PH 3171 PHYSICS LABORATORY

OBSERVATION

AND

RECORD NOTE BOOK

 Chuck

Wire

Weights

Disc d1 d2

(a) without mass (b) with mass @ d1 (c) with mass @ d2

Fig. 6.1 Torsional pendulum

(Units are must be entered in the paranthesis)

Mass of one cylindrical object - ……………. ( )

First distance d1 (the center of one mass and the suspension wire) - ................................ ( )

Second distance d2 (the center of one mass and the suspension wire) - …………… ( )
 DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF WIRE AND MOMENTOF
INERTIA OF REGULAR OBJECT AND IRREGULAR OBJECT
BY Torsional Pendulum
Expt. No. :
Date :
Aim
To determine
(i) the Moment of Inertia of the disc
(ii) the Rigidity Modulus of the wire by Torsional oscillations using a Torsional Pendulum.
Apparatus required
Torsional Pendulum (uniform circular disc suspended by a wire), two equal cylindricalmasses, Stop clock,
Screw gauge and Meter scale.
Formula
Moment of Inertia of the disc
𝑻𝟐𝟎
𝑰=𝟐𝐦 𝒅𝟐𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐𝟏 𝑲𝒈. 𝒎𝟐
𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏
The Rigidity Modulus of the given wire
𝟏𝟔𝝅𝒎 𝒅𝟐𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐𝟏 𝐿
𝜼= 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑎4 𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏
where, L = length of the wire in metres
m = mass of one of the cylindrical weights in kg
a = radius of the wire in metres
d1 & d2 = distances of the center of the symmetrical mass to the wirein the
nearest and farthest positions respectively in metres
T1 & T2 = Time periods for positions d1 & d2 respectively in sec
To = Time period without any symmetrical mass in sec
A long wire whose rigidity modulus is to be determined is clamped by a vertical chuck at
one of its ends at the top. To the lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by another
chuck (Fig 1.1a). The length of the suspension ‘L’ (from top portion of chuck to the clamp) is fixed
(say 40 cm or 50 cm) and is measured by means of a scale and entered in Table 1.1 in the
appropriate column.
The torsional oscillations are produced by twisting the suspended disc. Care is taken to see
that the disc oscillates without any or with minimum wobble. The first few oscillations are omitted.
By using the pointer, (a mark made in the disc) the time taken for 20 complete oscillations is noted.
Two trials are taken. Then the mean time period T0 (time for one oscillation) is found.
Next, two equal cylindrical masses are placed on the disc symmetrically on either side (fig
1.1b), close to the suspension wire touching the chuck (at the minimum distance). The closest
distance ‘d1’ from the center of the mass of the cylinder and center of suspension wire is found.
Now the disc with masses at distance ‘d1’ is made to execute torsional oscillations by twisting as
earlier. The time taken for 20 oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken again. The mean time
period T1 is determined.
The two equal masses are now moved to the extreme ends (fig 1.1c), so that the edges of
masses coincide with the edge of the disc and their centers are equi-distant. The distance ‘d2’ from
the center of the mass of the cylinder and the center of the suspension wire is noted. The disc is
twisted again to execute torsional oscillations. As again the time taken for 20 oscillations ‘T2’ is
calculated.
 Table : 1.1 To find the time periods of oscillation of the disc at different lengths :
(Units are must be entered in the paranthesis)

Time L
Length of Time taken for 10 Oscillations (s)
Period T o
2
T T 2
2
suspension 2 1
Sl. Trial (s) T T 2
2
wire Trial I Trial II 2 1
No Mean =(mean/
( ) ( ) ( ) Time Taken) ( )
Mass

Without
Mass
(do) (T0)

With Mass
1 L1 = ______ (@ d1)
(T1)

With Mass
(@ d2)
(T2)

Without
Mass
(do) (T0)

2 L2 = ________ With Mass

(@ d1)
(T1)

