Open System Interconnection (OSI): - Is the model which is standardized

by International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1984. This model is based on data

communication between devices which is based on seven layers and every layer has its own
function.
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1): - This layer manages the data transmutation between devices
by physical medium like optical fibre, Ethernet cables etc.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2): - This layer manages data framing, checking error and
sending to other devices which is taken by Layer 3. Example includes Ethernet (802.3) and
WIFI (802.11).
3. Network Layer (Layer 3): - This layer manages addressing, routing (Providing best path
to data Packets) of data packets. Example includes Internet protocol (IP).
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4): - This layer manages reliable data delivery, data
segmentation and flow control. Example includes Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
5. Session Layer (Layer 5): - This layer manages connection establishments, maintains and
termination between applications (WhatsApp) in different devices. Example includes
NetBIOS.
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6): - This layer manages data formatting, encryption,
decryption, compression, protocol conversion, data translation and representation between
applications. It focuses on that the data is understandable between different applications.
Example includes communication between Windows and MAC devices is possible via
Presentation Layer.
7. Application Layer (Layer 7): - This layer manages application services like web
browsing, which is done by HTTP, Email services which is done by SMTP. It also responsible
for data management like it takes encrypted data from presentation layer and sends it to other
application on cloud via different protocols (if it is web browsing it uses HTTP and if it is
email it uses SMTP) and then sends to presentation layer to receiver side for decryption and
other functions like data formatting and data transformation. It also provides security in data
transmission and access in Network resources via NFS and LDAP. Example includes HTTP,
SMTP and many more.
Data Transmission modes:- Three modes of data transmission

1. Simplex: - Data is transmit and received on single way. e.g., radio, television etc.
2. Half-duplex: - Data is transmit on both ways but one way at a time. e.g., walkie talkie, web
servers etc.
3. Full-duplex: - Data is transmit on both ways at a time. e.g., telephone, calls on internet etc.

Data Transmission Forms :- There are two forms of data transmission:

1. Analog Transmission: - The continuous wave form with time varying quantities are analog
signals and the data on these signals are called analog data with analog transmission e.g.,
human voice.
2. Digital Transmission: - The discrete wave form with constant quantities over time are
digital signals and the data on these signals are called digital data with digital transmission e.g.
Image downloading or uploading.

Data Transmission Techniques: -

Switching techniques: - Data transmission technique for local area networks (LAN) means for
small area like in same office, data being transmit from one computer to another.
It switches data communication across multiple devices if required.
Two types of switching technique are Following:
1. Circuit Switching: - In this type of switching technique to transmit data from one node to
another first physical destination path is created and then data starts to transmit, during this
transmission we can't start another process of data transmission, first this process needs to be
over. It is fast but can't utilized redundant data.
2. Packet Switching: - In this type of switching technique to transmit data from one node to
another breaks the data in small packets and then delivers to another node. Each packet has its
own header that contains specific information related to destination. It is slow process, but it
can utilize redundant data.

Routing technique: - Data transmission technique for wide area networks (WAN)
means for large area like in different offices.
It defines the best path for destination of information.
Two types of routing technique are following:
1. Source Routing: - In this type of routing technique destination path is selected first then data
is transmitted with a specific header based on specific IP address.
2. Hop by Hop Routing: - In this type of routing technique the destination path is not confirm,
the router delivers the packet to another router and another router makes decision by algorithm
then delivers to another router and so on until packet is not delivered to destination node.

switching is used within a LAN for direct communication between devices based on MAC
addresses, while routing is employed for forwarding packets across different networks based
on IP addresses.
Network Topology: - Is the connection arrangement of various nodes of computer
network.
Following types of network topology are:
1. Star Topology: - In this arrangement of network every node is connected to a single node
called hub or switch. Every node sends and receive data by passing from hub. Easy to create,
alteration is simple in star topology, shutting down of hub whole network will be down.
2. Ring Topology: - In this arrangement of network every node is connect to two other nodes
and by this manner they create a circle or ring. Alteration is easy but if each system shut down
then whole network will be down.
3. Bus Topology: - In this arrangement of network every node is connected by a single cable
in parallel format. Alteration is very easy shut down of single node will not affect the network
but if main cable damage or breaks whole network will be down.
4. Mesh Topology: - In this arrangement of network every node is connected to each node. It
is very fast compared to other topologies but very complex and expensive if not wireless.