CL 202

Fluid Mechanics
Lecture 3

Instructors: Dr. Amit Kumar and Dr. Raghvendra Gupta

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

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 Stress Field

The force acting on the particle can be:

 Body forces
 Gravity, electromagnetic force
 Force per unit volume or per unit mass
 Surface forces
 Pressure, friction Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)
 Act on the boundary Contact force 𝜹𝑭 on the surface of a
 How the force is transmitted fluid particle (outward unit normal 𝒏ෝ)
throughout the medium in contact with another fluid particle.
 Concept of stress
 Stress defined as force per unit area

𝛿𝐹𝑛 𝛿𝐹𝑡
Normal stress 𝜎𝑛 = lim ; Shear (tangential) stress 𝜏𝑛 = lim
𝛿𝐴𝑛 →0 𝛿𝐴𝑛 𝛿𝐴𝑛 →0 𝛿𝐴𝑛

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 Stress Field

𝛿𝐹𝑦
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = lim
𝛿𝐴𝑥 →0 𝛿𝐴𝑥
Direction in which the stress acts
Plane on which the stress acts

Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)

 An infinite number of planes can pass through a point-

 An infinite number of stresses at a point
 The stress at a point can be described completely by specifying stresses acting on any three
mutually perpendicular planes passing through the point
 Second order tensor
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 Stress Field

 The stress at a point has nine components

 Sign convention for stress:

 Positive when the direction of stress
component and that of the normal on the
plane both are positive or both are
negative.

Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)

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 Rate of Strain

t t+dt t+2dt
Deformation of a fluid element
Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)

 In a fluid, shear stresses develop due to (viscous) flow

 Shear strain or angular deformation: Relative displacement of particles in the body (e.g. da at time t+dt)
 Rate of strain 𝛾ሶ or strain rate: Rate of change of deformation

 Like stress, rate of strain is also a second order tensor and has 9 components.
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 Newton’s Law of Viscosity
 A certain relation is observed between shear stress and rate of deformation/ rate of strain in a fluid
 For most of the common fluids, shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of strain

F 𝜏 ∝ 𝛾ሶ 𝜏

𝛿𝑢
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇𝛾ሶ = 𝜇
𝛿𝑦
 This is known as Newton’s law of viscosity 𝛾ሶ
 The proportionality constant is known as dynamic viscosity.
 The fluids following Newton’s law of viscosity are known as Newtonian fluids.
 Unit of viscosity- Poise in CGS

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 Viscosity

 Viscosity: A measure of the resistance for the motion between the adjacent fluid layers
 Kinematic viscosity 𝜈 : Ratio of dynamic viscosity and density. Also known as momentum diffusivity.
 Unit of kinematic viscosity: Stokes in SI units
 Viscosity measured using viscometers
 Viscosity of water at 20 °C = 0.001 Pa.s = 1 cP (Centipoise)
 Viscosity of air at 20 °C = 1.86×10-5 Pa.s
 Effect of pressure negligible
 Gas viscosities increase with temperature
 Liquid viscosity decreases with temperature

Image from Deen et al. (2016)

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 Non-Newtonian Fluids

 Fluids that do not follow Newton’s law of viscosity

 Time-independent apparent viscosity 𝜏Τ𝛾ሶ
 Bingham plastic: linear relationship with a non-zero
intercept 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 + 𝜇𝑝 𝛾ሶ i.e. it shows yield stress
above which the fluid flows e.g. toothpaste
𝑛
 Power law fluids: 𝜏 = 𝑘 𝛾ሶ
 Pseudoplastic or shear thinning n < 1
 Blood, polymer solutions
 Shear thickening or dilatant: n > 1
 Example- suspension of corn starch and sand
Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)

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Non-Newtonian Fluids

 Time-dependent apparent viscosity

 Thixotropic: Decrease in viscosity with time
 Rheopectic: Increase in viscosity
 Viscoelastic: Fluids partially return to the original shape

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Visualising the Flow

Streamline: The line that is tangent to the velocity vectors at every point in the flow
any given time instant
For a two-dimensional flow: At any time instant t

𝑑𝑦 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦
 For an unsteady flow, streamline will be for a particular time instant
 The above equation will give a family of curves (undetermined integration
constant).
 For a steady flow, streamlines, streaklines and pathlines are same.

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Visualising the Flow

Pathline: Path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid particle.

 Can be traced using a dye on a long exposure photograph
2D pathlines:
 (𝑥 = 𝑥𝑝 , 𝑦 = 𝑦𝑝 ): Instantaneous coordinates
of the particle at time t.

𝑑𝑥𝑝
= 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Image By BenFrantzDale - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, 𝑑𝑦𝑝
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2000680 = 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡
𝑑𝑡

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 Visualising the Flow
Streakline: The line joining fluid particles that have passed through a fixed point earlier
 Can be traced by injecting a dye at a fixed point

was at P at t = 0  Location of a particle which was at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) at time 𝑡0 (Pathline)

𝑥𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑡0
was at P at t = 2s 𝑦𝑃 𝑡 = 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑡0
was at P at t = 4s  Streakline is the instantaneous location of fluid particles that were
at point at time 𝑡0 , where 0 < 𝑡0 < t.
was at P at t = 6s
𝑥𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑘 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑡0
𝑦𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑘 𝑡0 = 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑡0
P (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
is at P at t = t

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 Visualising the Flow
Streakline: The line joining fluid particles passing through a fixed point
 Can be traced by injecting a dye at a fixed point
 Location of a particle which was at
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) at time 𝑡0
𝑥𝑃 = 𝑥 𝑡, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑡0
𝑦𝑃 = 𝑦 𝑡, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑡0
 Obtain the instantaneous positions of all
the particles released from the streak
source

Image by Martinhelfer - Own work, Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1551699

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 One, Two and Three-Dimensional Flow

 Based on number of space co-ordinates required to specify the velocity field

𝒗 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝒗 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧, 𝑡
 Uniform flow: Velocity is assumed to be assumed constant across the section (1-D)

 Axisymmetric flow: axially symmetric flow (in cylindrical co-ordinates, velocity in q-

direction is zero)
 Fully-developed flow: Velocity profile invariant along x-direction

1-D flow
Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)

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One, Two and Three-Dimensional Flow

2-D flow
Image from Fox and McDonald (2015)
3-D flow
Image from Nagargoje et al. (2020)

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 Classification of Fluid Flows

Density constant

Subsonic Supersonic (and hypersonic) Open channel flow

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Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Image from Deen (2016)

Laminar flow : Fluid

Turbulent: Characterised by
moves in laminas or
random three-dimensional
smooth layers
velocity fluctuations

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Visualising the Flow
𝑽 = 𝑎𝑦𝒊Ƹ + 𝑏𝑡𝒋Ƹ
 Find the equation of streamline passing through point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
 Pathline of a fluid particle that was at point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) at time 𝑡0
 Streakline through point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )

Streamline

Pathline

Streakline

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