Physics Paper 1 (Combined Higher) 20.

National Grid and AC/DC supply

1. Energy stores and systems 21. Electricity in the home
2. Kinetic energy and elastic potential energy 22. Electrical power and charge
3. Work done 23. The particle model
4. Gravitational potential energy 24. Internal energy
5. Specific heat capacity and power 25. Specific latent heat
6. Conservation of energy 26. Particles in gases
7. Efficiency 27. Atomic Models
8. Methods of heat transfer overview 28. Isotopes and radiation
9. Methods of heat transfer 29. Nuclear radiation
10. Non-renewable Energy Resources 30. Nuclear equations and half lives
11. Renewable Energy Resources 1 31. Application of radiation, contamination and irradiation
12. Renewable Energy Resources 2 32. Required practical 1: Specific heat capacity
13. Electrical terms 33. Required practical 2: Thermal insulation
14. Electrical components 34. Required practical 3: Resistance of a wire
15. Series and Parallel circuit rules 35. Required practical 4: Component IV characteristics
16. Current, potential difference and resistance 36. Required practical 5: Calculating density
17. I-V characteristics and devices 1
18.I-V characteristics and devices 2
19.I-V characteristics and devices 3
 1. Energy stores and systems

Energy Store Example

Energy System
Thermal Cup of hot tea
System:
An object or group of objects. Kinetic Moving car
When a system changes there are changes in the
way energy is stored within it. Gravitational Potential Water in a reservoir at the top of a
mountain
Closed system:
Elastic Potential Stretched bungee cord
Where neither matter nor energy enters or leaves.
Chemical Battery, food
Conservation of energy:
Energy is not created or destroyed but may be Magnetic Two opposing north poles on bar
transferred between different energy stores. magnet
The energy in a system can be transferred Electrostatic Two electrons repelling each other
between different stores when work is done by:
• Heating Nuclear The energy available to be released
• Forces by fission when splitting an atom
• Current flowing

1
 2. Kinetic Energy and Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy
A force acting on an object may cause the shape of an object to change.
Kinetic energy of an object depends on the:
- mass Elastic objects can store elastic potential energy if they are stretched or squashed. For
- speed
example, this happens when a catapult is used or a spring is stretched.
Kinetic energy (J) = 0.5 x mass (kg) x velocity2 (m/s) Objects can also store elastic potential energy when they are squashed.
Ek = 0.5mv2 Elastic potential energy (J) = 0.5 x spring constant (N/m) x extension2 (m)

Unit conversions: Unit conversions:

kJ to J: x 1000 kJ to J: x 1000
g to kg: ÷ 1000 cm to m: ÷ 100

2
3. Work Done Example: How much work is done by the brakes if a 7000N braking force is
used to stop a car over 20m?

A car braking to slow down

The friction force from the brakes does work.
Energy is transferred from the car’s kinetic
store to the thermal store of its brakes, the
brakes then transfer heat to the surroundings. Braking Force 7000N

Energy transferred = work done 20 metres

work done (J) = force (N) x distance (m) Use the EVERY model to complete calculations:
E = equation
W = Fs V = values
E = enter results
R = result
Unit conversions: Y = units
kJ to J: x 1000
cm to m: ÷ 100 E W =F xs
km to m: x 1000 V F = 7000 N and s = 20 m
E W = 7000 x 20
R W = 140 000
Y J

W = 140000J or 140 kJ

Transfers Transfers
Kinetic energy energy to Thermal energy to Thermal store of
store of moving store of surroundings
car brakes

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4. Gravitational Potential Store (Ep)
Example: What is the gravitational energy required to lift a 100 kg mass up
by 100 m?
Raising an object off the ground increases its gravitational Gravitational field strength = 9.81N/kg
potential energy store.
100kg
The amount of energy depends on the mass and height of the Use the EVERY model to complete calculations:
object and strength of the gravitational field it is in. E = equation
V = values
E = enter results
Gravitational = mass x gravitational field x change in height (m) R = result
potential (kg) strength Y = units
energy (N/kg)
10m
store (J) E Ep = m x g x h
V m = 100 kg; g = 9.81; h = 100 m
Ep = mgh
E Ep = 100 x 9.81 x 100
R Ep = 98100
Unit conversions: Y J
kJ to J: x 1000
Ep = 98100 J 100kg
cm to m: ÷ 100
km to m: x 1000
g to kg: ÷ 1000

Note: weight = mass x gravitational field strength

W =mx g
Therefore, we have a second formula for E p
Ep = Weight x change in height
Ep = W x 𝛥h

4
5. Specific Heat Capacity (c) and Power
Power
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 °C. Power is the rate at which energy is transferred and is measured in
watts.