With Mass
(@ d2)
(T2)
 The mass of one of the cylinders placed on the disc is found by means of a physical balance.
The diameter of the wire is accurately measured at various places along its length using a screw
gauge (explained below) from which, the radius of the wire can be calculated.
To find the radius of the wire using screw gauge
The screw gauge is closed to check for any zero error. The error if any and the corresponding
correction are noted in Table 1.2. Now the wire is kept in between the two jaws of the screw gauge
and is held gently, without any undue pressure. The diameter of the wire is now measured by noting
the PSR and HSC. The head scale reading (HSR) i.e the correct reading is obtained by adding or
subtracting the zero correction to the HSC and then multiplying it with the least count.
HSR  HSC  ZCLC
The diameter of the wire is measured at five different places to negate any error in the
measurement. The mean of the diameter is found. The radius is then obtained and the Moment of
Inertia of the disc and the Rigidity Modulus of the wire are then calculated using the given formulae.

Calculation
Distance between suspension wire
and the center of a cylindrical mass d1 = --------------- ( )

Distance between suspension wire

and the center of a cylindrical mass d2 = --------------- ( )

Time period of oscillation (without masses) T0 = --------------- ( )

Time period (when masses are at distance ‘d1’) T1 = --------------- ( )

Time period (when masses are at distance‘d2’) T2 = --------------- ( )

Mass of one of the cylinders m = -------------- ( )

Length of the suspension wire L = -------------- ( )

Mean radius of the wire a = -------------- ( )

 Table 1.2 Measurement of the radius (a) of the suspension wire using screw gauge

Least count of the screw gauge

Pitch
LC 
No. of Head Scale Divisions
Dis tan ce movedtheHS on the PS
Pitch 
No. of Rotations of the HS
1 mm
 Pitch  1mm
1
1mm
Hence the LC   0.01mm
100 divisions
 Least Count of a Screw Gauge  0.01mm
(Units are to be entered in the paranthesis)
Least count of the Zero error =  ---------- div
Screw gauge (LC) = --------- Zero Correction = ∓----------- div
Sl. No. Pitch Scale Head Scale HSR  Final reading =
Reading (PSR) Coincidence (HSC) HSC  ZC  LC PSR + HSR
(diameter ‘d’)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean diameter (d) = ------------( )

Mean radius a = d/2 = ------------ ( )

 CALCULATIONS

The Rigidity Modulus of the given wire

𝟏𝟔𝛑 𝐦 𝐝𝟐𝟐 − 𝐝𝟐𝟏 𝐋

𝛈𝟏 = 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐚𝟒 𝐓𝟐𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏𝟐

𝛈𝟏 = _________________ 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

𝟏𝟔𝛑 𝐦 𝐝𝟐𝟐 − 𝐝𝟐𝟏 𝐋

𝛈𝟐 = 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐚𝟒 𝐓𝟐𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏𝟐

𝛈𝟐 = _________________ 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

𝛈𝟏 + 𝛈𝟐
𝛈= = ________________ 𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝟐



Moment of Inertia of the disc
𝑻𝟐𝟎
I1 = 𝟐 𝐦 𝒅𝟐𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐𝟏 𝑲𝒈. 𝒎𝟐
𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏

𝐈𝟏 = _________________ 𝐾𝑔. 𝑚2

𝑻𝟐𝟎
I2 = 𝟐 𝐦 𝒅𝟐𝟐 − 𝒅𝟐𝟏 𝑲𝒈. 𝒎𝟐
𝑻𝟐𝟐 − 𝑻𝟐𝟏

𝐈𝟐 = _________________ 𝐾𝑔. 𝑚2




𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐
𝐈= = ________________ 𝑲𝒈. 𝒎𝟐
𝟐








