Lesson 2.

1: Literary Genres

Learning Outcomes
1. Define the different classifications of Literature;
2. Identify the different literary genres;
3. Distinguish the different genres from one another; and
4. Create authentic literary pieces.

Discussion
Literature is an important aspect of life that helps us grow both personally and intellectually. It
can lead us to doors of knowledge and experiences. Literature also links us to the philosophical, religious,
and cultural world of which we are a part of. In understanding deeper the significance and nature of
Literature in our lives, it is important to learn about the different genres, elements, and techniques that
make up the literary works that we have.

Relatively, literature has two types: Oral Literature and Written Literature. Oral Literature is the
way of preserving a piece of Literature handed down through word of mouth from one generation to
another. Most of the Literature from the pre-colonial period were collected and preserved through this
form. Written Literature, on the other hand, are literary works that have been created from the use of pen
or any writing materials by a literary genius.

Literary genre is also known as a category of literary composition, which may be determined by
tone, content, literary technique, even by length. There are three major literary genres: drama, prose, and
poetry. They are different from one another yet also contain many similar elements. Each of these literary
genres can be distinguished by its form: Prose is in sentences and paragraphs, Poetry is in lines and
stanzas, and Drama is written in dialogue.

Drama
Drama, also referred to as plays, typically is a genre of literature which is intended to be
performed. It is a portrayal of fictional or non-fictional events through the performance of written
dialogue, either in prose or poetry. Drama involves actors and actresses that present an action/dialogue in
front of a live audience. As narrative mode, there is an assumption that drama requires the collaboration
and participation between the actors/actresses and the audience.
 Drama, however, is not only limited to acting/live performance, it is still possible to read a work
of drama, but the full expression of the work can fully be achieved in the context of performance. It is one
of the first forms of storytelling in human history. Dating back at least the 5th century of BC in Ancient
Greece. It became an important part of celebrations for gods; and competitions were held for the best new
work of drama. The two iconic masks, the laughing face and the sad face, are symbols of the two of the
ancient Greek Muses: Thalia, the Muse of Comedy and Melpomene, the Muse of Tragedy.

Drama remains popular in many other parts of the world as well. Different kinds of drama have
continued to be an important part of a civilization's culture throughout the different periods of history.

One of the primary reasons why many people continue to support and appreciate this form of
literature, is because of its unique way of presenting a narrative or story in real time.

William Shakespeare is one of the most noted dramatists/playwrights in all of history of Literature.
He is known to have written thirty-tree plays, divided into comedy, tragedy, and history. Some of his
works includes: Romeo and Juliet, Midsummer Night’s Dream, Hamlet, Macbeth, and Twelfth Night.

There are different types of Drama and the common types are:
• Tragedy
This is generally serious in tone, focusing on a protagonist who experiences an eventual
downfall. This also shows darker themes, such as pain, death, and disaster. An example of this
would be William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet.
• Comedy
Comedies are lighter in tone and employs humorous dialogues and situations. Most
drama of this type usually ends happily. The intention of the playwright in comedies is to make
the audience laugh, hence they use events, characters, and dialogue witty. An example of
comedy would be Every Man in His Humor by Ben Johnson. You can read the drama here:
https://warburg.sas.ac.uk/pdf/emh105b2777740.pdf
• Farce
Farce is a kind of drama that centers on ridiculous plot that involves exaggerated and
improbable events. Farce often do not show much character development, but instead rely on
physical humor, skillful exploitation, and absurdity. Most Farce only shows a single setting where
all the events occur. This type of drama was creating during the 15th century Europe as a way of
making serious things like religious text, foolish. An example of Farce is William Shakespeare’s
The Comedy Errors. You can read this drama through this site:
https://shakespeare.folger.edu/downloads/pdf/the-comedy-of-errors_PDF_FolgerShakespeare.pdf
 • Melodrama
This is a kind of drama that involve exaggerated conflicts faced by the characters, and
allows for intense emotional response from the audience. Melodramas serves as a form of
entertainment for the readers/listeners when they want to escape reality and be consume the
struggles experienced by the characters. A popular book under this type is The Count of Monte
Cristo by Alexander Dumas.
• Musical
In this type of drama, the playwright not only narrates a story through acting and dialogue,
but also through dance and music. Dramas can have different themes ranging from serious
political topics, fairytales, and different societal issues.
- You can watch Musical play through this sites:
▪ Into the Woods the Musical –
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kqCsQCsinK4
▪ Tangled the Musical
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iyFHjQndReY
▪ Rated:PG An Advocay on Positive Discipline and Children’s Rights| PETA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mG0OptDrchE

Drama Structure
Plays are organized into dialogue, scenes, and act. A play can be made up one act or multiple
acts. Each act is divided into scenes, in which a character or characters, come on or off stage and speak
their line. A play can have only one character or many characters. The main character is the protagonist
and a character who opposes him/her is the antagonist.

Plot for Dramas/Plays typically follow this pattern:

- Rising Action – complications the protagonist must face, composed of any number of
conflicts and crises.
- Climax – the peak of the rising actions and the turning point for the protagonist.
- Falling Act – the movement towards a resolution.

Prose

Prose is a literary genre where the language used has no formal metrical structure. It possesses
ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech, rather than rhythmic structure like the
traditional Poetry. The standard style of writing used is prose is also the same with most of the spoken
dialogues and factual writing and discourse that we use. The language used is also common in newspaper,
magazines, encyclopedia, and many other forms of communication.

Prose can be divided into two category: Fiction, Heroic Prose, and Non-Fiction

Fiction

According to the definition given by Merriam Webster, “Fiction is a form of prose, especially
novels, that describes imaginary events and people". This includes stories that are based on made-up and
fabricated stories and characters. It narrates stories that are sometimes bigger than the actual story itself.
Fiction may be based on accounts of actual events, however, the place, situation, and/or characters are
presented in a fictitious way.

Kinds of Prose under Fiction:

Novel

Novels are book of long narrative work of fiction that may contain some form of realism. As
compared to short stories, Novel presents a whole picture of the different aspects of the character’s life.
Most of the time, novels present stories of human experiences. A novel is also a strong tool to present
different philosophical, social, historical, moral, and cultural perspectives. However, you should note that
all novels are fictional. Although they may contain characters, settings, and events that are the same or
based on real-life, the writers are still using their creative imagination by altering some of the elements to
make it appealing to the readers/listeners.