Change in = mass (kg) x specific x change 1 watt = 1 joule of energy transferred per second.
thermal heat in
energy (J) capacity temperature Power (W) = energy transferred (J) ÷ time (s)
(J/kg°C) (°C)
Power (W) = work done (J) ÷ time (s)
ΔE = mcΔT
P=E÷t
Unit conversions:
kJ to J: x 1000 Unit conversions:
g to kg: ÷ 1000 kJ to J: x 1000
minutes to seconds: x 60
Example: How much energy is released into the surroundings when a cup hours to seconds: x 3600
of tea holding 250g of fluid cools from 90°C to 20°C? c = 4200 J/kg°C W to kW: ÷ 1000

Use the EVERY model to complete calculations:

E = equation Example. Calculate the power of a motor that uses 60,000 J of
V = values energy to lift an object in 20 seconds. Give your answer in kW.
E = enter results
R = result E P=E÷t
Y = units V E = 60 000J; t = 20 s
E 𝛥E = m x c x 𝛥𝜃 E P = 60 000 ÷ 20
V m = 250 g = 0.25 kg; c = 4200; 𝛥𝜃 = 90-20 = 70 R 3000
E 𝛥E = 0.25 x 4200 x 70 Y W
R 73 500
Y J P = 3000W or 3kW

𝛥E = 73500J or 73.5 kJ A more powerful device can transfer more energy in a given time or
will transfer the same amount of energy in a faster time.
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6. Conservation of Energy

Dissipation of Wasting energy. Reducing Wasted Energy (dissipated energy)

energy
More energy needs to be put into appliance
Friction Between two moving objects causes thermal energy to be
to account for dissipated energy. dissipated. It can be reduced by lubrication.
Useful dissipation of energy example: back
Lubrication • Friction between two moving objects causes energy to be
of a fridge
dissipated as sound and to the thermal store.
Example of dissipation of energy is bad:
Insulation Reduces energy transfer by heating
light bulbs, engines and TV’s as heat
Cavity wall Fills the air gap between the inner and outer wall reducing
Conservation of Energy can be transferred usefully, stored insulation heat loss by convection.
energy or dissipated, but it cannot be created or
destroyed
Loft insulation Reduces heat loss by convection.

Heat When an object is heated, thermal energy Double glazing • Creates an air gap between the two panes of glass to
is being transferred to it reduce energy loss by conduction.
• Gases are good insulators
Temperature A measure of hot or cold something is Draught excluders Reduce energy loss by convection when placed around
windows and doors.

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 7. Efficiency

Dissipated Efficiency
Appliance Useful Energy (wasted) Energy
An efficient device wastes less energy than a less efficient
Light bulb Light • Heating the bulb and device. It can be calculated as a decimal or multiplied by
100 to give a percentage.
surroundings

Hair Dryer • Kinetic energy of the fan • Sound of the motor.

Efficiency = useful energy output Efficiency = useful power output
to push air • Heating of the dryer and total energy output total power input
• Heating of the air surroundings

Electric Motor • Kinetic energy of objects • Heating of the motor and

driven by motor. surroundings.
Example:. Calculate the wasted power and efficiency of a motor
• Gravitational potential • Sound of the motor that has a rated power of 500W and transfers 300W usefully.
energy of objects lifted by turning Wasted power = input power - output power = 500 – 300 = 200W
motor
Efficiency = 300 = 0.6 0r 60 %
500

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8. Methods of Heat Transfer Overview
Methods of heat transfer

Solids
Have strong forces between
Conduction Convection Radiation
particles or molecules, holding
them close together in a fixed,
regular arrangement. The Waves
TRAVELS VIA Particles Particles
particles can only vibrate around
fixed positions.
Liquids and gases Vacuum
Liquids MEDIUM Solids
(fluids)
Have weaker forces between
particles so although the
particles are close together EXAMPLE Metals Air Light and heat
they can flow over each other
at low speeds in random
directions.

