THERMODYNAMICS

is the science of energy!

Thermodynamics is the study of the transformation of

heat, mechanical work and other forms of energy and
how these transformations relate to properties of matter.
therme heat

dynamis power

thermodynamics

heat power
Classical Statistical
• Macroscopic • Microscopic
 Two spoons are placed
overnight on a freezer.
One is a metallic spoon
while the other is a
disposable plastic spoon.
You placed the two
spoons in contact with
your cheeks.
Which spoon is colder?
 Temperature is the quantitative measure of the relative
hotness or coldness of a body.

• Temperature is also related to the molecular

kinetic energy of the molecules that make up the
material.
• A device that measures temperature is called a
thermometer.
• To obtain the temperature of an object, a
thermometer is placed in contact with the object,
until thermal equilibrium is reached.
• Thermal equilibrium is a condition in which
two objects would not exchange energy by
heat or electromagnetic radiation if they
were placed in thermal contact.
• Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if
and only if they have the same temperature.
• Two bodies can be in thermal equilibrium
with each other even if they are not in
physical contact with each other.
If two objects are separately in thermal equilibrium with a
third object, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
• You put a thermometer in a pot of hot water and record the reading.
What temperature have you recorded?

A. The temperature of the water

B. The temperature of the thermometer
C. An equal average of the temperatures of the water and
thermometer
D. A weighted average of the temperatures of the water and
thermometer, with more emphasis on the temperature of the water
E. A weighted average of the water and thermometer, with more
emphasis on the temperature of the thermometer
• Two objects, with different sizes, masses, and
temperatures, are placed in thermal contact. In
which direction does the energy travel?

A. Energy travels from the larger object to the

smaller object.
B. Energy travels from the object with more mass
to the one with less mass.
C. Energy travels from the object at higher
temperature to the object at lower temperature.
• All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical
properties change with temperature.
• Some of these properties include:

Volume of a liquid

Dimensions of a solid

Pressure of a gas at constant volume

Volume of a gas at constant pressure

Electric resistance of a conductor

Bimetallic strip Resistance infrared
thermometer thermometer thermometer
• Which of the following types of thermometers have to be in thermal
equilibrium with the object being measured in order to give accurate
readings?

A. A bimetallic strip
B. a resistance thermometer
C. infrared thermometer
D. A and B
E. A, B and C
PHYSICS 2
• Formerly the centigrade scale, later named
after its developer, Anders Celsius (1742).
• The scale is based on the ice point (0°C )
and steam point (100°C) of water.
• Used today in a huge majority of countries
around the world.
• Developed by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
• The ice point and the steam point of water are
assigned 32°F and 212°F respectively.
• Used in the United States.
𝚫𝑻𝑭 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟗
= =
𝚫𝑻𝑪 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟓

𝟗
𝑻𝑭 = 𝟑𝟐 + 𝑻𝑪
𝟓

𝟓
𝑻𝑪 = 𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐
𝟗
• Thermometers are calibrated by placing them in thermal contact with
reference systems.
• Because different materials have different expansion properties, errors
occur in temperature measurements.
• Mercury thermometers cannot be used below its freezing point (39°C)
• Alcohol thermometers are not useful above 85°C (boiling point)
• In a constant volume gas thermometer,
the temperature is determined from the
pressure variation of the gas.

Absolute
zero!
• SI unit of absolute temperature, named after William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
• Reference temperatures: absolute zero (0 K) and the triple point of water.
• At absolute zero (-273.15°C) any thermodynamic system has minimum energy.
• The triple point of water is the condition in which all the 3 states of water can exist
in equilibrium (0.01°C and 4.58 mmHg).

One kelvin is defined as 1/273.16 of the difference

between the triple point of water and absolute zero.

Absolute zero: −273.15°C = 0 K

Triple point (H2O): 0.01°C = 273.16 K
𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓

The magnitude of 1 K equals the magnitude 𝚫𝑻𝑲 = 𝚫𝑻𝑪

of 1 degree in Celsius scale.
• Consider the following pairs of materials. Which pair represents two
materials, one of which is twice as hot as the other?