Some types of Novels include

a. Romance

The Romance novel is a genre developed in Western culture, mainly in English-speaking

countries. This kind of novel is primarily focused on the relationship and romantic love between
two people. Most novels of this genre have emotionally satisfying and optimistic ending.
Some examples of romance novels are:
• The Notebook by Nicholas Sparks
• The Sweetest Thing by Barbara Freethy
• Diary ng Panget by HAveYouSeenThisGirl
• She’s Dating the Gangster by Bianca Bernadino

b. Mystery/Thriller
 This type of novel features elements of mystery that should be solved. The readers may
be given clues to the mystery throughout the story. One main purpose of this novel is to build
suspense to the readers.
Examples:
• V is for Vengeance by Sue Grafton
• Smaller and Smaller Circles by F.H. Batacan
• Dwellers by Eliza Victoria

c. Horror Novels: Mystery and Fear

This type of novels is getting popular today. It features mysterious and gruesome events and
situations. This kind of novel is intended to provoke fear in the reader/listener.
Examples:
• The Unloved by John Saul
• The Devil Tree by Steve Vernon
• Cubao Pagkagat ng Dilm by Tony Perez

d. Historical Novels
Historical novels are stories that are set in the past. The setting of the story is usually real and is
drawn from history, often involving actual historical people and events, however, the principal characters
tend to be fictional. Although these stories are fictional, writers still attempt to capture the manner and
social conditions of the people or time(s) presented in the story.
Examples:
• The Friar’s Daughter by Kansas Girard
• The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas
• The Book of Negroes by Lawrence Hill

Short Story
Short stories are fictional work that are shorter in length than novels and are longer than fables. Since
a short story is shorter in length, it usually focuses on one plot, one main character (with few additional
minor characters), and one central theme; whereas novels can have numbers of plots and themes, with
variety of prominent characters.
One of the best short stories written in English Literature is The Happy Prince by Oscar Wilde, while
short stories of Nick Joaquin and Jose Garcia Villa are still popular today. These days, many
contemporary writers have explored different themes and style in their works. Many local artists from
different regions have also started writing using their own language as a medium.
Example of a short story in Cebuano:

Absent, Ma’am
by Ferdinand Balino
(This short story was recognized as the second best short story during the 2007 Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for
Literature – Cebuano Short Story Category.)

DIHANG nasayod kong panawgon na ni Ma’am Fuentes ang mosunod nga mga ngalan, ako na lang
giatubang ang akong dagway sa wala pa mahuman nga bungbong sa among classroom.

“Buhay, Daisy…?”

“Absent, Ma’am.”

“Buhay, Rose…?”

“Absent, Ma’am.”

Niining bahina, milapos na gyod ang akong panan-aw sa wala pa mabungbongi nga bahin sa classroom. Ang
pagpangataktak ra sa bukbok sa kawayang bahin sa bungbong ang mopahinumdom nakong di gyod ko kalikay
sa mosunod nga pangutana.

“Again, it has been two days. Do you know where they are?”

“Sick, Ma’am.” Sus, ako ra gyoy makalitok niining tubaga. Naanad na intawon kog balik-balik niini, sama
sab sa pagsulat og “I’m sorry for being absent today because I am sick.” Bitaw, akoy tigtabang nilang Rose
nga mosulat sa ilang excuse letters, apan wala na mi kasulat alang sa uban pa nilang mga pag-absent kay
nahutdan na mig mga katarongan. Matingala na hinuon si Ma’m nganong sigeg “because I am sick” silang
Rose.

Apan mao lagi, “Sick, Ma’am” ra gyod ang akong matubag aron makalikay sab ko nga mag-iningles! Puyde
man pod gyod nakong matubag si Ma’m sa tinuod nga hinungdan sa pag-absent nilang Rose apan “speak
English” man pod lagi. Mouk-ok gyod ang akong dila niining pinulongana, panington kog bugnaw nga mora
bag usa ka dakong mata ang kalibotan nga nagtan-aw nako kon mag-iningles ko.

“Sick again? Rose has already had seven absences and Daisy, six. And the reason is always sick. Lani, aren’t
they your neighbors? What’s happening to them?”

Pastilan! Ambot nganong “speak English” man gyod ni si Ma’m nga Math teacher man unta!
“Ma’am, they buys… bought (past tense man diay ni), buys (ay, singular man diay ni), buy shoes today in the
town.” Hayyy, Ma’am, stop asking na, uy.

Mayna lang kay wala na mangutana pag-usab si Ma’m. Kasabot gyod nganong absent silang Rose kay wala
ra ba niya pasudla sa klase si Rose kay nagtsinelas ra. School policy daw. Ambot ba ning
eskuylahana, public man unta, naa pa gyod dinhi sa kabukiran, apan nganong estrikto man gyod sa mga
yuniporm, ID, sapatos, ug uban pa. Nagpuli-puli na man gani silang Rose ug Daisy sa sapatos sa ulahi pero
puli-puli pod lagi og absent.

Sa pagkatinuod lang, miabsent baya ko kas-a kay gipahulam nako si Rose og sapatos, total, wala pa man koy
absent-absent. Amiga gyod nako si Rose kay kaedad-edad ra nako, kinse anyos. Katarongan nako, unsa pa
diay, “for being sick today”. Gipal-otan intawon si Rose kay medyo gamay ang akong sapatos alang sa lapad
niyang mga tiil, aw, unsa pa man diay ang dahomon sa tiil namong mga mag-uuma!

“Lani, I would like to talk to you after the class.”

Talk, estorya, makig-estorya si Ma’m? Ginoo ko, Iningles na sab ni! Apan human man kaha sa klase, di na ni
mag-iningles no! Nindot ra ba maminaw kang Ma’m kon magbinisaya siya kay mogawas ang tono sa iyang
pagka Bol-anon.