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




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






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Result

Rigidity modulus of the given wire ()=

Moment of inertia of the given disc (I) =

 Diagram
W/2 W/2
Length x
x
b l
Breadth d Thickness

Microscope

W
Image in the
cross wire

Fig.2.1 Young’s modulus by non-uniform bending - depression of the beam

Table 2.1 Measurement of depression of the beam using traveling microscope

Least count of the traveling microscope

We know 1MSD  0.05 cm
and 50 VSD  49 MSD
49
1 VSD  MSD
50
49  1 
  cm
50  20 
49
  0.05 cm  0.049 cm
50
By definition , the Least Count  1 MSD  1 VSD
 0.05 cm  0.049 cm  0.001 cm
theleast count of theTraveling Microscope  0.001cm
YOUNG’S MODULUS OF THE GIVEN BEAM- BY NON-UNIFORM BENDING
Expt.no. :
Date :
Aim
To determine the Young’s Modulus of the material of the given bar by measuring the
depressions with load applied at the mid point.
Apparatus required
A long uniform rectangular bar (wooden meter scale), two tall knife-edge supports, traveling
microscope, pin, screw gauge, vernier calipers and weight hanger with slotted weights.(Units Must
be entered in the all tabular column by students)
Formula
When a uniform beam of rectangular cross section is supported horizontally on two knife-
edges, and a load is applied at the midpoint between the supports, then the depression at that point is
given by
𝑀𝑔𝑙 3
𝑦= 𝑚
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝐸
Rearranging the above equation, the Young’s Modulus is given by
𝑀𝑔𝑙 3
𝐸= 𝑁/𝑚2
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑦
where, E - the Young’s modulus of elasticity in Nm-2
y – the depression at the mid-point in metres
M – the load at the mid-point in kg
l – the distance between the knife edges in metres
b – the breadth of the beam in metres
d – the thickness of the beam in metres
g – the acceleration due to gravity in ms –2
Procedure
A pin index P is fixed vertically up exactly at the mid-point C of the rectangular bar, using
wax (Figure 2.1). The bar is placed horizontally resting on two knife-edges supports A and B
leaving equal lengths on either ends (x). The distance between the knife-edges A and B is measured
as length l. At the mid-point, without disturbing the index pin fixed, a weight hanger is suspended
with the help of a thread. (Before taking readings, weights are added and removed for a number of
times, to bring the bar into the elastic mood).
To begin with, the weight hanger itself is used as the dead load and the traveling microscope
is focused so that the horizontal cross-wire coincides with the image of the tip of the pin (figure 2.1
inset). The reading on vertical scale of the microscope is taken and noted in the Table 2.1.
 Table 2.1 Calculation of the mean depression of the beam using Travelling Microscope

Length between the Knife edges: _______________________

Microscope readings
Difference of
Load depression ‘y’
TR TR (A+B) /2
Sl.No. M for a Load of
MSR VSC (A) = MSR + MSR VSC (B)=MSR + 0.1 kg (100 gm)
(VSC x LC) (VSCx LC)
X 10-3 kg X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m

1 W

2 W + 50

3 W + 100

4 W + 150

5 W + 200

6 W + 250

Length between the Knife edges: _______________________

Microscope readings
Difference of
Load depression ‘y’
TR TR (A+B) /2
Sl.No. M for a Load of
MSR VSC (A) = MSR + MSR VSC (B)=MSR + 0.1 kg (100 gm)
(VSC x LC) (VSCx LC)
X 10-3 kg X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m

1 W

2 W + 50

3 W + 100

4 W + 150

5 W + 200

6 W + 250
 Weights are added in the hanger in units of 50 gm, and the readings are taken after
adjusting the microscope so that the image of the pin is on the horizontal cross wire. After the
maximum safe load is added the weights are removed one by one and the corresponding
readings are taken each time. The experiment is repeated for one more length kept between the
knife-edges.
The beam is then removed and its breadth is found using a Vernier caliper (Table 2.2)
and thickness using a Screw Gauge (Table 2.3). Substituting these values in the given formula,
the Youngs Modulus of the beam is calculated.
𝑀𝑔𝑙 3
𝑦= 𝑚
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝐸
Rearranging the above equation, the Young’s Modulus is given by
𝑀𝑔𝑙 3
𝐸= 𝑁/𝑚2
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝑦
 Table 2.2 Measurement of breadth of the beam using Vernier calipers