A. boiling water at 100°C, a glass of water at 50°C

B. boiling water at 100°C, frozen methane at -50°C
C. an ice cube at -20°C, flames from a circus fire-eater at 233°C
D. none of those pairs
• On a day when the temperature reaches 50°F, what is the temperature
in degrees Celsius and in kelvins?
• Iron melts at 1811 K. What is this temperature in Celsius and
Fahrenheit?
PHYSICS 2
• The increase in dimensions of a material as a consequence of
temperature change is called thermal expansion.
• Due to the increased average separation of the atoms, when heated.
• For small temperature variations, change in length is directly
proportional to temperature change.

𝚫𝑳 = 𝜶𝑳𝒐 𝚫𝑻 𝚫𝑽 = 𝜷𝑽𝒐 𝚫𝑻

𝜶 = average coefficient of linear expansion

𝜷 = average coefficient of volume expansion 𝜷 = 𝟑𝜶
• Most liquids expand with increasing temperature.
• Water contracts from 0°C to 4°C, (density increases)
• Above 4 °C, water expands with increasing
temperature and its density decreases.

Density of water is max.

at 4°C (1.000 g/cm3)

The unusual behavior of water

explains why lakes freezes from
the surface, which makes
marine life possible.
• If you are asked to make a very sensitive glass thermometer, which of
the following working liquids would you choose?

A. Mercury
B. Alcohol
C. Gasoline
D. Glycerin
• Thermal stress is due to the expansion or contraction of a material.
• Engineers account for thermal stress by providing space or means for
expansion.

Thermal Expansion Joints

PHYSICS 2
• A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the
temperature is 0.0°C. What is its length when the temperature is
40.0°C? What if the temperature drops to -40.0°C? What is the length
of the unclamped segment? For steel, α = 11 × 10-6 K-1
A surveyor uses a steel measuring tape that is exactly 50.000 m long at a
temperature of 20°C. The markings on the tape are calibrated for this temperature.
(a) What is the length of the tape when the temperature is 35°C? (b) When it is
35°C, the surveyor uses the tape to measure a distance. The value that she reads off
the tape is 35.794 m. What is the actual distance?
A poorly designed electronic device has two bolts attached to different parts of the
device that almost touch each other in its interior. The steel and brass bolts are at
different electric potentials, and if they touch, a short circuit will develop, damaging
the device. The initial gap between the ends of the bolts is d = 5.0 μm at 27°C. At
what temperature will the bolts touch? Assume the distance between the walls of
the device is not affected by the temperature change.
A 200 cm3 glass flask is filled to the brim with mercury at 20°C. How much mercury
overflows when the temperature of the system is raised to 100°C? The coefficient of
linear expansion of the glass used is 0.40 × 10-5 K-1. For mercury, β = 1.82 × 10-4 K-1
An aluminum cylinder 10 cm long, with a cross-sectional area of 20 cm2,
is used as a spacer between two steel walls. At 17.2°C it just slips
between the walls. Calculate the stress in the cylinder and the total
force it exerts on each wall when it warms to 22.3°C , assuming that the
walls are perfectly rigid and a constant distance apart. For aluminum, E
= 70 GPa and α = 24 × 10–6.
 Cool environment
20°C

heat

Hot coffee
80°C

THERMODYNAMICS
Heat is the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system
due to temperature difference.

Heat is energy
in transition.

The symbol for heat is Q.

• Heat has the same unit as work and energy.

joule 1 cal = 4.186 J

1 BTU = 1055 J
calorie
1 BTU = 252 cal

BTU 1 BTU = 778 ft-lb

 Internal energy refers to the sum of all the microscopic forms
of energy of the constituent atoms and molecules of a system.
• Internal energy includes:
• kinetic energy of random translational, rotational, and vibrational motion of
molecules;
• vibrational potential energy associated with forces between atoms in
molecules;
• electric potential energy associated with forces between molecules
• Internal energy does not include the bulk kinetic/potential energy of the system.
• The internal energy of the system is associated with its temperature.
• Internal energy is an extensive property and cannot be measured directly.
Is it possible to change the
temperature of a system without
the addition or removal of heat?
 Doing work on water increases its
internal energy.