Tuod man, nakig-estorya siya nako human sa klase. Gihangyo ko niya nga among adtoon ang balay nilang
Rose inigpaniudto.

Medyo layo sa amoa, singko pesos ang plete sa habalhabal matag tawo. Apan ginalakaw ra ni namo padulong
sa eskuylahan sa kapin o kulang traynta minutos kay wala man intawon miy ikaplete. Mao nga magabalon na
lang mig paniudto. Ang dili makabalon (kay unsaon man, kulang pa ang kasagarang pamahaw nga bulad),
mouli gyod sa ilang lagyong mga balay ug lagmit dili na kabalik sa hapon labi na kon mobundak ang kusog
nga ulan kay mobaha ang sapa nga labangonon padulong sa eskuylahan.

Pag-abot sa dalan, baryo lagi, basketball court ra nga donated by sa mayor ang sementado. Puwerte gyod
nakong kapyot kang Ma’m. Apan si Ma’m, morag wala lang, anad na man god sa sakay-sakay. Apan
malingaw ko niya kon mountol ang habalhabal kay maka-“ay, kabadyo!” siya.

Tungod kay sudlonon pa ang amoa, dili na makalahos ang habalhabal ug kinahanglang molakaw pa mi.
Naagian namong naniudto ang mga nanghurnal sa pagtanom og kamatis sa usa ka luna. Giagda mi nilag
paniudto. Kini si Ma’m, suod ni sa mga tawo mao nga nakigpaniudto na sab ug amo na lang gipagawas ang
among mga balon nga adto man unta namo kaonon sa ilang Rose. Bulad ug sardinas amoa, piniritong isda
kang Ma’m, apan nag-isigdalitay gyod matag usa.
Nagsugod nag estorya samtang nagkaon. Sus, kini si Ma’m, modalikyat gyog hapit sa mga tapok-tapok sa
tindahan inighuman sa klase. Usahay, hunahuna nako, mora pog nakaeskuyla ang mga mulupyo kay
maghisgot sila og bayanihan ug mga kasulbaran sa mga suliran sa mga mag-uuma. Pananglit, makig-atubang
daw sila sa mga tag-iya sa dagkong yuta bahin sa pagpataas sa suhol sa paghurnal. Motabang daw si Ma’m
sa pagkuwenta sa angayang madawat nga suhol.

Gipalingkod mi ni Noy Junior sa bag-o niyang gipanday nga lingkoranan nga kawayan. Pagkabut-an gyod
niya, uy. Tiaw mo, dili na daw siya maminyo kay siyay nagbuhi sa unom pa ka manghod. Baynte tres pa man
unta pero morag trayntahon na ang dagway. Naa pay nagsunod niya nga duha ka manghod nga babaye ayha
silang Rose ug Daisy apan nanimpalad sa lungsod isip mga katabang. Ang kamanghoran siyete anyos ug wala
nay namat-an nga inahan kay nagtalinugo sa pagpanganak ug wala na kaabot sa ospital kay puwerteng layoa.
Mga silingan ug paryente na lang ang napuli-pulig atiman sa bata.

Ang ilang papa namatay sab usa ka tuig human mipanaw ang ilang mama. Gipatay, maoy saktong pulong.
Gabii kadto dihang dunay miabot nga duha ka tawo nga nagbonete. Gigaid si Noy Junior sa punoan sa ilang
nag-inusarang duryan samtang pugos nga gikuha ug gipasakay sa motor ang ilang amahan. Nadunggan gyod
nako ang mga siyagit nilang Rose ug ang pagtiyabaw sa ilang kamanghoran nga giduyogan sab sa pagpaghot
sa ilang iro.

Daw naamang ang mga silingan niadtong tungora; mga iro ray nagkinambiyohay og paghot nga puwerte
nang alingugngoga. Apan taudtaod, nag-isigtagboay na ang mga siga sa mga plaslayt sa balay nilang Rose,
ang mga tambag sa mga silingan morag nagpakalma sa nagkalawom ug daw ginahuyop sa tugnaw nga
hangin sa kagabhion. Naglisod kog katulog niadtong tungora, daw makabungog ang mipuling kahilom nga
matugaw lang sa mga nanaglumbaay nga huni sa mga mananap.

Nakit-an na lang sunod adlaw ang patayng lawas sa ilang papa daplin sa national higway padulong sa
lungsod. Dako ang pagduda sa mga mulupyo nga gisalbeyds kini tungod kay nabantog nga lider sa mga mag-
uuma nga nagpetisyon batok sa pagsulod sa dakong kompaniya sa logging sa ilang lugar kay makahatag daw
og dakong kadaot sa kinaiyahan ug mga umahan. Napugngan ang maong kompaniya apan dunay hungihong
nga duna na poy laing kompaniya sa saging nga nagplanong mosulod.

“Ma’m, sus, nangabsent ra ba gyod silang Rose kay namalit og sapatos,” sulting Noy Junior bisan wala pa
kapangutana si Ma’m nganong wala nay sulod-sulod sa klase ang iyang mga igsoon.

“Sus, morag ako man tingali ang angayng basolon kay wala nako sila pasudla,” pahayag ni Ma’m.

“Makasabot man mi sa kahimtang ninyong mga titser, Ma’m. Napugos ra man pod mog patuman sa balaod.”

“Sus, mao nga duol gyod ang akong kasingkasing ninyo, uy, kay taas mog salabotan.”

“Kon makaeskuyla ra unta ang tanang kabos, Ma’m, daghang makaonor!” pasiaw ni Noy Junior.
“Ug daghan mig palitong mga medal!” pasiaw sab ni Ma’m.

Giagda mig paniudto ni Noy Junior apan sayod mi nga nahutdan na silag pagkaon.

“Giandam na diay namo ang mga kahoy alang sa pagrepir sa eskuylahan, Ma’m,” pahibalo niya

“Sus, kinsa may di maulaw ninyo, uy, nga kamo na man gyod ang nagtukod sa eskuylahan,” sulting Ma’m.

“Kita gyoy mopanday sa atong kaugmaon, Ma’m.”

