Statistics - is the science of conducting studies that collect, Discrete variables - whose values can be counted using

organize, summarize, analyses and draw conclusions from integral values

data.
Continuous variables -assume any numerical value over an
Scope of Statistics: interval or intervals
a. Collecting - data relating to certain events or Level Of Measurement:
physical phenomena. Most datasets involve
a. Nominal -use numbers for the purpose of identifying
numbers
name or membership in a group or category.
b. Organizing - all collected data will be arranged in
b. Ordinal - connote ranking or inequalities, numbers
logical and chronicle order for viewing and analyses.
represent “greater than” or “less than”
Datasets are normally organized in either ascending
measurements such as preferences or rankings.
or descending order.
c. Interval - indicate an actual amount and there is
c. Summarizing - summarizing the data to offer an
equal unit of measurement separating each score,
overview of the situation.
specifically equal intervals.
d. Presenting - develop a comprehensive way to
d. Ratio - are similar to interval data, but has an
present the dataset.
absolute zero and multiples are meaningful. These
e. Analyzing - to analyses the dataset for the intended
are the highest level of measurement
application
Slovin’s Formula - is used to calculate the sample size
Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher (1890-1962) – “Father of Modern
necessary to achieve a certain confidence interval when
Statistics and Experimental Design.”
sampling a population.
Two Main branches of Statistics:
1. Descriptive Statistics - collection and organization of
data. Uses the data to provide descriptions of the
population, either through numerical calculations or
graphs or tables.
2. Inferential Statistics – makes inference and predictions
about a population based on a sample of data taken from
the population in question. Consist of generalizing from
the samples to populations, performing hypothesis
testing, determining relationships among variables, and
making predictions.
Population - refers to the groups of aggregates of people,
objects, materials, events, or things of any form. To save
money statistician may study only a part of the population
called sample.
Data – is a collection of values for a particular variable.
Sample - is a subgroup of the population, taken from the
population to represent a population characteristics or traits. Types of Data:
Parameters - measures of the population. 1. Primary Data - are date collected directly by the
researcher. These are the first hand or original
Statistic - measures of the sample.
sources.
Variables - is a characteristic that takes two or more values 2. Secondary Data – are information taken from
across individuals published or unpublished materials previously
gathered other researchers or agencies, book,
Independent Variables - cause, predictor newspaper, magazines, journals, published and
Dependent Variables - effect, output, value being predicted unpublished thesis and dissertations.

Qualitative variables -represent differences in quality, SAMPLING DESIGN / METHODS:

character, or kind but not in amount 1. Probability Sampling
Quantitative variables -are numerical in nature and can be  Each of the units in the target population has a
ordered or ranked chance of being included in the sample.

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  Greater possibility of representative sample ENGINEERING METHOD:
population.
 Conclusion derived from data gathered can be
generalized for the whole population.
Types of Probability Sampling:
a. Simple Random Sampling – is the sampling
technique where the sample is obtained from the
population randomly. Collecting Engineering data
b. Systematic Sampling – the sample are taken from Three ways of collecting data on the impacts of factors
a systematic order of appearance in each sequence on a response in a system:
or arrangement.
1. Retrospective Study
c. Stratified Sampling- the population is divided into
This would use either all or a sample of the historical
different strata or groups, or its representative size is process data archived over some period of time.
taken proportionally in the population
d. Cluster Sampling-the population is formed into 2. Observational Study
different cluster (Area sampling) Collect relevant data from current operations without
e. Multistage Sampling-this is usually used for disturbing with the system. The engineer observes the
national, regional, provincial or country level studies. process or population, disturbing it as little as possible, and
records the quantities of interest. Because these studies are
2. Non-Probability Sampling usually conducted for a relatively short time period,
 No way has that each of the units in the target sometimes variables that are not routinely measured can be
population had the same chance of being included in included.
the sample.
3. Designed Experiments
 No assurance that every unit has some chance of Disturb the system and observe the impacts. The
being included. engineer makes deliberate or purposeful changes in the
 Conclusion derived from data gathered is limited only controllable variables of the system or process, observes the
itself. resulting system output data, and then makes an inference or
Types of Non-Probability Sampling: decision about which variables are responsible for the
observed changes in output performance.
a. Accidental or Convenience Sampling - it is
obtained when the researcher selects whatever Experiment – is a series of tests conducted in a systematic
sampling units are conveniently available. manner to increase the understanding of an existing process
b. Purposive Sampling -under this scheme, the or to explore a new product or process.
sampling units are selected subjectively by the Types of Graphs
researcher, who attempts to obtain a sample that
appears to be representative of the population. 1. Bar Graph – is a chart that uses either horizontal or
c. Quota Sampling – In this method, the researcher vertical bars to show comparisons between categories.
determines the sampling size which should be filled
up - Ex. Barangay official
d. Snowball Sampling - this type of sampling that
starts with the known sources of information, who or
which will in turn give other sources of information.
e. Networking Sampling - this is used to find socially
devalued urban populations such as addicts,
alcoholics, child abusers and criminals, because
they are usually “hidden from outsiders.”
What Do Engineers Do?
An engineer is someone who solves problems of interest 2. Multiple Bar Chart – is used to represent distinct values
to society with the efficient application of scientific for more than one item that share the same category.
principles by (a) refining existing products (b) designing
new products or processes.