Gases
Have almost no forces between
particles. Have more energy and are
free to move in random directions and
speeds.
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9. Methods of Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Method Description

Conduction When heated particles vibrate more with an increase in
(Occurs in solids) their kinetic energy.

They collide more with surrounding particles

transferring the heat

Convection Particles are free to move (in a liquid and gas).

(Occurs in liquids and Increase in their kinetic store.
gases) Particles move faster.

The space between the particles increases, so the

density decreases.
Heat transfer by
The warmer less dense region rises and the cooler, convection
denser regions sink.

Infrared Radiation The hotter an object the more infrared radiation it emits
(Occurs in all objects) in a given time.
An object at constant temperature emits and absorbs
infrared radiation at the same rate
A perfect black body absorbs all the infrared radiation
that falls upon it and then emits it back at the same
rate as it absorbs it.
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10. Non-Renewable Energy Resources
Renewable energy resources will never run out. It is an energy resource that can be replenished quickly.

Non-renewable resources will one day run out (fossil fuels). Fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas.

Energy Resource Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Coal Electricity generation, heating, • Reliable energy resource All fossil fuels are running out. Burning
steam trains in some countries • Low extraction costs fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide a
• High energy per kg greenhouse gas which causes global
warming. SO2 found in coal leads to acid
rain when burned.
Oil Electricity generation, heating, • Reliable energy resource Burning fossil fuels releases carbon
basis for petrol and diesel • Low extraction costs dioxide a greenhouse gas which causes
• High energy per kg global warming.

Gas Electricity generation, heating, • Reliable energy resource Burning fossil fuels releases carbon
cooking • Gas fired power stations can be started quickly to dioxide a greenhouse gas which causes
meet changing energy demands global warming.
Nuclear Electricity generation • Reliable energy resource The waste products from nuclear plants is
Fuel: Uranium or plutonium • It has the highest energy density per kg of any dangerous radioactive waste which needs
fuel. to be stored safely for hundreds of years.
• Does not require combustion and therefore does
not release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

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11. Renewable Energy Resources 1
Energy Uses Advantages Disadvantages
Resource
Solar • Heating domestic hot water. • No atmospheric pollution due to • Cannot increase supply to match
Energy • Photovoltaic cells can create burning of fossil fuels demand
electricity to charge batteries. • In sunny countries it is more reliable • High initial costs
• Electricity generation in large scale (during the day) • Unreliable
solar power plants • Useful for remote places not supplied
by the national grid.
• No fuel costs and minimal running
costs

Wind Power Electricity generation • No atmospheric pollution due to • Visual and noise pollution
burning of fossil fuels • Cannot increase supply to match
• No fuel costs and minimal running demand
costs • High initial costs
No permanent damage to the • Cannot generate electricity if there
landscape when removed. is too little wind
• Fast start-up • Unreliable

Geothermal • Electricity generation • Reliable • Few suitable locations (only

• Heating • No atmospheric pollution due to possible in volcanic areas)
burning of fossil fuels • High cost to build power station

Bio-fuels • Electricity generation • Carbon neutral (if plants are grown at • High costs to refine the fuel
• Heating the same rate as being burned). • Space for growing food taken up
• Fuel for transport • Reliable as crops grow quickly • Forests cleared to make space –
decay and burned vegetation
release CO2 and methane.

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12. Renewable Energy Resources 2

Energy Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Resource

Hydro-Electric Electricity generation • Can respond immediately to increased • Requires land to be flooded to
demand, fast start-up. create a dammed reservoir
• Reliable (except if there is a drought) • Loss of animal habitats
• No fuel costs and minimal running costs • Relies on rainfall to keep reservoir
• Potential to be used as part of pumped full unless part of pumped storage
storage scheme system

Tidal barrage Electricity generation • No atmospheric pollution due to burning of • Visual pollution
fossil fuels • Difficulty providing access for
• No fuel costs and minimal running costs boats / wildlife
• Initial costs are high
• Environmental impact during
building phase due to multiple
vehicles and large amounts of
concrete being used

Wave power Electricity generation • No atmospheric pollution due to burning of • Unreliable

fossil fuels • Few suitable locations
• Smaller solution for limited populations

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 13. Electrical Terms

Keyword Definition

Ampere (A) Unit of electric current.