Taudtaod, nanamilit na mis Ma’m. Gipadad-an siyag mga dahon sa gabon ni Noy Junior alang kuno sa iyang
UTI. Granyulon untang Noy Junior apan wala pa kuno siya kapalit og asukal. Si Ma’m na lang kuno ang
mobuhat.

Naagian gihapon namo ang mga manghurnalay nga nagpadayon na sa pagpananom.

“Lakaw na mo, Ma’m?!” siyagit sa usa.

“O, lakaw na mi!” siyagit sab ni Ma’m.

Tinahod gyod ni si Ma’m sa katawhan, uy. Pinangga gyod kay tiaw nimo, gitukoran siya sa mga mulupyo og
gamayng balay. Taga lungsod ni siya ug mouli-uli ra kada Sabado.

Samtang naghulat mig masakyan, taudtaod naay miabot, si Uncle Yoyong. Uncle ang tahod namo niya bisan
dili namo paryente kay inila nga tig-atiman sa mga problema sa mga mag-uuma.

“Maayong hapon, Ma’m. Nakabalita na ba ka?” pangutana niya.

“Maayong hapon sab. Unsa man diay ang balita?”

Gitan-aw ko ni Uncle Yoyong. Buot pasabot, dili ko niya padunggon sa ilang panag-estoryahan. Nagpalayo
sila si Ma’m.

Gipauna na lang ko ni Ma’m sa eskuylahan kay mobalik daw sila ilang Noy Junior. Gikulbaan ko, morag
dunay kabalaka sa tingog ni Ma’m.

Sa mga estorya-estorya sa mga mulupyo nga akong naagian, nasayran nako ang tanan. Wala na ko molahos
sa eskuylahan. Mora kog naglutaw pabalik sa amoa. Sama sa among naandan kon lapokon ang dalan, gibitbit
nako ang akong sapatos.

Daw gigukod ko sa akong nadunggan ug gusto nakong biyaan kini sa akong pagdagan. Halos magkadagma-
dagma na ko hinungdan nga nahulog sa tunaan sa kabaw ang paresan sa akong sapatos. Sus, mitulo na gyod
sa tunaan ang nagsagol nakong singot ug luha!

Gihugasan nako sa sapa ang akong sapatos ug didto ra nako masayri nga hapit na kini magnganga.
Nakahinumdom hinuon ko sa pagpaanod-anod ni Rose sa iyang nagnganga sab nga sapatos niining sapaa nga
mora na dawg halwan nga katukbonon sa paon. Na, unsa bang hitaboa, naanod hinuon kay nabuhian man
niya! Among gigukod pero wala na namo maapsi tungod sa kapaspas sa pagkaanod niini. “Da, uy, pulihan na
lang natog bag-o,” ang walay bisan unsa mang pagmahay nga sulting Daisy dihang nahibaloan kini. Kon
nasayod lang si Rose, gigakos gyog maayo sa iyang Ate ang maong sapatos sa paglabang sa maong sapa
dihang siya ang migamit niini.

Wala na nako maagii ang mga manghurnalay apan duna pay mga semilya sa kamatis nga wala pa matanom
ug daw nagdanguyngoy na kay nabiyaang nainitan sa Adlaw. Tua diay sila ilang Noy Junior, kuyog silang
Ma’m ug Uncle Yoyong. Naabtan nakong naglingkod si Noy Junior sa yuta atubangan sa ilang gamayng luna
nga bag-o pa niyang gilimpisahan, nagsigeg sikma, hilak, ug bira sa iyang buhok samtang gihapuhap ni Uncle
Yoyong ang iyang abaga. Sige sab siyag kuniskunis sa iyang mga kalunggo sa palad nga halos magdugo na.

Mas natataw ang awaaw niadtong hapona sa himalatyong pagtingog sa radyo nilang Noy Junior. “Kini Ang
Akong Suliran” na diay. Ambot ba nga bisan naminaw sa paborito nilang programa ang mga manghurnalay
apan makita man sa ilang panagway nga naghunahuna gyod sila, labi na silang Uncle Yoyong ug Ma’m nga
nagsigeg masahe sa iyang ulo, kon unsaon pagtabang kang Noy Junior.

Taudtaod, nanamilit na ang mga manghurnalay kay ipadayon pa daw nila ang pagtanom samtang nagpabilin
pa silang Uncle Yoyong ug Ma’m.

Mitindog si Noy Junior, daw gilatas-latasan sa iyang panan-aw ang halapad nga mga umahang gitamnan og
mga mais, radis, kentaki, kamatis, mais, atsal, ug pipila ka rambutan, ug misangko ngadto sa bukirong dapit.
Gimingaw hinuon ko sa akong ate, da. Lagmit tua siya sa maong bukid, anaa sa giingong “mga sundalo sa
katawhan”.

Ako ra ba tong sigeg pangutana niya nganong mopabukid siya nga makatabang-tabang man unta siya sa
among panginabuhian (pero sa pagkatinuod lang, sa akong hunahuna kaniadto, para matabangan kog
eskuyla). Tungod sa kapit-os, tungod sa kawalay yuta, tungod sa pagpahimulos— mao kini ang akong
mahinumdomang pagpasabot niya. Bata pa kuno ko, maamgohan ra kuno nako diha sa kasinatian ang iyang
baroganan.

Pero bisan sa akong mga sulat niya, ako gyong gibalik-balik nga gusto ko katiwas og high school, ug gipaibog
pa gyod nakong mo-second year na ko. Na, gibalosan hinuon ko nga bisan elementarya ra siya, mitaas man
sab ang iyang kahimatngon. Hinaot kuno nga magamit nako ang akong grado sa pagserbisyo sa mga kabos.

Pila ka adlaw ang milabay…

“Buhay, Daisy…?”

“Present, Ma’am.”
“Bu…”

Kadiyot nga kahilom. Mipatigbabaw hinuon ang akong ubo nga resulta tingali sa pila ka adlaw na nakong
pagpulaw.