An increase in internal energy

would result to a rise in
temperature.

The change in temperature is

directly proportional to the
amount of work done.

James Prescott Joule

(1818-1889)
1 cal = 4.186 J
THERMODYNAMICS
• When energy is added or removed from a system in the form of heat,
the temperature usually changes.
• The heat required to change the temperature of a given mass of a
pure substance is called sensible heat.
• It is proportional to the mass m of the substance and the change in
temperature ∆T.

𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄𝚫𝑻

c = specific heat
 Specific heat is the energy per unit mass 𝑸 J
required to change the temperature of a 𝒄=
given substance by 1 C°. 𝒎𝚫𝑻 kg 3 K

• Specific heat is a measure of how thermally For liquid water:

insensitive a substance is to the addition of energy.
c = 1 cal/g · C°
• Specific heat is an intensive property.
c = 4.186 J/g · C°
For ice: c = 2.09 J/g · C° c = 4,186 J/kg · C°
For steam: c = 2.01 J/g · C° c = 1 Btu/lb · F°
Imagine you have 1 kg each of iron,
glass, and water, and all three samples
are at 10°C. Rank the samples from
highest to lowest temperature after 100
J of energy is added to each sample.

A. Iron, glass, water

B. Iron, water glass
C. Glass, iron, water
D. Glass, water, iron
E. Water, iron, glass
F. Water, glass, iron
• Calorimetry is concerned with heat
calculations involved in various physical
changes.
• When energy is transferred between two
bodies in the form of heat, the heat lost
by one body equals the heat gained by
the other.

−Qlost = Qgained
 Whenever heat is transferred
into or out of a system, its
temperature always changes.
Is this statement true or false?
• A transition from one state of matter to another
is called phase change.
• Whenever a substance undergoes phase change,
energy is always absorbed or released
• At a given pressure, phase change occurs at a
definite temperature.
• The specific energy necessary to change the
phase of a substance at a definite temperature is
called latent heat, L.
For water:
𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳𝒇 𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳𝒗
𝐿! = 80 cal/g = 334 J/g = 144 Btu/lb
Lf = latent heat of fusion 𝐿" = 540 cal/g = 2260 J/g = 970 Btu/lb
Lv = latent heat of vaporization
THERMODYNAMICS
Hidilyn Diaz had a dinner rated at 2,000
Calories. She wishes to do an equivalent
amount of work in the gym by lifting a
50.0-kg barbell. How many times must
she raise the barbell to expend this
much energy? Assume she raises the
barbell 2.00 m each time she lifts it and
she transfers no energy when she lowers
the barbell.
Cardo fires a silver bullet with a muzzle speed of 200 m/s which hit a
thick wall made of wood. Assume all the internal energy generated by
the impact remains with the bullet. What is the temperature change of
the bullet? (csilver 234 J/kg · C°
Cardo fires a silver bullet with a muzzle speed of 200 m/s which hit a
thick wall made of wood. Assume all the internal energy generated by
the impact remains with the bullet. Suppose Cardo runs out of silver
bullets and fires a lead bullet at the same speed into the wall. Will the
temperature change of the bullet be larger or smaller?
You are designing an electronic circuit element made of 23 mg of
silicon. The electric current through it adds energy at the rate of 7.4
mW. If your design doesn’t allow any heat transfer out of the element,
at what rate does its temperature increase? The specific heat of silicon
is 705 J/kg · K.
A 0.05-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C and then dropped into a
calorimeter containing 0.400 kg of water initially at 20.0°C. The final
equilibrium temperature of the mixed system is 22.4°C. Find the specific
heat of the metal.
Calculate the total energy required to convert 1.00 g of cube ice at
-30.0°C to steam at 120.0°C.
A plot of temperature versus energy added when a system initially consisting of 1.00 g
of ice at -30.0°C is converted to steam at 120.0°C.
What mass of steam initially at 130°C is needed to warm 200 g of water
in a 100-g glass container from 20.0°C to 50.0°C? (cglass = 837 J/kg · C°)
A glass contains 0.25 kg of water initially at 25°C. How much ice, initially
at -20°C must you add to obtain a final temperature of 0°C with all the
ice melted? Ignore the heat capacity of the glass.
A camper pours 0.30 kg of coffee, initially in a pot at 70.0°C into a 0.120
kg aluminum cup initially at 20.0 °C. What is the equilibrium
temperature? Assume that coffee has the same specific heat as water
and that no heat is exchanged with the surroundings.
A hot copper pot of mass 2.0 kg (including its copper lid) is at a
temperature of 150°C. You pour 0.10 kg of cool water at 25°C into the
pot, then quickly replace the lid so no steam can escape. Find the final
temperature of the pot and its contents, and determine the phase of
the water (liquid, gas, or a mixture). Assume that no heat is lost to the
surroundings.
In a particular camp stove, only 30% of the energy released in burning
gasoline goes to heating the water in a pot on the stove. How much
gasoline must we burn to heat 1.00 L (1.00 kg) of water from 20°C to
100°C and boil away 0.25 kg of it?
THERMODYNAMICS
Conduction