LC = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
1 9 1
𝐿𝐶 = − 𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01 𝑐𝑚
10 100 100

 Least Count of a Vernier Caliper  0.01cm

Least count of the Zero error =  ---------- div

Vernier Caliper (LC) = -------- cm Zero Correction = ∓ ---------- div
Sl. Main Scale Vernier Scale VSR  Final reading =
No. Reading
(MSR)
Coincidence
(VSC)
VSC  ZC  LC MSR + VSR
(breadth ‘b’)
x 10-2 m Division x 10-2 m x 10-2 m

-2
Mean breadth (b) = ------------------ x 10 m

Table 2.3 Measurement of thickness of the beam Screw gauge

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕
𝐿𝐶 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑆 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐻𝑆 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑃𝑆 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕 = = = 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐻𝑆 1
1 𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝐿𝐶 = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
100

Least count of the Zero error =  --------- div

Screw gauge (LC) = ---------- mm Zero Correction = ∓ ----------div
Sl. No. Pitch Scale Head Scale HSR  Final reading =
Reading Coincidence HSC  ZC  LC PSR + HSR
(PSR) (HSC) (thickness ‘d’)
-3 -3 -3
x 10 m Division x 10 m x 10 m

Mean thickness (d) = --------------------- x10-3m

 CALCULATIONS

Load at any of the ends M =

Breadth of beam b =
Thickness of beam d =
Acceleration due to gravity g =
Length between the knife edges l =
Hence, the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar

𝑀𝑔𝑙 3
𝐸= 𝑁/𝑚2
4𝑏𝑑 3 𝑦

Result

Young’s modulus of the material of the bar (wooden

meter scale) by Non-uniform Bending is = ------------------------------36
Diagram
Length

Breadth

Image in
the

Fig.3.1 Young’s modulus by uniform bending- elevation of the beam

Table 3.1 Measurement of Elevation of the beam using traveling microscope

Least count of the traveling microscope
Weknow 1MSD  0.05cmand
50 VSD  49 MSD
49 49  1 
1 VSD  MSD  cm
50 50 20
49
 0.05 cm  0.049 cm
50
By definition, the Least Count  1 MSD  1 VSD
 0.05 cm  0.049 cm  0.001 cm
the least count of the Traveling Microscope  0.001cm
Distance between the weight hanger and any one of the adjacent knife edge (D) = --------x 10 -2
m
 YOUNG’S MODULUS OF THE GIVEN BEAM BY - Uniform Bending
Expt. No. :
Date :
Aim
To determine the Young’s Modulus of the given material of beam by uniform bending.
Apparatus required
The given beam ( meter scale), traveling microscope, two weight hangers, pin, slotted weights,
screw gauge, vernier calipers, knife edges etc.

Formula
The elevation of the given material of the beam is given by
3𝑀𝑔𝐷𝑙 2
𝑦= 𝑚
2𝑏𝑑 3 𝐸
Rearranging the above equation, the Young’s Modulus is given by
3𝑀𝑔𝐷 𝑙 2
𝐸= 𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑏𝑑 3 𝑦
Where, g -Accleration due to gravity in ms-2
D -Distance between the weight hanger and any one of the adjacent knife edges in m
l -Distance between the two knife edges in m
b -Breadth of the beam in m
d -Thickness of the beam in m
y -Elevation produced for ‘ M’ kg of load in m
M- Load applied in kg

Procedure
The given beam is placed over the two knife edges (A and B) with a distance (l) between the
knife edges (Figure 3.1). Two weight hangers are suspended, one each on either side of the knife edge
at equal distance from the knife edge (D). A pin is fixed vertically, at the center of the beam. A
traveling microscope is placed in front of this arrangement. Taking the weight hangers alone as the
dead load, the tip of the pin is focused by the microscope and is adjusted in such a way that the tip of
the pin just touches the horizontal cross- wire (inset in the figure 3.1).The reading on the vertical scale
of the traveling microscope is noted.
Now, equal weights are added simultaneously on both the weight hangers, in steps of 50 gm.
And each time the position of the pin is focused and the readings are noted from the microscope. The
procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached. The same procedure is repeated by
unloading the weight from both the weight hangers in steps of same 50 grams and the readings are
tabulated in the Table 3.1.
The breadth and thickness of the beam are measured using screw gauge and vernier calipers
respectively and are tabulated in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 respectively. By substituting all the values in
the given formula, the Young’s Modulus of the given material of the beam can be calculated.
 Table 3.1 Calculation of the mean elevation of the beam using Travelling Microscope