Ah, unsa pa may Rose Buhay nga tawgon ni Ma’m? Gihatod na sa iyang lubnganan ang patayng lawas sa
akong pinanggang amiga. Nabanggaan kini sa usa ka trak sa kompaniya sa logging dihang nalisang kini
human sa gipusil-patay sa gibantog nga mga vigilantes ang usa ka gisuspetsahang drug user nga batan-ong
lalaki. Namili daw silang Daisy og ukay-ukay nga sapatos niadtong tungora ug midagan kini sa pagkadungog
sa mga buto. Nahimuot pa daw gani siyag maayo sa boots nga made in Korea ug unsa kaha daw kon mao na
lang ang iyang paliton kay puyde pa pangdaro.

“Morag mas taas pa man ang kinabuhi niini kontra nako,” dugang komedya pa daw niya.

“Ayaw gyod mog absent bisan wala moy sapatos, Class, ha?” sulting Ma’m nga midagayday ang luha
samtang nagpadayon sa pagtawag sa uban pa nakong mga klasmeyt.

Hala, nakabinisaya si Ma’m. Sa pagkatinuod lang, sa haya ni Rose, nagsige gyod siyag pangayog pasaylo
ilang Noy Junior. Puwerte na gyong hubaga sa iyang mga mata sa paghilak. Ang mga gakos ra sa mga
mulupyo ang nakapakalma niya. Ikahimuot na lang gyod ni Noy Junior ang iyang balik-balik nga sulting way
sala si Ma’m.

Nagduko nga naghilak sab si Daisy samtang nagsikad-sikad sa iyang mga suot nga tsinelas. Sa hayang Rose
baya, namatikdan nakong naglikay siya kang Ma’m. Wala hinuon ko niya estoryahi nga gibasol niya si Ma’m
pero akong mabati ang iyang pagmahay. Moduko na lang si Ma’m kon agi-agian ra siya ni Daisy. Ug kon
mag-uban silag hikay sa mga buluhaton sa haya, walay tingogay ang duha.

Pagkahuman sa klase, wala damha nga giduol niya si Ma’m ug gitunol ang ID ni Rose. “Handomanan nimo,
Ma’m,” sulti niyang dunay pahiyom. Gigakos gyod siyag hugot ni Ma’m ug gihalok-halokan ang iyang mga
aping. “Makasapatos ra mo, makasapatos ra mo,” sulting Ma’m.

Sa among pag-uli, naagian namong dagko na ang mga semilya sa kamatis nga gitanom sa mga manghurnalay.
Sa dihang nakita namo nga dunay nakabuhing baboy nga nagsigeg ungad sa yuta, giabog namo kini ug
gigukod-gukod nga nagtiniil ra. Nagpatay mig kinatawa samtang gibalikan namo ang mga tanom nga
natumban sa baboy aron ibalik kinig pabarog.

Naabtan namong nagpayl si Noy Junior og mga kahoy sa ilang balay. Nangandam na daw ang mga mulupyo
sa pagrepir sa eskuylahan. Mobalik daw siyas bukid pagkaugma aron manguhag dugang itampong mga kahoy
kay nagamit ang uban sa lungon ni Rose. Lagmit magkita daw sila sa akong ate ug basin duna daw koy
ipadalang mga panginahanglan niya. Gisulatan na lang nako si Ate, nangomosta niya, gisaysay ang nahitabo
kang Rose, nga hinaot magkita mi kadugayan. Ug nag-P.S pa gyod ko: Kasabot-sabot na baya ko ron, Te.

Sa misunod nga mga adlaw, absent na pod ming Daisy. Wala intawon mi maghimog excuse letter. Kay ngano
pa nga absent man pod si Ma’m. Kuyog mi sa lungsod, miduyog sa lihok-protesta batok sa pagkuyanap sa
mga plantasyon sa saging nga moabot daw sa among kabanikanhan ug alang sa pagpangayo na sab og
hustisya sa kamatayon ni Rose nga wala lang tagda sa kompaniya sa logging. Ug, uy, nagtsinelas ra si Ma’m!
Pero sagdi lang, sulti niya, makasapatos ra ming mga mag-uumang kabos kadugayan ug walay lain kondili
kami ang mopasapatos sa among mga kaugalingon.

USA ka tingklase, mibundak ang kusog nga ulan ug puwerteng haguros sa hangin samtang nag-roll call si
Ma’m. Pero wala na mi matugaw pa, di sama kaniadtong mangabasa mi sa salibo kay wala pa mahuman ang
bungbong ug gibukbok pa gyod ang kawayang bahin niini. Aron madunggan ang among mga tingog taliwala
sa tagaktak sa ulan sa sin nga atop, nagpakusganay mig tubag og “Present, Ma’am!”. Puwerte gyod namong
kinataw-anay ug nahimuot nga gikusgan na lang pod ni Ma’m ang pagtawag sa among ngalan.

(KATAPOSAN)

Story taken from: http://bismag.pbworks.com/w/page/9015508/Absent%2C%20Ma%E2%80%99am

Kinds of Heroic Prose:

Heroic Prose

Heroic prose are literary works that is either written down or preserved through oral traditions,
which is meant to be recited.

Fable

Fables are short allegorical stories which promises to illustrate or teach a lesson/moral.

These are short allegorical tale that emphasizes. The characters in fables are usually inanimate
objects or animals that are portrayed like human beings, though they keep their animal traits intact. The
moral or lessons of these fables are highlighted at the end of the story in the form of proverbs or saying.

Examples:
 • The Monkey and the Turtle
• Ang Daga at ang Leon

Ang Daga at and Leon

Isang daga ang nakatuwaang maglaro sa ibabaw ng isang natutulog na leon. Kanyang inaakyat ang
likuran ng leon at pagdating sa itaas ay nagpapadausdos siya paibaba.

Sa katuwaan ay di niya napansin na nagising ang leon. Dinakma ng leon ang daga at hinawakan sa buntot na
wari bagang balak siyang isubo at kainin. Natakot at nagmakaawa ang daga.

“Ipagpaumanhin mo kaibigan. Hindi ko sinasadyang gambalain ka sa pagtulog mo. Wala akong masamang
hangarin. Nakatuwaan ko lang na maglaro sa iyong likuran. Huwag mo akong kainin,” ang sabi ng daga.

Nabakas ng leon sa mukha ng daga ang tunay na pagmamakaawa.