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3. Subdivided Bar Graph – is used to represent data 6. Ogive – graph that represents the cumulative
simultaneously. The total magnitude is divided into frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.
different components.

4. Histogram – is a graphical representation helpful to 7. Pie Chart – also called Pie Graph makes use of sectors
organize and display the data in user-friendly format. in a circle, angle of a sector is proportional to the
frequency of the data.
For solving the angle:
𝒇
× 𝟑𝟔𝟎 = °
𝒏
For solving the percentage:
𝒇
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = %
𝒏

5. Frequency Polygon – graph that uses line to connect

points plotted for the frequencies and midpoints of the
classes.

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8. Pictogram or pictograph – represents the frequency by Permutation:
using pictures or symbols.
 Is an arrangement of a group of things in a definite
order that is there is a first element, a second, a third
etc. In other words, the order or arrangement of the
elements is important.
 To find the number of Permutations of n items, we
can use the Fundamental Counting Principles or
Factorial notation. To find the number of ordered
arrangements or Permutation of n total items chosen
r at a time.
Probability – the likelihood of an event occurring.
Probability Experiment – a chance process that leads to
well-defined results called outcomes. (i.e., some mechanism
that produces a set of outcomes in a random way).
Outcome – the result of a single trial of a probability. Example:
In how many ways the radiologist assign 5 patients to undergo
Random Experiments - An experiment that can result in
a screening test for pulmonary tuberculosis x-ray?
different outcomes, even though it is repeated in the same
manner every time. Solution: The number of ways of selecting 5 patients one at
Sample Space a time is
5P5 = P(n,n = n! = n(n-1)(n-2)… (3)(2)(1) =120 ways
 The set of all possible outcomes of a random
Combinations:
experiment is called sample space of the
experiment. The sample space is denoted as S.  Also concerns arrangements, but without regard to
 A sample space is discrete it consists of a finite or her order. This means that the order or arrangement
countable infinite set of outcomes. A sample space in which the elements are taken is not important.
is continuous if it contains an interval (either finite or  On many occasions we are not interested in
infinite) of real numbers. arranging but only in selecting r objects from given n
Tree Diagram - A device consisting of line segments objects. A combination is a selection of some or all
emanating from a starting point and also from the outcome of a number of different objects where the order of
points. It is used to determine all possible outcomes of a selection is immaterial.
probability experiment.
Events - is a subset of the sample space of a random
experiment.
Simple Event - an event with one outcome. Three basic interpretation or probability:
Compound event - an event with more than one outcome 1. Classical probability (Theoretical)
Counting Rules, useful in Probability  Uses sample spaces to determine the numerical
probability that an event will happen.
Fundamental Counting Principles:  We do not actually perform the experiment to
determine the theoretical probability.
 The rule for finding the number of possible
2. Empirical Probability
outcomes.
 The relative frequency of an event occurring from a
 States that if an event had m possible outcomes and
probability experiment over the long run.
another independent even has n possible outcomes,
then there are Mn (m times n) possible outcomes of 3. Subjective Probability
the two events together.  Uses a probability value based on an educated
guess or estimate, employing opinions and in exact
information.
 Often, you cannot “repeat” the probability
experiment.
Venn diagram - is a simple way to visualize events and the
relationships between them using rectangles and circles
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