OCR (A) Chemistry A-level

Module 2: Foundations in Chemistry

Notes
by Amie Campbell

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2.1 atomic structure and isotopes
● Isotopes: atoms of same element w/ different no of neutrons + different masses
● Mass number=p + n, atomic number=p
● Different isotopes react in similar ways: have same number of electrons, chemical
reactions involve electrons & number neutrons has no effect on reactions
● Heavy water: used to control nuclear processes, for heavy water 2​​ 1​H isotopes (deuterium
/D) formula can be written D​2​O. slightly higher mpt, bpt + density. If all water were heavy
water, would see ice more often since higher mpt
● Cations: +ve, anions: -ve
2.2 relative masses
● Mass defect: small amount of mass lost due to strong nuclear force holding together
protons/neutrons
● Relative isotopic mass: mass of an isotope relative to 1/12 mass of an atom carbon-12
● Relative atomic mass: weighted mean mass of an atom of an element relative to 1/12
mass of an atom of carbon-12
● % abundances isotopes can be found w/ mass spectrometer. Work by:
○ Sample placed in mass spec, vapourised then ionised to form +ve ions
○ Ions accelerated (heavier move more slowly + difficult to deflect so ions of
different isotopes separated)
○ Ions detected as a mass to charge ratio (m/z). Greater the abundance, greater
the signal
○ For ion w/ +1 charge, ratio equivalent to relative isotopic mass
2.3 formulae and equations
● Binary compound: contains 2 elements only. To name: change ending 2nd element to
-ide. Metals come first in ionic compound names
● Polyatomic ions: an ion w/ more than one element bonded together:
○ Ammonium NH​4​+
○ Hydroxide OH​-​, nitrate NO​3​-​, nitrite NO​2​-​, hydrogencarbonate HCO​3​-​, manganate
(VII) (permanganate) MnO​4​-
○ Carbonate CO​3​2-​, sulfate SO​4​2-​, sulfite SO​3​2-​, dichromate (VI) Cr​2​O​7​2-
○ Phosphate PO​4​3-
● Diatomic molecules: H​2​, N​2​, O​2​, F​2​, Cl​2​, Br​2​, I​2
● Other small molecules: P​4​ or S​8​ (normal practise to write as S)
3.1 amount of substance and the mole
● Avogadro constant: number of particles in each mol of carbon-12
● One mole: amount of substance that contains 6.02x10​23​ particles ​
● Molar mass: mass in g in each mole of a substance (units= g mol​-1​)
● n=m÷Mr
3.2 determination of formulae
● Molecular formula: no of atoms of each element in a molecule
● Empirical formula: simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound
(important for giant crystalline structures where it would be impossible to use actual
numbers- used for metals, some non metals (e.g. C) and ionic compounds)

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 ● Relative molecular mass: compares mass molecule w/ mass carbon-12
● Relative formula mass: compares mass formula unit w/ mass carbon-12
● Analysis: investigating chemical composition of substance
● Water of crystallisation: water molecules which are part of crystalline structure
● When hydrated crystals are heated, bonds holding water w/in crystals are broken +
water driven off
● E.g. CuSO​4​。5H​2​O (s) (blue) -> CuSO​4​ (s) (white) + 5H​2​O (l)
● Experimentally finding formula hydrated salt:
○ Weigh empty crucible, then add hydrated salt & reweigh
○ Use pipe clay triangle to support crucible on a tripod. Heat for 1 min strong, 3
mins gentle
○ Leave to cool then weigh
● Accuracy of experimental formula: assumes all water has been lost (solution= heat to
constant mass) & assumes no further decomposition (difficult if no colour change)
3.3 moles and volume
● 1 mol dm​-3​ sol contains 1 mol of solute dissolved in each 1 dm​3​ solution
● mol=conc x vol
● Standard solution= solution of a known conc. Prepared by: dissolving exact mass solute
in solvent + making it up to an exact volume
● Can have mass conc (g dm​-3​), mol dm​-3​ → mass dm​-3​: x Mr
● Molar gas volume V​m​: the volume per mole of gas molecules a stated temperature and
pressure (24 dm​3​ mol​-1​ at RTP)
● RTP: about 20℃ and 101 kPa
● Assumptions for molecules making up ideal gas: random motion, elastic collisions,
negligible size, no intermolecular forces
● pV=nRT:
○ p= pressure Pa (kPa to Pa x 10​3​)
○ V=vol m​3​ (cm​3​ to m​3​ x 10​-6​ // dm​3​ to m​3​ x 10​-3​)
○ n=mol of gas
○ R=ideal gas constant 8.314 J mol​-1​ K​-1
○ T= temp in K
● Experimentally finding a relative molecular mass of volatile liquid (liquid room temp, boils
below 100℃):
○ Add sample liquid to small syringe via needle + weigh
○ Inject into gas syringe through self-sealing rubber cap + reweigh small syringe to
find mass added
○ Place in boiling water bath (100℃). Liquid vapourises + record pressure
○ Use ideal gas eq to find moles, then use moles & mass to find Mr
3.4 reacting quantities
● Stoichiometry: ratio of amount/moles each substance in balanced eq
● Experimentally identifying unknown metal:
○ Weigh sample metal + add to conical flask
○ Add known conc + vol HCl to flask + quickly replace bung