“Sige, pakakawalan kita pero sa susunod ay huwag mong gambalain ang pagtulog ko,” sabi ng leon.

“Salamat kaibigan. Balang araw ay makagaganti rin ako sa kabutihan mo,” sagot ng daga.

Lumipas ang maraming araw at minsan sa pamamasyal ng daga sa kagubatan ay kanyang napansin ang isang
lambat na nakabitin sa puno. Lumapit siya upang mag-usisa at agad niyang nakilala ang leon na nahuli sa
loob ng lambat na ginawang bitag ng nangagaso sa kagubatan.

Dali-daling inakyat ng daga ang puno at nginatngat ang lubid na nakatali sa lambat. Agad namang naputol
ang lubid at bumagsak ang lambat kasama ang leon sa loob. Mabilis na bumaba ang daga at tinulungan ang
leon na nakawala sa lambat.

“Utang ko sa iyo ang aking buhay,” laking pasasalamat na sabi ng leon sa kaibigang daga.

Aral

• Ang paghingi ng paumanhin ay hindi nakakapag-pababa sa dangal ng isang tao.

• Huwag maliitin ang kakayahan ng iba. Maliit man ang iyong kapwa ay may kakayahan pa rin itong
makatulong sa paraang hindi madalas inaasahan ng iba.

Story taken from: https://pinoycollection.com/ang-daga-at-ang-leon/

Fairy tale

Fairy tale are stories that involve fanciful creatures or extraordinary adventures. Most of the
contemporary fairy tales that we have often incorporate moral or ethical undercurrent to the story.
 The characters found in these stories often involve kings, princesses, poor farmers, and queens that
are generally guided by supernatural or magical events, and often revolve around charms, spells, and
magic.The Grimm Brothers, Perrault, and Hans Christian Andersen are known to have written some of
the most famous collections of fairy tales.

Examples:

• Rapunzel by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm

• The Little Mermaid by Hans Christian Anderson

Myth

Myths are traditional stories that tries to explain natural occurrences without using factual or real
explanation. Myths are mostly very old stories, they are created before the world of science, technology,
and philosophy became more precise, as they are today. Thus, these stories not only explain natural
phenomena, but also describes rituals and ceremonies to the people. They exist in every society, and is
one of the basic elements of human culture that functions as a medium to teach moral values.

Examples: Myth of Creation, Pandora’s Box

Legend

These are stories inherent in a nation that talks about human actions or events that has not been proved
nor documented in real history. They are retold, especially through oral tradition, as if they are real events
(Legend of Bigfoot, which is based on real sightings but their existence remains unproved today) that
could be possible and true. The details in legends are altered and adapted over time so they will stay
interesting for the readers. In the 21st Century, these stories are also being modernized and has been
adapted to different media like animation and comics.

Example:

Urban Legend of San Juanico Bridge

Ever wondered how bridges can support excessive weight? The San Juanico Bridge is one of the monumental
projects under Former President Ferdinand Marcos’ rule. This is also the longest bridge in the Philippines
(connecting Samar and Leyte).

There were stories before that said children were offered for a ritual to ensure the strength of bridges.
Rumors that then first lady consulted a fortune-teller who said the bridge would not be finished unless the
blood of children is poured at the structure also spread. So she ordered to kill children in the said place to mix
their blood in the cement for the bridge to be sturdy.

Story taken from : https://filipinotimes.net/entertainment/2017/05/30/top-5-urban-legends-in-the-philippines-that-never-

get-old/
https://www.wheninmanila.com/5-freaky-pinoy-urban-legends-we-really-wish-arent-true/

Kinds of Prose under Non- Fiction

Non-Fiction is a form of prose that involves real people, events, and places. Most non-fiction stories
are written to provide factual information or to explain a certain concept or topic.

Essay

Essay is a piece of writing that is based on a single subject matter, are often written from an author's
personal point of view. There are different types of essays ranging from Literary and Non-Literary.
Essays can consist of a number of elements, including: political manifestos, Literary criticism, learned
arguments, recollections, observations of daily life, and reflections of the author.

An example of Personal Essay is the work of Nora Ephron entitled “A Few Words about Brest”.
This was published in Esquire magazine in 1975, and is known as the best-know essay of Ephron, who
was a great screenwriter and essayist. The essay tackles her experience of being flat-chested in the ‘50s
with incredible humor and pathos, the ending of the essay is also shocking and unforgettable.

Read the essay here: https://genius.com/Nora-ephron-a-few-words-about-breasts-annotated

Autobiography/ Biography

This form on prose is a story about a person’s life. However, the difference of course is the point
of view of the writer.

• Biography

Biography is a written account of another person’s life. Here the person concern is NOT the
person writing the story. Some people may ask somebody to write their life story because they can’t write
well. Biographies entail basic facts, such as family and death. A person who write biographies, is called
“biographer”.

• Autobiography
 Autobiography is a story of the a person's life. However, rather than being written by somebody
else, an autobiography comes through a person's own words, or to put simple, the person concern is the
person writing the story. This form of Literature is not merely a collection of anecdote, it is can also be a
revelation about the author's self-discovery.

Daily Journals

A daily journal is a continued series of writings made by a person in response to their life
experiences and events. It may also contain ideas and reflections on what took place and expresses
emotions and understandings about them. This is kept regularly for private use and is similar to, but
sometimes less personal than, a diary.

Academic/Research Paper

This form of Literature is not a social commentary or an opinion, rather, this is written to persuade
and influence the readers to a certain idea or solutions that are based on evidence. Writers present
informed argument, data, and results of investigations. Most research papers also involves questionnaire
for the data gathering, and follows a certain format: Introduction, Review of Related Literature,
Methodology, Results and Discussion, and Conclusion.

News Articles

This is the most literal form of prose. It discusses current or recent news of either general interest (like
daily newspapers) or of a specific topic (political or trade news magazines). News articles also include
accounts of eyewitnesses to the happening scene//events. This may also contain photographs, statistics, or
graphs.

Poetry
This is often considered the oldest form of Literature. It is a form of Literature that uses aesthetic
and often rhythmic qualities of language. Before the system of writing was created, oral stories from the
past were commonly in poetic form to make them easier to remember and recite.