Convection

Radiation
• Results from the transfer of kinetic energy between microscopic
particles through collision
• Rate of thermal conduction depends on the properties of the material

𝒅𝑸 𝑻𝒉 − 𝑻𝒄
𝑯= = 𝒌𝑨
𝒅𝒕 𝑳

k = thermal conductivity
A = cross-sectional area
H = heat current, (W)
• Heat transfer mechanism that involves the
movement of fluids from one region to another
• Convection plays a key role in the boiling of
water and cooling of an air-conditioned room
and weather changes.

Free/natural convection
• due to difference in densities
Forced convection
• Blower or pump is used to
circulate the fluid A heating element in the tip of this submerged
tube warms the surrounding water, producing
a complex pattern of free convection.
• All objects radiate energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
• The rate at which the surface of an object
radiates energy is proportional to the fourth
power of the absolute temperature of the
surface.

𝑷 = 𝝈𝒆𝑨𝑻𝟒 Stefan’s Law

σ = 5.6704 × 10–8 W/m2 · K4

e = emissivity of the body

• Energy coming from the sun reaches the

Earth by means of radiation
Two slabs of thickness L1 and L2 and thermal conductivities k1 and k2 are in thermal
contact with each other as shown. The temperatures of their outer surfaces are Tc
and Th, respectively, and Th > Tc. Determine the temperature at the interface and the
rate of energy transfer by conduction through an area A of the slabs in the steady-
state condition.
A Styrofoam cooler has total wall area (including
the lid) of 0.80 m2 and wall thickness 2.0 cm. It is
filled with ice, water, and bottles of water, all at
0°C. What is the rate of heat flow into the cooler if
the temperature of the outside wall is 30C? How
much ice melts in 3 hours?? Let k = 0.027 W/ m·K.
A steel bar 10.0 cm long is welded end to end to a copper bar 20.0 cm long. Each
bar has a square cross section, 2.00 cm on a side. The free end of the steel bar is
kept at 100°C by placing it in contact with steam, and the free end of the copper
bar is kept at 0°C by placing it in contact with ice. Both bars are perfectly insulated
on their sides. Find the steady-state temperature at the junction of the two bars
and the total rate of heat flow through the bars.
A thin, square steel plate, 10 cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith’s forge to
800°C. If the emissivity is 0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of energy from the
plate?
What is the total rate of radiation of energy from a human body with surface area
1.20 m2 and surface temperature 30°C? If the surroundings are at a temperature of
20°C, what is the net rate of radiative heat loss from the body? The emissivity of the
human body is very close to unity, irrespective of skin pigmentation.
THERMODYNAMICS
The state of a system refers to its conditions which can be
described completely by its properties.

