Kinematic Optimization of the Rack and Pinion Steering-

System of an Automobile: An Example

Adrian Ștefan Mazilu and Ion Preda

Transilvania University of Brasov, Brasov, Romania

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. A properly designed steering system has direct correlation with the
stability and safety of the automobile.
This paper presents a kinematic design example of a rack and pinion steering
system combined with an independent front suspension.
The design considered the available space and cross-coupling with the ve-
hicle suspension. Virtual models were created and further updated as the design
progressed. A simplified geometrical model has been created first, and was cor-
rected and improved within Catia CAE package.

Keywords: rack and pinion; steering kinematics; Ackermann steering; CAD;

optimization

1 Introduction

The design of a steering system of an automobile must match the overall dimensions
of the vehicle and the available space for the steering and suspension components.
The designer must take into consideration the orientation and location of the engine
relative to the front axle, the type of suspension, critical dimensions and intended use
of the vehicle [1–7]. The availability of specialized software programs helps the au-
tomotive engineer expedite the design process, and eliminates the need for costly
prototype testing. Such computer programs can be used for assembly and component
design, engineering analyses and virtual simulation. In this paper it is presented an
example of CAD package use in the kinematic design and refinement of the steering
system mechanism of a passenger car.

2 Preliminary Analysis of Linkage Geometry

During steering, a correct positioning of the road wheels requires that the extensions
of the centerline of all wheels intersect at a common point. At low side-slip angles,
this point is located along the axis of the rear axle (this is the so called Ackermann
condition), Fig.1. This condition can be satisfied only when the lateral forces acting
upon the vehicle are negligible, and when the wheels perform pure rolling. Therefore,

International Congress of Automotive and Transport Engineering, CONAT 2016

Transilvania University of Brasov, 2016
ISSN 2069-0401
88 A.S. Mazilu and I. Preda

the design of the steering system must commence with a kinematic optimization of
the steering linkage.

Fig. 1. Ackermann steering condition

A vehicle steering mechanism consists of two subsystems:

• the steering linkage serves to correlate the steering angle of the road wheels such
that to conform with a steering principle chosen by the designer (the Ackermann’s
principle, for example);
• the steering-control mechanism transmits the steering wheel input by the driver to
the steering linkage.

Early in the design process a kinematic analysis of the steering linkage must be
performed. For example, the limit steered positions of the inner and outer wheels are
imposed by the minimum turning radius of the vehicle, as Fig. 1 infers.

Fig. 2. Schematic of the rack and pinion steering linkage: 1 – steering arm; 2 – steering rod; 3 –
steering rack; θi and θe – steering angles of inner and outer wheels
 Kinematic Optimization of the Rack and Pinion Steering-System 89

In a rack and pinion steering box, the rack is part of both the steering linkage and
of the control mechanism. This is a simple and cost effective design, with reduced
numbers of components that requires low maintenance. It is therefore the most widely
used steering mechanism for cars and vans.
Fig. 2 presents the main components of a rack and pinion steering linkage for the
case of a four-wheel vehicle with a steerable front axle and independent wheel sus-
pension. This mechanism contains two steering arms 1, two steering rods 2 and the
rack 3. It can also be seen the annotations for inner wheel cornering angle θi, outer
wheel cornering angle θe and error between Ackermann angle and actual inner-wheel
angle.

3 Steering Linkage Kinematic Optimization

The optimization of the steering linkage, as subsystem of the steering system requires
at a minimum [8]:

• to find first an ideal correlation function θiw=f(θo) between the wanted inner steer-
ing-angle θiw and an actual outer steering-angle θo;
• to identify the dimensions of the mechanism for which and ideal steering function
is best approximated by the actual input-output function θi=f(θo) of the mechanism.

As indicated in reference [8], the ideal road-wheel correlation function θiw=f(θo)

depends on numerous factors, of which the more important are the driving speed and
the radius of turn. It means that an optimized steering system of a vehicle is one
which provides for different driving conditions a good compromise of the vehicle
dynamic performances.
For negligible lateral slip of the tires (i.e. the particular case of driving at low speed
on horizontal roads), a θiA=f(θo) law according to Ackermann (and which is known to
be a function of only of the wheelbase and wheel track of the vehicle, Fig. 1), may be
adopted as ideal correlation function θiw.
If lateral forces acting on the tires are not negligible (existing simultaneously with
side slip), the turning center of the vehicle will move forward off the rear wheel axis
[1]. Assuming a certain constant value for the lateral slip angles of the rear tires, the
correlation function θiw=f(θo) can conform to Ackermann, but for the vehicle assumed
to have, fictitiously, a shorter wheelbase [9, 8]. Therefore, in this study the Acker-
mann steering law will be considered as the ideal correlation function, and will be
imposed to be best approximated by the rack and pinion linkage of the vehicle under
consideration.
For the outer wheel angle θe assumed to be the independent variable, the optimiza-
tion of the steering linkage geometry is aimed to reducing the angular error at the
inner wheel. This error is defined as the difference between the prescribed angle (for
example the Ackermann angle) and the real steering-angle θi of the inner wheel, as it
is realized by the correlation mechanism.
90 A.S. Mazilu and I. Preda

The outer wheel angle of steer θe was adopted as independent variable also because
it is known to have a greater effect upon the vehicle dynamics due to the load transfer
from the inner to the outer wheels.
In addition, the interference of the wheels with the car body and other neighboring
parts when in their limit positions, are of concern to the design engineer.