In poetry, words are combined to form sounds, images, and ideas that might be too complex or
abstract to describe directly.

Most people think that poetry is only about rhymes and counting syllables, however, other types of
poetry are free-form that they do not have rhymes or common patterns.
 There are also kinds of poetry that cross genre lines, such as Prose Poetry. Generaaly, however, a
piece of writing can be considered as a form of poetry when there is a sort of rhythm, and when it focuses
on the ways the words, syllables, and phrases sound when put together.

Kinds of Poetry:

• Lyric Poetry
• Narrative Poetry

Lyrical Poetry

This is a kind of poetry where a single speaker presents a state of mind or emotional state. The
persona of the poem is presented in the first person to express his/her emotions. Lyric has been derived
from lyre, a musical instrument used to accompany the poetry during different festivities, thus some of the
elements of this poetry were retained from its origin.

Subcategories of Lyric Poetry

• Sonnet

The term Sonnet is derived from the Italian word “Sonetto”, which means “Little songs” or small
lyrics. Sonnet is a short rhyming poem with 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Original sonnet
form was invented in 13/14th century by Dante and an Italian Philisopher name Francisco Petrach. As of
today, there are already different types of Sonnet, but the most know are the Petrarchan Sonnet and the
Elizabethan Sonnet.

- Petrarchan Sonnet
This type of Sonnet was introduced by Francisco Petrarch during the 14th Century. This sonnet is
divided into two parts: An octave, consisting of the first eight lines, and a sestet, comprised of the
final six lines. The rhyme scheme can be: ABBA ABBA CBECBE or ABBA ABBA CDCDCD
Example:
On His Blindness
by John Milton

When I consider how my light is spent,

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
And that one Talent which is death to hide
Lodged with me useless, though my Soul more bent

To serve therewith my Maker, and present

 My true account, lest he returning chide;
“Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?”
I fondly ask. But patience, to prevent

That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need

Either man’s work or his own gifts; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is Kingly. Thousands at his bidding speed
And post o’er Land and Ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait.”
- Shakespearean Sonnet
Sometime called the Elizabethan Sonnet, is generally written in iambic pentameter, and is
divided into three four-line stanza called quatrains, along with a final two-line couplet. The rhyme
scheme of this sonnet is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG.

Sonnet 18
by William Shakespeare

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date;

Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,

And often is his gold complexion dimm'd;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimm'd;

But thy eternal summer shall not fade,

Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow’st;
Nor shall death brag thou wander’st in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st:

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,

So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
 • Villanelle

This form of Lyric Poetry is an old form of poetry. It is a highly structured a highly structured 19
line French poem with two repeating rhymes and two refrain. The poem is made up of five tercets
followed by a quatrain. The rhyme scheme of this poem is ABA ABA ABA ABA ABA ABAA. Notice
there are only two rhyming sounds here. In addition, line 1 gets repeated in lines 6, 12, and 18. Line 3 gets
repeated in lines 9, 15, and 19. Yes, there are so many rules in this poem, but the repetitions help in
creating a deeper and intense emotion in the poem.
Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night by Dylan Thomas is probably the most famous villanelle. It
follows the rules of the form perfectly.

Do Not Go Gentle into that Good Night

By Dylan Thomas

Do not go gentle into that good night,

Old age should burn and rave at close of day;
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

Though wise men at their end know dark is right,

Because their words had forked no lightning, they
Do not go gentle into that good night.

Good men, the last wave by, crying how bright

Their frail deeds might have danced in a green bay,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

Wild men who caught and sang the sun in flight,

And learn, too late, they grieved it on its way,
Do not go gentle into that good night.

Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight

Blind eyes could blaze like meteors and be gay,
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

And you, my father, there on the sad height,

Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray.
 Do not go gentle into that good night.
Rage, rage against the dying of the light.

• Sestina

Sestina is another old poetic form from the 12th Century. Like villanelle it has a lot of repetition,
but unlike villanelle, Sestinas don’t have to rhyme. The sestina has six stanzas of six lines each, and a
closing stanza of three lines called “envoi” or “tornada”. The six words that end the lines of the first
stanza get repeated at the line endings of each of the remaining stanzas, and all six words appear in the
poem’s final three lines. The pattern is thus:
1st stanza- 1 2 3 4 5 6
2nd stanza-6 1 5 2 4 3
3rd stanza- 3 6 4 1 2 5
4th stanza- 5 3 2 6 1 4
5th stanza- 4 5 1 3 6 2
6th stanza- 2 4 6 5 3 1
7th stanza - (6 2) (1 4) (5 3)
Though this pattern sounds complicated, it is easy to understand in action. See the examples below to
analyze the repetition pattern.

Alaforte by Ezra Pound

LOQUITUR: En Betrans de Born.
Dante Alighieri put this man in hell for that he was a stirrer-up of strife.
Eccovi!
Judge ye!
Have I dug him up again?

The scene is his castle, Altaforte. “Papiols” is his jongleur. “The

Leopard,” the device of Richard (Cœur de Lion).

I
Damn it all! all this our South stinks peace.
You whoreson dog, Papiols, come! Let’s to music!
I have no life save when the swords clash.
But ah! when I see the standards gold, vair, purple, opposing
 And the broad fields beneath them turn crimson,
Then howl I my heart nigh mad with rejoicing.

II
In hot summer have I great rejoicing
When the tempests kill the earth’s foul peace,
And the light’nings from black heav’n flash crimson,
And the fierce thunders roar me their music
And the winds shriek through the clouds mad, opposing,
And through all the riven skies God’s swords clash.

III
Hell grant soon we hear again the swords clash!
And the shrill neighs of destriers in battle rejoicing,
Spiked breast to spiked breast opposing!
Better one hour’s stour than a year’s peace
With fat boards, bawds, wine and frail music!
Bah! there’s no wine like the blood’s crimson!

IV
And I love to see the sun rise blood-crimson.
And I watch his spears through the dark clash
And it fills all my heart with rejoicing
And prys wide my mouth with fast music
When I see him so scorn and defy peace,
His lone might ’gainst all darkness opposing.