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 ○ Measure max vol gas in syringe , work out moles gas then use eq to find moles
unknown, use moles + mass to find Mr
● Theoretical yield: maximum possible product if all reactants converted to product
● May not achieve theoretical yield because:
○ Reaction may not go to completion
○ Side reactions may take place
○ Purification may lead to loss of product
● Percentage yield=actual yield/theoretical yield x100
● Limiting reagent: reactant not in excess which will be used up first + stop reaction.
Calculations must use limiting reagent
● Atom economy: measure of how well atoms have been utilised
● Atom economy=(sum molar masses desired product)/(sum molar masses all products)
x100
● High atom economy: large proportion desired products, few waste products, important
for sustainability-make most of resources. Makes industrial processes more efficient,
preserves raw material + reduces waste
● Atom economy only part of sustainability: should use readily available reactants w/ low
obtaining costs & depends on percentage yield
4.1 acids, bases and neutralisation
● Strong acid fully dissociates in aq solution, weak acid partially dissociates in aq solution
● Alkali: base that dissolves in water releasing OH​-​ ions into solution
● Neutralisation of an acid: the H​+​ ions react w/ a base to form a salt + water. H​+​ replaced
by metal or ammonium ions from base
● with alkalis, all reactants for neutralisation are aq. Ionic eq: H​+​ + OH​-​ → H​2​O
4.2 acid-base titrations
● Titration: technique to accurately measure vol one solution reacting exactly with another
● Can be used to check purity- important for pharmaceuticals etc
● Volumetric flask typical tolerances: 100 cm​3​ +/- 0.2 cm​3​, 250 cm​3​ +/- 0.3 cm​3
● Experimentally preparing standard solutions:
○ Solid weighed + dissolved in beaker using less distilled water than needed to fill
volumetric flask
○ Transfer to volumetric flask + last traces rinsed into flask with distilled water
○ Add distilled water dropwise until bottom of meniscus matches up with mark
○ Flask inverted slowly several times to mix, if not titration results will be
inconsistent
● Typical tolerances pipette: 10 cm​3​ +/- 0.04 cm​3​, 25 cm​3​ +/- 0.06. Burette: 50 cm​3​ +/- 0.1
● Burette recorded to nearest half division, to 2dp (last 5 or 0)
● Acid-base titration procedure:
○ Add measured volume one solution to conical flask w/ pipette
○ Add other solution to burette, record initial reading
○ Add few drops indicator to conical flask
○ Run solution from burette into conical flask, swirling it, until it reaches the end
point

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 ○ Record final reading.
○ 1st titre carried out quickly to get approx, then repeat accurately adding solution
dropwise as end point approached. Carry out until two accurate titres are
concordant (within 0.1 cm​3​)
4.3 redox
● Sign for oxidation number placed before the number
● Oxidation numbers:
○ O -2
○ H +1
○ F -1
○ Ions: charge on ions
○ Special cases: H in metal hydrides: -1, O in peroxides -1, O bonded to F +2
● Roman numerals used for compounds w/ elements that form different ions w/ different
charges
● Reduction:gain of electrons (decrease oxd no), oxidation: loss of electrons (increase oxd
no)
5.1 electron structure
● shells=energy levels, energy increases as shell number increases
● Principal quantum number: the shell number or energy levels number
● Atomic orbital: region around the nucleus that can hold up to 2 electrons w/ opposite
spins (make up shells)
● S- sphere, P-dumbbell, can have 3 separate orbitals P​x​, P​y​, P​z