Fig. 3. Parameters of the steering system linkage: h - rack length; d - steering rod length;
f – distance between the pivoting point of the wheel and the longitudinal axis of the vehicle;
e – steering arm length; γ – angle of steering arm; ζ – angle of steering rod; a – distance from
rack axis to front axle axis

The dimensional parameters of the rack and pinion linkage are presented in Fig. 3.
Some of these are usually imposed by the available space constraints [1, 8]. These are
as follows:

• f – the distance from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle to the pivoting point (the
intersection between the false kingpin axis and a plane parallel to the ground at the
rack axis level); the distance depends on the steering wheels track, wheel scrub ra-
dius and kingpin angle; it must be noted that the distance f in figure 3 differs (nor-
mally is shorter) as the corresponding distances in figures 1 and 4, which are
measured at the ground level; this difference must be considered for a good com-
putation of the kinematics of the linkage mechanism;
• h – the length of the rack, imposed by the adopted transmission ratio of the steering
system and the space necessary for the power boost (hydraulic cylinder or electric
motor);
• e – the length of the steering arm, limited in size by the available space inside the
wheel rim; in [10] it is demonstrated that the rack and pinion linkage can generates
identical correlation functions with different steering arm lengths, which allows to
adopt its value accordingly with other requirements, non-related with linkage ki-
nematics; but it must be noted that the leading or trailing position of the steering
arm will have an important influence on the actual function θi=f(θo) generated by
the linkage, will influence the steering comportment during frontal shocks on tires,
and will impose a changed positioning of the pinion with respect to the rack (pi-
nion under the rack for leading steering arm).

During the optimization process, all the other dimensions presented in Fig. 3 were
modified:
 Kinematic Optimization of the Rack and Pinion Steering-System 91

• a – the distance between the rack axis and the front axle’s axis;
• γ – the angle position of the steering arm, corresponding to the straight-line travel-
ling;
• ζ – the angle position of the steering rod.

There are numerous ways to optimize the design of the steering linkage. Works as
[11–12] analyze the rack and pinion linkage, showing that, with good approximation,
this may be considered a planar mechanism and its kinematics presents generally
more than one optimum. A problem is that some of the steering linkages with opti-
mized kinematics present configurations that ar difficult or almost impossible to im-
plement as practical designs.
The optimization method adopted in this study, similar with the one presented in
[13], consist in minimizing the sum of the squared errors between the actual and ideal
steering angles.

Table 1. Geometric parameters of five configurations considered during simulation

Fig. 4. Catia 2D-model of a leading rack steering linkage

92 A.S. Mazilu and I. Preda

The link lengths and position angles were modified in a systematic way so that to
cover an entire variation interval, adopted in conformity with the vehicle’s dimen-
sions. The finding process of the optimal dimensions was repeated with small steps
near the good configurations. Some of the parameter values used throughout the lin-
kage configurations optimization are presented in the Table 1.
The authors experience in using CAD software [8, 14] was used to graphical
represent the tested configurations, in order to have a better understanding of the lin-
kage behavior. In the Fig. 4 it is presented the Catia 2D-model used for the parameter
optimization, which permitted the easy change of linkage positions and the animation
of the model.
During the simulation, the change of some parameters could be observed and the
effect analyzed. These were: the rack’s left-rigth displacement, the outer and inner
steering angles, the position of the turning center or the vehicle’s apparent wheelbase
during steering.

Fig. 5. The rack and pinion steering linkage considered as an offset slider-crank mechanism

In parallel with the analysis done using Catia software, a mathematical model of
the mechanism has been developed. This model is equivalent to an offset slider-crank
mechanism (Fig. 5), with the steering arm angle θ as input [1] and the distance f=AC
between pivoting point A and rack end C as output. The other approach, considering
the rack as driving element, it was also used [Fig. 6]. The values were compared to
the ones obtained in the CAD software to confirm the computation results.