Length between the Knife edges: _______________________

Microscope readings
Difference of
Load elevation ‘y’ for
TR TR (A+B) /2
Sl.No. M a Load of 0.1
MSR VSC (A) = MSR + MSR VSC (B)=MSR + kg (100 gm)
(VSC x LC) (VSCx LC)
X 10-3 kg X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m

1 W

2 W + 50

3 W + 100

4 W + 150

5 W + 200

6 W + 250

Length between the Knife edges: _______________________

Microscope readings
Difference of
Load elevation ‘y’ for
TR TR (A+B) /2
Sl.No. M a Load of 0.1
MSR VSC (A) = MSR + MSR VSC (B)=MSR + kg (100 gm)
(VSC x LC) (VSCx LC)
X 10-3 kg X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m div X 10-2 m X 10-2 m X 10-2 m

1 W

2 W + 50

3 W + 100

4 W + 150

5 W + 200

6 W + 250
 CALCULATION:
Load at any of the ends M =
Breadth of beam b =
Thickness of beam d =
Distance of the weight hanger
from any of the knife edges D =
Acceleration due to gravity g =
Length between the knife edges l =
Hence, the Young’s modulus of the material of the bar
3𝑀𝑔𝐷 𝑙 2
𝐸= 𝑁/𝑚2
2𝑏𝑑 3 𝑦
 Table 3.2 Measurement of breadth of the beam using Vernier calipers
LC = 1 M.S.D – 1 V.S.D
1 9 1
𝐿𝐶 = − 𝑐𝑚 = 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01 𝑐𝑚
10 100 100

 Least Count of a Vernier Caliper  0.01cm

Least count of the Zero error (ZE) =  ---------div
Vernier Caliper (LC) = -------- cm Zero Correction(ZC) = ------------- div
Sl. Main Scale Vernier Scale VSR  Final reading =
No. Reading (MSR) Coincidence (VSC)
VSC  ZC   LC MSR + VSR
(breadth ‘b’)
x 10-2 m Division x 10-2 m x 10-2 m
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean breadth (b) = ---------------- x 10-2 m

Table 3.3 Measurement of thickness of the beam Screw gauge

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕
𝐿𝐶 =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑆 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐻𝑆 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑃𝑆 1 𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕 = = = 1 𝑚𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝐻𝑆 1
1 𝑚𝑚
∴ 𝐿𝐶 = = 0.01 𝑚𝑚
100

Least count of the Zero error (ZE) =  -------- div

Screw gauge (LC) = ---------- mm Zero Correction (ZC) = --------------div
Sl. Pitch Scale Head Scale HSR  Final reading =
No. Reading (PSR) Coincidence HSC  ZC   LC PSR + HSR
(HSC) (thickness ‘d’)
x 10-3 m Division x 10-3 m x 10-3 m
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean thickness (d) = -------------------- x 10-3 m

Result
Young’s modulus of the material of the bar
(Wooden meter scale) by Uniform Bending = --------------------- Nm-2
Diagram: 4.1

Model Graph: 4.2

 DETERMINATION OF BANDGAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR USING - POST
OFFICE BOX

Expt. No.:
Date :
Aim
To determine the band gap energy of the semiconductor diode by using post office box
experiment.

Apparatus required
Post office box, power supply, Semiconductor diode (Thermistor), Heating arrangement
(oven), galvanometer, connection wires, oil, etc.