Current (I) The flow of electrical charge. Measured in Amps (A)

Direct potential difference Potential difference in one direction

Electric circuit A collection of electronic components connected by a conductive wire that allows for electric current to flow.

Ohm (Ω) Unit for resistance.

Potential difference (V) The force that pushes the charge around. Measured in volts (V).

Resistance (R) Reduces the flow of current. Measured in ohms (Ω).

Resistor Component that prevents the flow of electric current.

Volt (V) The standard unit of measure for electric potential (voltage).

Watt (W) The standard unit of measure used for electric power.

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14. Electrical Components

Component Circuit symbol Function

Cell

Battery ‘Pushes’ the electrons around a complete circuit.

Closed switch

Open switch Break and complete a circuit, so turn on and off.

Variable resistor Allows the current in a circuit to be varied. Placed in series

within the circuit.
Light emitting diode (LED) Emits light when current passes through it. Placed in series
within the circuit.

Ammeter Used to measure current through a circuit. Placed in series

within the circuit.
Fuse A glass or ceramic canister containing a thin wire that melts
if the current gets too high. Placed in series within the circuit.

Voltmeter Used to measure potential difference (voltage) across

a component. Placed in parallel within the circuit.

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15. Series and Parallel Circuit Rules
Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Number of loops 1 2+

Current Same all the way round Shared across the components
Itotal = I1 + I2 +…
Potential difference Shared across the components Same across the components
Vtotal = V1 + V2 +… V1 = V2 =…
Resistance Add together Total resistance will decrease if two or more resistors
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + … are added in parallel.
Resistors in parallel have the same pd across them as the
power supply. Adding another loop to the circuit means the
current has more than one way it has to go. The total current
around the circuit increases. An increase in current means a
decrease in resistance (V = IR)
Vtotal =IRtotal R1 = Vtotal / I1

I1 = current flowing through R1

R1 = Resistance of lamp 1
Example of a circuit

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16. Current, potential difference and resistance
Resistance is the opposite to current:
The current (I) through a component depends on both the
The higher the resistance of a circuit, the lower the current
resistance (R) of the component and the potential
Good conductors have a low resistance and insulators have a high resistance
difference (V) across the component.

The resistance of an electrical component can be found by The current through a component depends on both the resistance R of the component and the
measuring the electric current flowing through it and the potential potential difference V across the component
difference across it. The greater the resistance R of the component, the lower the current for a given potential
difference V across the component
Ohm’s Law, shows the relationship between potential difference, The lower the resistance R of the component, the greater the current for a given potential
current and resistance: difference V across the component

Potential difference (V) = Current (A) x Resistance (Ω)

V = IR

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17. I-V Characteristics and Circuit Devices 1

Fixed Resistor Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Purpose: Limits the current in a circuit.

Used for: Automatic night lights

At a constant temperature, the potential difference is directly

Bright light – low resistance
proportional to the current.
Darkness – high resistance
If the potential difference increases, the current increases.
The resistance doesn’t change when the current changes.
Obeys Ohm’s law. It is an ohmic conductor.
Obeys V = IR

Current (I)

Potential difference (V)

If the temperature changes, the resistance will change.

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18. I-V Characteristics and Circuit Devices 2

Filament bulb Diode

Property: allows current through in only one direction

Property: Emits light when current flows through it.
The resistance depends on the direction of the current. As a diode
As the current increases, the filament wire gets hotter. The only lets current flow in one direction, it has a very high resistance
higher the current, the higher the temperature. in the opposite direction, which makes it hard for the current to flow
Resistance increases. that way.
Harder for current to flow. It is a non-ohmic conductor
Graph gets less steep.
It is a non-ohmic conductor

Current (I)
Current (I)

Potential difference (V) Potential difference (V)

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19. I-V Characteristics and Circuit Devices 3

Thermistor

Use: central heating thermostats

High temperature– low resistance

Cold temperature – high resistance

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 20. National Grid and AC DC supply
National Grid: A network of cables and transformers that connect
power stations to consumers. Transmission cables
How step up transformers makes the National Grid efficient:
- Increases the potential difference
- Decreases the current
- Less energy loss
A huge amount of power is needed.
Increase efficiency: Use a high potential difference but a low current.
A high current would cause the wires to heat up, wasting a lot of
energy (dissipated as heat).

Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC) Underground Overground

The current constantly changes direction. It is produced by The current always flows in the same cables cables
an alternating voltage where the positive and negative ends direction. Advantages No visual No need to dig
keep alternating. pollution up the ground.
Batteries produce a DC voltage. Less affected Easy to repair
The UK mains supply is AC at 230V. by the weather
It has a frequency of 50Hz. Disadvantages Bigger Visual pollution
disturbance to Affected by the
the land weather
Difficult to
access to repair

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 21. Electricity in the home

Electrical Wiring
Live Wire
Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains with a three-core cable
If you touch the live a large pd is produced across your body and the current
(3 copper wires coated in insulating plastic).
flows through you.
Wire Colour Voltage (V) Purpose This electric shock can injure or kill you.
A connection between the live and earth creates a low resistance path to
Live Brown 230 Provides an alternating
potential difference earth so a large current will flow.
This could cause a fire.
Neutral Blue 0 Completes the circuit
carrying the current out of
Fuses are placed in series with the live wire to limit the amount of current
the appliance
flowing in a circuit. If a fault occurs the current can be very high, so a fuse is
Earth Green and yellow 0 A safety feature. Prevents
used for safety.
the appliance becoming live
A fuse is a thin piece of wire which all the current flows through, it gets hot
if there is a fault so does not
and melts if too high a current flows through it, preventing any current flow.
normally carry a current.

Double Insulated Appliances

Some appliances have no earth wire.
They have a plastic non-conducting outer case and are designed so that the
live and neutral wires cannot come into contact with the external casing.
This can be done by placing the wire terminals inside a plastic surrounding
box.
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 22. Electrical power and charge
Power
Charge
Energy in an electrical circuit is transferred by a moving charge. The
charge has to work against resistance, so work is done. Work done Energy transferred (J) = Charge (C) x Potential difference (V)
is the same as energy transferred and depends upon power.
E = QV
Energy transferred (J) = Power (W) x Time (s)

E = Pt Charge (C) = Current (A) x Time (s)

e.g. How much energy is transferred by a 3kW kettle in 2 minutes.
Q = It

E E = Pt
V P = 3 kW = 3000W and t = 2 min = 120s An amp is the amount of charge flow per second.
E E = 3000 x 120 1 amp = 1 coulomb per second.
R E = 360 000
Y J

E = 360 000J or 360 kJ.

Power Calculations
Unit conversions
Power (W) = Current (A) x Potential difference (V)
kJ toJ x 1000
P = IV
minutes to seconds x 60
hours to seconds x 3600
Power (W) = Current2 (A) x Resistance (Ω)
P = I2R

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23. The particle model

Density
Solids
Closer the particles, the denser the material
Have strong forces between particles or
molecules, holding them close together in a
Density (kg/m3) = mass (kg) ÷ volume (m3)
fixed, regular arrangement. The particles can
Density (g/cm3) = mass (g) ÷ volume (cm3)
only vibrate around fixed positions.
p=m÷v

Liquids e.g. What is the density of 1kg of water?

Have weaker forces between particles so Volume of 1kg of water = 0.001m3.

although the particles are close together they

can flow over each other at low speeds in E p=m÷v

random directions. V m = 1kg and v = 0.001m3

E Density = 1 ÷ 0.001
V 1000
Y kg/m3
Gases
Have almost no forces between particles. Have
more energy and are free to move in random
directions and speeds.

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 24. Internal Energy
Evaporation of a liquid: The particles at a liquid’s
surface sometimes gain enough energy to leave

If we increase the energy of the particles, it will either: the surface as a gas
•Increase the temperature of the substance
•Change its state i.e. change from a solid to a liquid Increase rate of evaporation by:
-Increasing the surface area of liquid.
-Increasing the temperature of the liquid.
Internal energy Kinetic energy of particles Potential energy of particles
= -Creating a flow of air across the liquid’s surface.
(energy stored by +
(e.g. vibration of atoms) (spacing between the particles)
particles in a
system)
Condensation of a gas: The water molecules that are in the air can hit a
cool surface, cool down and therefore stay there.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles.
A temperature change depends on the mass of substance, what it is made from and the Increase rate of condensation by:
energy input (see specific heat capacity). -Increasing surface area
If the substance is heated sufficiently particles have enough energy in their kinetic stores -Reducing surface temperature
to break the bonds holding them together and so a change in state occurs.
All changes of state do not affect the kinetic energy of the particles so are constant
temperature processes.