4 Results

Some results of the analysis are shown in the Fig. 6. One can observe the difference
between inner and outer steering angles, Δθ=θi–θe, as function of outer steering angle
θe. The Ackerman’s steering angle, also shown on this graph, reveals the error varia-
tion for some considered models (with parameters indicated in the Table 1).
Other data obtained from the same simulations on the five steering models are pre-
sented in the Fig. 7: the difference between the actual inner-angle and the Ackermann
inner-angle, ΔθA, as function of outer-angle θe. As it can be observed, the deviation
from Ackermann condition is small (under 1 deg) for small and medium steering an-
 Kinematic Optimization of the Rack and Pinion Steering-System 93

gles, proving that the rack and pinion linkage is able to ensure good wheels correla-
tion during cornering at medium and high speeds. The largest deviation from Acker-
mann condition occur at large steering angles, situation commonly present for vehicle
maneuvering at low speeds (during parking, for example).

-14.00
-13.00 Model 1
-12.00
-11.00 Model 2
-10.00 Model 3
-9.00
θe-θi [deg]

-8.00 Model 4
-7.00 Model 5
-6.00
-5.00 Ackermann
-4.00
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
θe [deg]

Fig. 6. Angle difference Δθ=θi–θe as function of outer steering angle θe

-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
θi-θA [deg]

0.5
1
1.5 Model 1 Model 2
2 Model 3 Model 4
Model 5
2.5
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00
θe [deg]

Fig. 7. Deviation of inner wheel steering angle from Ackermann inner wheel angle as function
of outer wheel steering angle

Comparing the performances of the studied linkages, the configuration of the mod-
el number 5 appeared as the best option for the case of the considered vehicle. The
94 A.S. Mazilu and I. Preda

result was obtained mathematically by choosing the solution that ensures the mini-
mum value of the sum of the squared errors (computed with a step of 1 deg θe),
weighted such as to consider bigger values for small to mean values of steering an-
gles, which corresponds to high vehicle speeds.

40
Medium road wheel angle

30

20

10

0
0 90 180 270 360 450 540

Steering wheel angle (one side)

Fig. 8. Mean road-wheel angle as function of driver steering-wheel angle

20

15

10
Ia

0
0 200 400 600

Steering wheel angle (one side)

Fig. 9. Overall steering ratio (steering-wheel angle divided by road-wheel angle) as function of
steering wheel angle

A value of 15 was adopted for the mean overall steering-ratio of the considered ve-
hicle (the steering-wheel angle divided by the medium road-wheel angle). Consider-
ing the steering-wheel angle correlation with the rack displacement, two more analys-
es were made:

• the variation of the “mean” road-wheel steering angle (of a “single-track” equiva-
lent vehicle) as function of steering-wheel angle (as it is input by the driver), Fig.
8;
• the variation of the overall steering-ratio as function of steering-wheel angle, pre-
sented in Fig. 9.
 Kinematic Optimization of the Rack and Pinion Steering-System 95

As it can be seen from these last two figures, the overall steering-ratio of the rack
and pinion steering system is not constant, but rather shows a reduction of its value
with about 10% at the maximal steering angle compared to the ratio corresponding to
the vehicle’s straight-line driving.
With the parameters defined trough the optimization realized on the 2D-model of
the rack and pinion linkage, a 3D-model of the front axle was realized in Catia (Fig.
10), which may be further tuned, taking into account the spatial configuration of the
mechanism and the influence of the suspension.

Fig. 10. 3D-model of the front axle (MacPherson suspension and rack and pinion steering)

Based on the study presented here, the following suggestions may be made for the
design of the rack and pinion steering-linkage (Fig. 3) in order to best approximate a
steering law close to the Ackermann principle:

• if possible, a small value of the steering rod angle ζ will be adopted;

• the steering arm angle γ is close to optimum for a value that leads to the intersec-
tion of both arms axes at approximately three quarters of the vehicle`s wheelbase;
• the optimum distance a between the rack axis and the front axle’s axis depends on
the vehicle dimensions;
• if the rack is positioned in front of the axle (leading linkage), but is small, the error
is significantly reduced;
• if the steering arms are positioned in front of the axle (leading linkage), the rack
and pinion linkage approximates better the Ackermann steering law;
• the value of rack length h must be small enough in order to obtain an optimum
value for the steering rod length d; also, a maximized length d will lead to a small-
er bump-induced steering, a factor with an important influence in the steering-and-
suspension systems compatibility.

5 Conclusions

The study presented in this paper has shown a possible approach to the design, and
optimization of a complex mechanism such as the steering system of a passenger car.
The project started with the system requirements, and the dimensions of the mechan-
96 A.S. Mazilu and I. Preda

ism were progressively adapted and optimized based on the calculation of the indi-
vidual. Optimization has been made in several steps, firstly starting with a research of
most used parameters on modern vehicles, following with a simplified analysis to
obtain a good geometric improvement from 2D-models and data extracted for the
subassembly computation. Later, a 3Dmodel has been created in order to observe the
compatibility of the designed vehicle components.

Acknowledgements. The comments and suggestions of improvement of Dr. Petru A.

Simionescu from Texas A&M University Corpus Christi are gratefully acknowl-
edged.

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