Formula

The band gap ‘Eg’ of a semiconductor is given by

where, Boltzmann constant Kb = 1.3807 X 10-23 J. K-1

Where slope =
T= Absolute Temperature, Kelvin

= 2.303 log ,Ohms

Experimental Procedure
1. The circuit is given as shown in fig 41
2. The point contact diode and thermometer are immersed in a oil bath in such a waythat
the thermometer is kept nearby the diode.
3. The power supply is kept constant (say 2 volt)
4. The heating mantle is switched ON and the oil bath is heated upto 700C (Temperature should
not be increased beyond 800C for Ge, because at higher temperature, junction property will
be destroyed).
5. Now the heating mantle is switched OFF and the oil bath is allowed to cool slowly.
6. Fix the resistance of P and Q in the post office box at equal values (say 10Ω or 100 Ω).
7. Adjust the resistance values of ‘S’ until the galvanometer (G) reading shows zero deflection,
by pressing both B.key and G.key simultaneously and measure the total resistance value of
‘S’
 Table 4.1 Calculation of Resistance (R) from the values of current (I) for various Temperatures (T)

Resistance
Total
Resistance Resistance RT=2.303 X
Sl. Temperature (T) 1/T resistance
in P in Q
No. in S log ,
-1
( 0C ) Kelvin K Ohms ( Ω ) Ohms ( Ω ) Ohms ( Ω ) Ohms ( Ω )
8. Similarly note the value of resistance (S) for every 10C (or) 20C fall of temperature. till the
temperature of the oil decrease to the room temperature. Note the observations in the tabular
column (4.1).
9. A graph is plotted by taking (1/T) along X-axis and RT along Y-axis. A straight line is obtained
as shown in model graph (fig.4.2)
10. By finding the slope of the straight line from the graph and by substituting it in the given
formula, the band gap energy of the semiconductor shall be determined.

Calculation :
Band Gap Energy ,

Here, Slope =

Therefore,

eV.

Result

The Band gap energy (Eg) of the given semiconductor diode is = ............................................... eV.
 Grating (2,500 LPI)

Screen Order of the

III
II I spots
O
I
II
Diode Laser III
XmL
XmR

Figure 5.1 Determination of Wavelength of Laser - Set-up

 DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF A DIODE LASER - LASER GRATING

Exp. No.:
Date :
Aim
To determine the wavelength of the given diode laser

Apparatus Required
Diode Laser, Optical Grating, Screen and Scale. (Units Must be entered by the tabular
column by students)

Formula
The wavelength of the given laser source is given by
sin 𝜃
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
𝑁𝑚

𝑋𝑚
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝐷
Where,  - Angle of diffraction in degrees
m - Order of diffraction
N - Number of lines per meter on the grating
Xm - The mean distance of the mth order spot on either side of the central spot in, meters
D - Distance between the grating and the screen in, meters

Procedure

The given laser source is held horizontally by means of a stand as shown in Figure 5.1. The
beam is allowed to pass through the given grating held normal to the beam. A diffraction pattern is
observed on the screen, that has a central bright spot, followed by spots of other orders (first, second
etc.) on either side of it. The distance Xm of different orders of the diffracted beam on either side of the
center spot are measured, and the mean is calculated. The readings are entered in Table 5.1.
The distance D between the grating and the screen is also measured and entered. Thus the
wavelength  is obtained by averaging the result for many orders, along with the known value of N.
The experiment is repeated for different D values.
Table 5.1 Determination of the wavelength of the given laser source
(Units are must be entered in the paranthesis)
The number of lines per meter in the grating (N) is ----------------------------------------- lines per meter.

