Concept of Life:

 Reincarnation. Birth, death, and rebirth process

Cycle of the Universe:

Hindu ages reveal the moral

The fourth period is

The great god Vishnu

in marriage. Sex is the only source of enjoyment. People live in fear of

The image of all the

belongs to the gods. From successive bodies, Brahma’s power of

Kindly answer the items below.

1. Identify the beliefs of the Hindus/Indians stressed in the tale.

4.2 The Creation of the Universe and Human Beings (Chinese

Chinese myths were not so authentic because they were ordered

In her earliest from Nu Kua is

According to the myth, in the

Nu Kua, glides over the earth and

Myth Number III

P’an Ku is the creator of the universe. In the beginning there was an