V
The man who fears war and squats opposing
My words for stour, hath no blood of crimson
But is fit only to rot in womanish peace
Far from where worth’s won and the swords clash
For the death of such sluts I go rejoicing;
Yea, I fill all the air with my music.
 VI
Papiols, Papiols, to the music!
There’s no sound like to swords swords opposing,
No cry like the battle’s rejoicing
When our elbows and swords drip the crimson
And our charges ’gainst “The Leopard’s” rush clash.
May God damn for ever all who cry “Peace!”

VII
And let the music of the swords make them crimson
Hell grant soon we hear again the swords clash!
Hell blot black for always the thought “Peace”!

This is a perfect sestina in which Pound uses repetitive ending words, “peace,” “music,” “clash,”
“opposing,” “crimson,” and “rejoicing,” respectively. As we know, sestinas have six stanzas with six lines
in each stanza, which repeat the final words of first stanza, and this repetition occurs in the remaining
poem to.

• Acrostic Poem
This is a kind of poetry that spells out a name, word, or phrase with the first letter of each line of
your poem. The name or word spelled acts as the theme or message of the poem. Sometime a word or
phrase can also be found down the middle or end of the poem, but the most common is at the beginning.
Acrostic Poem also do not follow a specific rhyme scheme; therefore, they are easier to write.

An Acrostic
by E. A Poe

Elizabeth it is in vain you say

"Love not"-thou sayest it in so sweet a way:
In vain those words from thee or L.E.L.
Zantippe's talents had enforced so well:
Ah! if that language from thy heart arise,
 Breath it less gently forth-and veil thine eyes.
Endymion, recollect, when Luna tried
To cure his love-was cured of all beside-
His follie-pride-and passion-for he died.

On one of the chapters of Through the Looking Glass, Lewis Caroll wrote an acrostic poetry of real little
girl named Alice Pleasance Liddell.

A boat, beneath a sunny sky

Lingering onward dreamily
In an evening of July -
Children three that nestle near,
Eager eye and willing ear,
Pleased a simple tale to hear -
Long has paled that sunny sky:
Echoes fade and memories die:
Autumn frosts have slain July.
Still she haunts me, phantomwise,
Alice moving under skies
Never seen by waking eyes.
Children yet, the tale to hear,
Eager eye and willing ear,
Lovingly shall nestle near.
In a Wonderland they lie,
Dreaming as the days go by,
Dreaming as the summers die:
Ever drifting down the stream -
Lingering in the golden gleam -
Life, what is it but a dream?

• Haiku
The haiku is a Japanese form that arose in the 17th century, most famously in the writing of
Matsuo Bashō. This poem is considered as the shortest poem with only one tercet (three lines). The first
 and the last lines of this poem has five moras (a sound unit similar to syllables when translated to
English). Typically a haiku has 17 syllables, arranged in three lines, first 5 syllables, then 7, then 5.

“The Old Pond”

by Matsuo Bashō (English Translation)

An old silent pond

A frog jumps into the pond—
Splash! Silence again.

• Elegy
Elegy is a form of Literature that is written in honor of someone who has died or something that
is lost. This is a poem of mourning, often for a particular person, but it can be about a group of people or
about a broader sense of loss. Elegies often move from mourning toward consolation.

Example of Elegy:
O Captain! My Captain!
Walt Whitman

(This written by Walt Thitman in 1865 to commemorate the death of President Abraham Lincoln.)

O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done,

The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won,
The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,
While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;
But O heart! heart! heart!
O the bleeding drops of red,
Where on the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.

O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;

Rise up- for you the flag is flung- for you the bugle trills,
For you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths- for you the shores a-crowding,
For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;
Here Captain! dear father!
This arm beneath your head!
 It is some dream that on the deck,
You’ve fallen cold and dead.

My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still,
My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will,
The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done,
From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won;
Exult O shores, and ring O bells!
But I with mournful tread,
Walk the deck my Captain lies,
Fallen cold and dead.

• Limerick
This is a form of Lyric poetry that is often humorous and sometimes obsence, obscene, in five
line, with strict rhyme scheme of AABBA. It has two longer lines, two short ones, and a closing longer
line that makes a joke, often a ribald one.

To Miss Vera Beringer

by Lewis Caroll

There was a young lady of station

‘I love man’ was her sole exclamation;
But when men cried: ‘You flatter’,
She replied, ‘Oh! no matter
Isle of Man is the true explanation.’

Anonymous:

There was a young girl from St. Paul,

Wore a newspaper-dress to a ball.
The dress caught on fire
And burned her entire
Front page, sporting section and all.

• Ode
 Odes are lyric poems that started during the ancient Greece. It is lyrical in nature and are meant to
be sang or chanted, however, it is not very lengthy. Odes present a highly solemn and serious tone and
subject matter, which is usually in elaborated patterns of stanzas. This poem is also written to address a
particular person, event, or thing, and is often meant to praise or glorify its subject.

Example of Ode is the Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats, please visit this site to read the poem:
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44477/ode-on-a-grecian-urn

Narrative Poetry
Narrative Poetry is a type of Poetry which tells a story. It has full storyline with all the elements
of storytelling like characters, setting, plot, and theme. Although it is not totally important for Narrative
poetry to rhyme, its meter and objectives should be clear and specific. Narrative poetry includes, Epic,
and Ballad.

• Epic
This a lengthy narrative poem in grand language celebrating the adventures and accomplishments
of a legendary or conventional hero. Examples are the: Epic of Gilgamesh, The Odyssey, and Illiad.

• Ballad
This is a poem narrating a story in short stanza. Traditional ballads are of unknown authorship,
having been passed on orally from generation to the next. The metre of this poem is simple, and the
repetition- of words, lines, and stanzas – are typicall feature of ballad. The stanza also consists of four
line, rhymng in ABCB.

Tam Lin
(Unknown)
Scottish traditional ballad

” ‘O I forbid you, maiden all,

That wears gold in your hair,
To come or go by Carterhaugh
For young Tam Lin is there.
 Stagolee
by John Hurt
(Blue ballad with roots in American folk music)

“Stagolee was a bad man

They go down in a coal mine one night
Robbed a coal mine
They’s gambling down there”