State variables refer to the quantities that are used to

describe the state of a system.

Examples of state variables are pressure, temperature and

volume.
• Real gases at low pressures can be modeled as ideal gases.
• Ideal gases have low densities and maintained at low pressures.
• The equation of state of an ideal gas relates its properties (P, V, T, m).
• One mole of any substance contains Avogadro’s number of
constituent particles (atoms or molecules)

𝑵𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐×𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 Avogadro’s number

• Number of moles, n: 𝒎 m = mass

𝒏= M = molar mass
𝑴
For a fixed amount of gas (constant n):

𝟏
constant T: 𝑷∝ 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒌 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐 Boyle’s law
𝑽
𝑽 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
constant P: 𝑽∝𝑻 =𝒌 = Charles’ law
𝑻 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
𝑷 𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
constant V: 𝑷∝𝑻 =𝒌 = Gay-Lussac’s law
𝑻 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

𝑽 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
constant P, T: 𝑽∝𝒏 = Avogadro’s law
=𝒌 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
𝒏
• Summarizing the four laws:

𝑷𝑽
=𝒌 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 Ideal gas law
𝒏𝑻

𝑷𝑽 R = universal gas constant

=𝑹
𝒏𝑻 R = 8.314 J/mol·K
R = 0.0821 L·atm/mol·K
• The Boltzmann’s constant equals the ratio of the universal gas
constant to Avogadro’s number

𝑹
𝒌𝑩 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎0𝟐𝟑 𝐉/𝐊
𝑵𝑨

𝑵 𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌𝑩 𝑻
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑷𝑽 = 𝑹𝑻
𝑵𝑨
Ideal gas law
𝑛 = number of moles
𝑁 = number of molecules or atoms
• A common material for cushioning objects in packages is made by
trapping bubbles of air between sheets of plastic. This material is
more effective at keeping the contents of the package from moving
around inside the package on

A. a hot day
B. a cold day
C. either hot or cold days
• Find the mass of a single hydrogen atom and of a single oxygen
molecule.
What is the volume of a container that holds exactly 1 mole of an ideal
gas at standard temperature and pressure (STP), defined as T = 0°C and
P = 1 atm?
In an automobile engine, a mixture of air and vaporized gasoline is compressed in
the cylinders before being ignited. A typical engine has a compression ratio of 9.00
to 1. The intake and exhaust valves are closed during the compression, so the
quantity of gas is constant. What is the final temperature of the compressed gas if
its initial temperature is 27°C and the initial and final pressures are 1.00 atm and
21.7 atm, respectively?
An “empty” aluminum scuba tank contains 11.0 L of air at 21°C and 1 atm. When the
tank is filled rapidly from a compressor, the air temperature is 42°C and the gauge
pressure is 2.10 ×107 Pa. What mass of air was added? (Air is about 78% nitrogen,
21% oxygen, and 1% miscellaneous; its average molar mass is 28.8 g/mol.)
A spray can containing a propellant gas at twice atmospheric pressure (202 kPa)
and having a volume of 125.00 cm3 is at 22°C. It is then tossed into an open fire.
When the temperature of the gas in the can reaches 195°C, what is the pressure
inside the can? Assume any change in the volume of the can is negligible.
A spray can containing a propellant gas at twice atmospheric pressure (202 kPa)
and having a volume of 125.00 cm3 is at 22°C. It is then tossed into an open fire.
When the temperature of the gas in the can reaches 195°C, what is the pressure
inside the can? Assume any change in the volume of the can is negligible. Suppose
we include a volume change due to thermal expansion of the steel can as the
temperature increases. Does that alter our answer for the final pressure significantly
 The molar heat capacity of a substance is the amount of
energy needed to raise the temperature of one mole of
substance by 1 C°.

• The molar heat capacity of a substance is the

product of its specific heat and molar mass.