● Orbitals of same type are grouped as sub-shells

● Two electrons in an orbital must have opposite spins (up/down)
● Periodic table can be divided into blocks corresponding to highest energy subshell
● 4s sub shell at lower energy than 3s, so is filled first. Once filled, energy 3d falls below
4s, so it empties before
5.2 ionic bonding and structure
● Ionic bonding: the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions
● High melting point and boiling point: high temp needed to provide large quantity energy
needed to overcome strong electrostatic attraction between ions
● Melting points higher for lattices with greater charges on ions, because of stronger
attraction between ions
● Many dissolve in polar solvents (e.g. water), they break down the lattice + surround each
ion in solution. If made of ions with strong charges, attraction too strong to be broken
down

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 ● Solubility depends on relative strengths attractions w/in lattice & attraction between ions
+ water molecules so predictions of solubility should be treated with caution
● Solid state: ions in fixed position, no mobile charge carriers so doesn’t conduct electricity
● liquid/molten: solid lattice breaks down so ions free to move as mobile charge carriers so
can conduct electricity
● Ions in tooth enamel removed in acid conditions, gaps can allow toothy decay to
develop. Saliva helps neutralise acidic food + replace ions but not always enough so
toothpaste contains fluoride ions
5.3 covalent bonding
● Covalent bonding: strong electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and
the nuclei of bonded atoms
● Attraction is localised between electrons
● In BF​3​, there are 6 electrons in boron’s outer shell→ bonding predictions can’t be made
solely on noble gas structure
● For phosphorus, sulfur and fluorine their outer electrons are in n=3 outer shell, which can
hold up to 18 electrons, so more electrons are available for bonding. This means you
can get: PF​3​ PF​5​ SF​2​ SF​4​ SF​6​ ClF ClF​3​ ClF​5​ ClF​7​.
● Different numbers unpaired electrons→ different possibilities of compounds (e.g. sulfur)

● Double covalent bond: electrostatic attraction is between 2 shared pairs of electrons and
the nuclei of bonding atoms e.g. O​2​ or CO​2
● Triple covalent bond: electrostatic attraction is between 3 shared pairs of electrons and
the nuclei of bonded atoms e.g. N​2​ or HCN
● Dative covalent/coordinate bond: covalent bond in which shared pair of electrons has
been supplied by one of the bonding atoms only. Shown by →arrow, e.g. NH​4

6.1 shapes of molecules and ions

● Electron pair repulsion theory:
○ Electron pairs surrounding central atom determine molecule/ion shape
○ Pairs repel each other so they are arranged as far apart as possible
○ Arrangement minimises repulsion, so holds atoms in definite shape
○ Different number of electron pairs→ different shape

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 ● Solid line=in plane of paper, wedge=comes out of plane of paper, dotted=goes into plane
● Lone pair slightly closer to central atom + occupies more space than bonded atom→
repels more strongly than bonding pair.
● Bond angle is reduced by about 2.5° per lone pair
● CH​4​= tetrahedral 109.5°, NH​3​ pyramidal 107°, H​2​O nonlinear 104.5°
● Multiple bonds treated as a bonding region
● Different shapes/bond angles:*
○ 2: 180°, linear e.g. CO​2
○ 3: 120°, trigonal planar e.g. BF​3
○ 4: 109.5°, tetrahedral e.g. CH​4
○ 6: 90°, octahedral e.g. SF​6
● Ammonium ion has 4 bonding pairs so tetrahedral
● CO​3​2-​ and NO​3​-​ ions are trigonal planar*