Distance Distance of the mth Mean distance of

Diffraction Wavelength of the
between order spot from the mth order spot from
order source
central spot the central spot  X 
screen and   tan1  m  sin
grating LHS RHS X  X mR 
‘ m’ X m mL  D  Nm
(D) XmL XmR 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Mean,  =
Calculation:

sin 𝜃
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
𝑁𝑚

Result
The wavelength of the semiconductor diode laser is found to be =
 Rubber Band

l Wire
Figure 6.1 Arrangement of the thin wire within the
glass plates

Traveling
Microscope

Air-
Wedge
set-up
Source
Lens

Figure 6.2 Air-Wedge Apparatus set-up

Rubber Band

n
n+5 n+10

Figure 6.3 Formation of fringes in the

Air- Wedge set-up
DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF A THIN WIRE -AIR WEDGE METHOD
Expt. No.:

Date:

Aim
To find the thickness (or diameter) of a thin wire by forming interference fringesusing
air-wedge arrangement.

Apparatus required
Traveling microscope, Sodium Vapour lamp, three optically plane rectangular glassplates,
Condensing lens, Reading lens, Thin wire etc.

Formula
Thickness of the thin wire
l
t meters
2 
where, λ - Wavelength of sodium light (5893 x 10-10m) in metres
l - Distance of the wire from the edge of contact in metres
 - Mean width of one fringe in metres
Procedure
An air wedge is formed by placing two optically plane glass plates in contact along one of
their edges. At the other end, the thin wire is introduced with its length perpendicular to the length of
the plate. The glass plates are tied together in this position by means a rubber band (Figure 6.1). The
entire assembly is then placed on the horizontal bed plate of a traveling microscope. The
interference pattern can be obtained with the help of the glass plate inclines at 450 to the horizontal
plane and a condensing lens (Figure 6.2).
Light from the sodium vapour lamp is made to fall vertically on the air wedge. The straight
line fringes are formed due to the interference between the light rays getting reflected from the top
of the glass plate and from the bottom of the glass plate. These fringes are viewed through the
traveling microscope.
The cross wire of the telescope is adjusted to coincide with the center of well-defined dark
band near the edge of contact (rubber band end) of the glass plates (Figure 6.3). It is taken as the nth
band. The reading on the horizontal scale of the microscope is noted. The microscope is then moved
in the same direction by working the horizontal transverse screw and made to coincide with every
successive 5th fringe and the readings are noted in Table
5.1. Readings for about 45 fringes are noted and are tabulated. From these readings, the mean width
of one fringe () is found.
 Table 6.1 Determination of Band width () (Traveling Microscope)

Microscope Readings
Width of one band
Order of the Width of 25
W
band bands (W) ( = )
TR = 25
MSR VSC
MSR + (VSC x LC)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n
n+5

n + 10

n + 15
n + 20
n + 25
n + 30
n + 35
n + 40
n + 45

Table 6.2 Determination of the distance between the wire and the edge (l)

(units are must be entered in the paranthesis)

Microscope Readings Distance of the wire from
Position of the cross the edge contact (l)
wire MSR VSC MSR + (VSC x LC) R2 ~ R1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

The cross wire along

the edges of contact
(R1)

The cross wire along

the wire
(R2)
The distance between the wire and the
edge of the rubber band (l) = ----------
 The distance ‘l’ between the edges of contact and the wire is measured with help of thetraveling
microscope. Assuming the wavelength of sodium light, the thickness of the thin wire is calculated by
using the given formula.

l
t meters
2 

Calculation

Wavelength of the sodium light  = 5893 x 10-10 m.

Distance between the rubber band and wire l = ----------

Fringe Width β = ----------

Therefore thickness of the wire (t),

l
t
2 






























Result:
Thickness of the given wire by Air Wedge method is (t) = -------------------------
 Coupler Optical Fiber

Diode Laser Screen

Laser Spot from

the Fiber

D
Figure 7.1 Determination of Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle of an Optical Fiber- Set-up
 7. a) DETERMINATION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE
ANGLE - OPTICAL FIBER
Expt. No.:
Date :
Aim
To determine the Numerical Aperture and Acceptance angle of an Optical Fiber

Apparatus Required
Diode Laser, Numerical Aperture Jig, Optical Fiber Cable, a Screen (with concentric circles of
different diameter drawn over it) placed on a stand.