J
𝑪 = 𝑴𝒄 𝑸 = 𝒏𝑪𝚫𝑻
mol L K
• The molar specific heat at constant
pressure and volume and the For monatomic gases:
universal gas constant are related
𝟓 𝟑
by: 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑹, 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
𝟐 𝟐
𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
For diatomic gases:
Ratio of specific heats:
𝟕 𝟓
𝑪𝑷 = 𝑹, 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
For air: 𝟐 𝟐
𝑪𝑷
=𝜸
𝑪𝑽 𝜸 = 𝟏. 𝟒
A cylinder contains 3.00 mol of helium gas at 300 K. If the gas is heated at constant
volume, how much energy must be transferred by heat to the gas so that its
temperature would increase to 500 K? How much heat must be transferred to the
gas at constant pressure to raise the temperature to 500 K?
ü State Variables
ü Transfer Variables
ü Thermodynamic Work
 A thermodynamic system is any collection of
object that can be regarded as a unit and has
the potential to exchange energy with its
surroundings

A thermodynamic process refers to any change

that a system undergoes from one equilibrium
state to another.

The series of states that a system undergoes

during a process is called the path of the
process.
• The state of a system refers to its
conditions which can be described Kinetic energy

STATE VARIABLES
completely by its properties.
Potential energy
• State variables refer to the quantities
that are used to describe the state of Position
a system.
• State variables depend only on the Velocity
initial and final state of the system.
Pressure

Temperature

Internal energy
• Transfer variables are associated with
processes that involve a transfer of
energy across the boundary of a system.
• They are associated with a change in the
given system, not its state.

Transfer variables

heat work

• Transfer variables are either positive or

negative.
Process Sign
Heat is gained by the system +
Heat is lost by the system –
Work is done by the system +
Work is done on the system –
• When a confined gas expands, it does work into
its surroundings.
• An expanding gas always does a positive work.
• When the gas is compressed, the work is negative.
The work done can be illustrated
using a PV diagram. The work done in a process equals the
area under the curve in a PV diagram.
𝑽𝒇
𝑾 = S 𝑷𝒅𝑽
𝑽𝒊
The work done from an
initial to final state
depends on the path
between these states.
A quantity of ideal gas undergoes an
expansion that doubles its volume.
Does the gas do more work on its
surroundings if the expansion is at
constant pressure or at constant
temperature? Assume that they have
the same final states.
A. Constant pressure
B. Constant temperature
C. The work done is the same
D. Insufficient information
Both heat and work are
boundary phenomena

A system may possess energy,

but not heat or work.

Both heat and work are

associated with a process, not
a state.

Both heat and work are path

functions.
ü Understanding the First Law
ü Thermodynamic Processes
 The change in the internal energy of a
closed system equals the sum of the energy
transferred by heat and the work done.

ΔU = Q – W

The change in internal energy of a system during ΔU

any thermodynamic process depends only on the
initial and final states.
ΔU = ?
When you exercise, your body does
work. Hence W > 0. Your body also
warms up during exercise; by
perspiration and other means the
body rids itself of this heat, so Q <
0. Since Q is negative and W is
positive, ΔU = Q – W < 0 and the
body’s internal energy decreases.
That’s why exercise helps you lose
weight: It uses up some of the
internal energy stored in your body
in the form of fat.
• In an isolated system, no energy (either by heat or by work) is
transferred between the system and surroundings.

∆U = 0
• The internal energy of an isolated system remains constant.
• Constant volume process

W=0

∆U = Q

Q = nCv∆T
• Constant pressure process

W = P(Vf – Vi)

Q = nCp∆T

ΔU = Q – W For expansion, work is positive.

For compression, work is negative.
• Constant temperature process The internal energy of ideal gases depend
• For ideal gases, only on the temperature.

∆U = 0

Q=W

𝑽𝒇
𝑾 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝐥𝐧
𝑽𝒊
• a process which does not involve
any heat transfer

Q=0
ΔU = ?
• The change in the internal energy
equals the net work done.

∆U = –W
• For a cyclic process, the initial and final
states of the system are the same.