● SO​4​2-​ ions are tetrahedral

6.2 electronegativity and polarity

● Electronegativity: attraction of a bonded atom for the pair of electrons in a covalent bond
● Pauling scale (& pauling electronegativity values) used to compare electronegativity
● Increases upwards + across towards fluorine (F, O, N, Cl most, group 1 least)
● If electronegativity difference is large, bond becomes ionic rather than covalent
● Non-polar bond: bonded electron pair shared equally between bonded atoms (when
atoms same element/ similar electronegativity)
● Pure covalent bond: bonded atoms are same element
● Polar covalent bond: bonded electron pair shared unequally (different atoms with
different electronegativity). More electronegative has greater attraction for bonded pair
electrons.
● Polar bonds are polarised with 𝛅+/- signs (dipoles)
● Permanent dipole: dipole in a polar covalent bond which doesn’t change

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 ● Polar bonds may reinforce one another to produce larger dipole over whole molecule or
cancel out:
○ H​2​O: polar- OH bonds have permanent dipole, act in opposite directions but don’t
exactly oppose each other, overall O end is 𝛅- and H end is 𝛅+
○ CO​2​: nonpolar- C=O bonds have permanent dipole, act in opposite directions +
exactly oppose each other, overall dipoles cancel
● Ionic lattices dissolving in polar solvents: water molecules attract +/- ions, ionic lattice
breaks down as dissolves, water molecules surround ions, + ions attracted towards 𝜹-
oxygen of water & - ions attracted to 𝜹+ hydrogen
6.3 intermolecular forces
● Intermolecular forces: weak interactions between dipoles of different molecules
● Induced dipole-dipole interactions (London forces):
○ Exist between all molecules, only temporary
○ Movement electrons produces changing dipole in any molecule, at any instant an
instantaneous dipole will exist but position shifts constantly
○ Instantaneous dipole induces a dipole on neighbouring molecule, which induces
dipoles on further molecules, they then attract one another
○ More electrons in each molecule→ larger instantaneous + induced dipoles→
greater induced dipole-dipole interactions→ stronger attractive forces (explains
increased bpt noble gases)
● Permanent dipole-dipole interactions:
○ Act between permanent dipoles in polar molecules
○ Mean boiling point of polar molecules is much greater: have both London and
permanent dipole-dipole interactions, extra energy needed to break additional
permanent interactions, so boiling point is higher
● Simple molecular substance: made of of simple molecules (small units w/ definite
number of atoms). In solid state form simple molecular lattices, held together by weak
intermolecular forces, but atoms within molecules bonded strongly with covalent bonds
● Simple molecular substances have low mpt/bpt: only weak intermolecular forces break,
not strong covalent bonds
● Nonpolar simple molecules tend to be soluble in nonpolar solvents (hexane):
intermolecular forces form between molecules and solvent, weakening intermolecular
forces in simple lattice, so they break & compound dissolves
● Tend to be insoluble in polar solvents (water): little interaction between molecules in
lattice & solvent molecules, intermolecular bonding in solvent too strong to be broken
● Solubility of polar simple molecular substances is hard to predict: depends on strength of
dipole. May dissolve because polar solute/solvent molecules can attract each other
(similar to ionic dissolving). Some with part polar part nonpolar dissolve
● Simple molecular structures don’t conduct electricity: no mobile charged particles within
structure, so nothing to complete an electrical circuit
6.4 hydrogen bonding
● Found in molecules containing: electronegative atom w/ lone pair electrons (O,N,F)
attached to a hydrogen atom

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● Shape around hydrogen atom involved in bond is linear, bond shown by dashed line
● Solid is less dense than liquid: hydrogen bonds hold water molecules apart in open
lattice structure, water molecules in ice further apart than in water, so ice is less dense
than liquid water & floats. 2 lone pairs on oxygen and 2 hydrogens, so each molecule
can form 4 bonds→ open tetrahedral lattice full of holes. Bond angle H involved 180°
● Relatively high mpt/bpt: hydrogen bonds & london forces, large quantity of energy is
needed to break hydrogen bonds. When ice lattice breaks, arrangement hydrogen bonds
is broken & when boils hydrogen bonds break completely
● Other anomalous properties: relatively high surface tension + viscosity
● DNA is held together by hydrogen bonds: AT pair form 2 hydrogen bonds, CG pair forms
3. Pairs match up correctly because bases must fit together so hydrogen atom one
molecule and O/N from other align correctly

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