Formula
The numerical aperture of the cable is given by
𝑆
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐷
The acceptance angle of the fiber cable is

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑁𝐴

Where, S - the diameter of the light spot in meter

D- the distance of the screen from the optical fiber end in meter

Procedure
To a laser source, one end of an optical fiber cable is connected. The other end of the
cable is connected to a Numerical Aperture Jig as shown in Figure 7.1 The laser source is
switched on and the output light through the optical fiber cable is checked and its intensity is
adjusted.
A screen (with different diameter of concentric circles drawn over it) is held
vertically in front of the optical fiber cable and its distance (D) is adjusted such that the output
light from the optical fiber coincides exactly with its innermost circle. Now the distance D and the
diameter S of the light spot on the screen are measured. The readings are entered in the Table 7.1.
The experiment is repeated for different distances between the screen and the optical
fiber cable with the corresponding measurement of the diameter of the light spot on the screen.
Thenumerical aperture and the acceptance angle of the optical fiber cable are then calculated.
Table 7.1 Determination of the Numerical aperture of the optical fiber cable

(Units are must be entered in the paranthesis)

  S 
S. No Distance between the optical Diameter of the light NA  sin tan1 
fiber cable end and the screen spot    
(D) (S)   2D 
( )
( ) ( )

Mean NA = ……………..
 Calculation:
The numerical aperture of the cable is given by
𝑆
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝐷

The Acceptance angle (θmax) of the fiber is given by

 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑁𝐴


















Result

The Numerical Aperture of the optical fiber cable - -------------------------

The Acceptance Angle of the optical fiber cable - ---------------------------

Diagram 7.4
 DETERMINATION OF WIDTH OF GROOVE OF A COMPACT DISC - USING LASER

Exp. No.:
Date :
Aim
To determine the width of the groove in a Compact Disc (CD) using laser.

Apparatus Required
A Compact Disc (CD), laser source, screen, scale etc.,
Formula

The width of the groove in a compact disc

𝑛𝜆
𝑑= 𝑚
sin 𝜃
Where, n - order of spectrum
λ –Wavelength of the laser source,A0
θ – Angle of diffraction , Degree

Procedure
Take an empty compact disc (CD), First we need to remove the label surface from the CD. For this
fix, a packing tape (Brown colour) on the label surface and peel off the tape so that the label surface will
come along with the tape. Now, the CD will look like transparent material. This CD will now act as
transmission grating.
The width of the groove in a CD shall be determined by adopting the following steps. viz.,
1. Fix the transparent CD, in a stand using a clip, in such a way that the reflecting side should face
the laser source as shown in fig 7.4

2. Keep the screen at a distance say 90cm from the CD.

3. Switch ON the laser source and allow the laser beam to pass through the transparent area of
reflecting side of the CD, so that we will get first order diffraction pattern in the screen as shown in
fig 7.5
4. Measure the distance between the central maxima and the first order spectrum on both the left and
right sides of the central maxima and enter the values in table 7.2
5. Repeat the experiment by varying the distance say 80 cm, 70cm, etc., between the CD and the
screen and find the diffraction angle using the given formula.
Table: 7.2 To find the width of the Groove in CD

Distance Distance between central maxima

between Order of to the first order spectrum
S.No the CD spectrum
and the (n) LHS (x1) RHS (x1) Mean (x)
screen (L)
X 10-2m Unit X 10-2m X 10-2m X 10-2m Degree µm

Distance Distance between central maxima

between Order of to the first order spectrum
S.No the CD spectrum
and the (n) LHS (x1) RHS (x1) Mean (x)
screen (L)
X 10-2m Unit X 10-2m X 10-2m X 10-2m Degree µm
 6. Now, by substituting the diffraction angle (θ) and wavelength (λ) of the laser source in the given
formula we can find the width of the groove in a compact disc.
7. The Wavelength of the laser light is then calculated using the given formula

Calculation:
𝑛𝜆
Width of the groove in a compact disc 𝑑= metres
sin 𝜃

Result
The width of the groove in a compact disc =_ m