∆U = 0 P3

P2
Q=W
V
V2 V1

• Thus, the change in internal energy

must be zero.
For ideal gases:

Process W ΔU Q
Isobaric 𝑃 𝑉! − 𝑉" 𝑄−𝑊 𝑛𝐶# Δ𝑇
Isochoric 0 Q 𝑛𝐶$ Δ𝑇
𝑉!
Isothermal Q 0 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln
𝑉"
𝑛𝐶$ 𝑇" − 𝑇!
Adiabatic 𝑃"𝑉" − 𝑃!𝑉! –W 0
𝛾−1
Solved Problems
A 2.0-mol sample of an ideal gas is kept at 20.0°C during an expansion from 2.0 L
to 10.0 L. How much work is done on the gas during the expansion? How much
energy transfer by heat occurs between the gas and its surroundings in this
process? If the gas is returned to the original volume by means of an isobaric
process, how much work is done on the gas?
Suppose 1.00 g of water vaporizes isobarically at atmospheric pressure. Its volume
in the liquid state is 1.00 cm3, and its volume in the vapor state is 1671 cm3. Find
the work done in the expansion and the change in internal energy of the system.
The figure shows a PV-diagram for a cyclic process in which the initial and final
states of some thermodynamic system are the same. The state of the system starts
at point a and proceeds counterclockwise in the PV-diagram to point b, then back
to a; the total work is W = -500 J. (a) Why is the work negative? (b) Find the change
in internal energy and the heat added during this process.
The PV-diagram shows a series of thermodynamic processes. In process ab, 150 J of
heat is added to the system; in process bd, 600 J of heat is added. Find (a) the
internal energy change in process ab; (b) the internal energy change in process abd
(shown in light blue); and (c) the total heat added in process acd (dark blue).
The PV-diagram shows a series of thermodynamic processes. In process ab, 150 J of
heat is added to the system; in process bd, 600 J of heat is added. Find (a) the
internal energy change in process ab; (b) the internal energy change in process abd
(shown in light blue); and (c) the total heat added in process acd (dark blue).
A typical dorm room or bedroom contains about 2500 moles of air. Find the
change in the internal energy of this much air when it is cooled from 35.0°C to
26.0°C at a constant pressure of 1.00 atm. Treat the air as an ideal gas with γ = 1.40.
Air at 20.0°C in the cylinder of a diesel engine is compressed from an initial
pressure of 1.00 atm and volume of 800.0 cm3 to a volume of 60.0 cm3. Assume air
behaves as an ideal gas with γ = 1.40 and the compression is adiabatic. Find the
final pressure and temperature of the air.
The compression ratio of a diesel engine is 15:1. (a) If the initial pressure is 1.01×105
Pa and the initial temperature is 27°C, find the final pressure and the temperature
after adiabatic compression. (b) How much work is done during the compression if
the initial volume of the cylinder is 1.00 L = 1.00 × 10–3 m3?
The compression ratio of a diesel engine is 15:1. (a) If the initial pressure is 1.01×105
Pa and the initial temperature is 27°C, find the final pressure and the temperature
after adiabatic compression. (b) How much work is done during the compression if
the initial volume of the cylinder is 1.00 L = 1.00 × 10–3 m3?
ü Reversibility
ü Heat Engines
ü Heat Pumps
A process that proceeds spontaneously in
one direction but not the other is called an
irreversible process. All processes that
occur in nature are irreversible.

A reversible process is a process in which

the system and its surroundings can be
returned to their initial states at the end of
the process.
• Any device that transforms heat
partly into work or mechanical
energy is called a heat engine.
• The matter inside the engine is
called the working substance.
• The simplest engine to analyze
are those that involve a cyclic
process.
• The working substance absorbs energy
by heat from a high temperature
reservoir
• Work is done by the engine
• Energy is expelled by heat to a lower
temperature reservoir
• The net work W done by a heat engine
equals the net energy transferred by
heat.

W = |Qh| − |Qc|
The thermal efficiency of a heat
engine is the ratio of the work done
by the engine during one cycle to the
energy input at higher temperature.

𝑾 |𝑸𝑪 |
𝒆= =𝟏−
|𝑸𝒉 | |𝑸𝑯 |
 It is impossible to construct a heat
engine operating in a cycle that will
produce an amount of work equal to
the amount of input energy by heat.
An engine transfers 2.00 ⨉ 103 J of energy from a hot reservoir during a cycle and
transfers 1.50 ⨉ 103 J as exhaust to a cold reservoir. Find the efficiency of the
engine. How much work does this engine do in one cycle? If the engine runs at
1800 cycles per minute, how much is the output power?
A gasoline truck engine takes in 10,000 J of heat and delivers 2000 J of mechanical
work per cycle. The heat is obtained by burning gasoline with heat of combustion
Lc = 5.0 × 104 J/g. (a) What is the thermal efficiency of this engine? (b) How much
heat is discarded in each cycle? (c) If the engine goes through 25 cycles per second,
what is its power output in watts? In horsepower? (d) How much gasoline is burned
in each cycle? (e) How much gasoline is burned per second? Per hour?
 A device that transfers
energy from a cold to hot
reservoir is called a heat
pump or a refrigerator.

The transfer of energy from a

cold to hot reservoir can only
be achieved if work is done
on the engine.
 It is impossible to construct a machine
that can transfer energy by heat from a
lower to higher temperature without the
input energy by work.
• The COP is a number that measures the effectiveness of a heat pump.

Qc
COP = cooling mode
W

Qh
COP = heating mode
W
A certain refrigerator has a COP of 5.0. When the refrigerator is running, its power
input is 500 W. A sample of water of mass 500 g and temperature 20.0°C is placed
in the freezer compartment. How long does it take to freeze the water to ice at 0°C?
Assume all other parts of the refrigerator stay at the same temperature and there is
no leakage of energy from the exterior, so the operation of the refrigerator results
only in energy being extracted from the water.
A Carnot engine is a theoretical engine that operates in an
ideal, reversible cycle called Carnot cycle, and is the most
efficient engine possible.

Sadi Carnot
• No real heat engine operating between two energy reservoirs can
be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between the
same two reservoirs.
• The thermal efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by the formula

Tc
eC = 1 -
Th
A steam engine has a boiler that operates at 500 K. The energy from the burning
fuel changes water to steam, and this steam then drives a piston. The cold
reservoir’s temperature is that of the outside air, approximately 300 K. What is the
maximum thermal efficiency of this steam engine?
A Carnot heat engine receives 500 kJ of heat per cycle from a high-
temperature heat reservoir at 652°C and rejects heat to a low-
temperature heat reservoir at 30°C. Determine (a) the thermal
efficiency of this Carnot engine and (b) the amount of heat rejected to
the low-temperature heat reservoir.
Which has system is more disordered?
• A measure of the degree of randomness or disorder in a system

𝒅𝑸 Entropy change for a

𝒅𝑺 = reversible, infinitesimal
𝑻 process
The change in entropy during a
𝒇 process depends only on the
𝒅𝑸 Entropy change for
𝚫𝑺 = C initial and final states, and thus,
a finite reversible
𝒊 𝑻 process
independent of the path.

Entropy change for a

𝑸 reversible isothermal
𝚫𝑺 =
𝑻 process
• Calculate the change in entropy when 500 g of ice melts into liquid
water.
• The total entropy of an isolated system always increases for an
irreversible process.
• For a reversible process, the total entropy of the isolated system
remains constant.
• The change in entropy in any reversible cycle is always zero.

∆S = 0 (reversible process)
True or False:
The entropy change in an adiabatic free
expansion process is zero because Q = 0.
 𝑽𝒇
𝚫𝑺 = 𝒏𝑹 ln 𝑽 (ΔS in free expansion)
𝒊
• Determine the change in entropy when 2.4 kg of air expands
adiabatically to four times its initial value.
• Calculate the entropy change when water is cooled from 30°C to 4°C.
• Suppose 1.00 kg of water at 100°C is placed in thermal contact with
1.00 kg of water at 0°C. What is the total change in entropy?
 The entropy of the
Universe increases for
all real processes.