24
 25. Specific latent heat

Specific Latent Heat – the energy needed to change the state of 1kg of a
substance

Thermal energy (J) = mass (kg) x specific latent heat (J/kg)

E = ml

e.g. How much energy is required to melt 1.5kg of ice. Lf water = 334 kJ/kg.

E E = ml
V mass = 1.5kg and specific latent heat of fusion = 334kJ/kg
E E = ml = 1.5 x 334 000
V E = 501 000
Y J

E = 501 000J or 501 kJ

Specific latent heat of fusion (lf) = change of state from solid to liquid Gradient of the line = specific heat capacity of the substance.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation (lv) = change of state from liquid to vapour Steeper the line, the higher the specific heat capacity of the substance

Horizontal line = specific latent heat

Longer the horizontal line = greater the specific latent heat of fusion/vaporisation

25
26. Particles ingases Work Done
Work is done when energy is transferred by applying a force.
Gas Pressure:
Work done on a gas increases its internal energy. This can increase the
When the particles in a gas collide with the side of the container they
temperature of the gas.
exert a force on it. This force acts at right angles to the container walls.
Pumping up a bike tyre does work mechanically. The gas exerts a force on the
plunger (due to pressure). To push the plunger down against this force, work
must be done. Energy is transferred to the kinetic stores of the gas particles,
increasing the temperature.

For a fixed mass of a gas held at a constant temperature:

Constant = Pressure (Pa) x volume (m3)
Pressure = force exerted per unit of area.
In a sealed container, the gas pressure is the total force of all the particles • When the volume decreases (compression), the pressure increases
on the area of the container walls. • When the volume increases (expansion), the pressure decreases
• The key assumption is that the temperature and the mass (and number) of the
Increasing the temperature of the gas (whilst keeping the volume particles remains the same
constant)
➢ increases pressure By increasing the volume:
➢ Increases the average kinetic energy of the particles. Particles move ➢ The particles will bump into the container walls less frequently
faster so collide with the sides more often and with more momentum ➢ Particles must travel further between each impact with the container
➢ A larger total force is exerted ➢ Reduces the total force per metre of surface area
➢ The pressure increases. ➢ Pressure reduces.
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27. Atomic models

Atomic Plum pudding model Nuclear model

model
Diagram

Discovery Electron Positive nucleus in the centre of the Electrons occupy Neutrons • Atomic radius: 1 × 10-10 m
atom shells
• Radius of a nucleus is less
Description The atom is a ball of Positively charged alpha particles were Proved the existence
than 1/10 000 of the radius
of isotopes
positive charge with fired at thin gold foil. Most alpha of an atom.
negative electrons particles went straight through the foil. A • Most of the mass of an
embedded in it. few were scattered in different directions atom is concentrated in the
by the atoms in the foil. It showed that nucleus.
the mass of an atom was in the centre • The electrons are arranged
(the nucleus) and the nucleus was at different distances from
positively charged. the nucleus.
Discovered Thompson Rutherford Bohr Chadwick
by 27
28. Isotopes and Radiation

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have different numbers

of neutrons but the same number of protons and electrons.
They have the same chemical properties but different physical
properties.

8 protons, 8 electrons and 8 neutrons

8 protons, 8 electrons and 10 neutrons

Isotopes that give out nuclear radiation are called

When an electron moves to a lower energy level, the electron
radioactive isotopes.
releases electromagnetic radiation (left hand picture).
Radioactive atoms have an unstable nucleus.
They give out (emit) radiation from their nucleus.
When an electron moves to a higher energy level, the electron
Doing this makes the atom more stable
absorbs electromagnetic radiation (right hand picture).

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29. Nuclear Radiation
Alpha Beta Gamma
Symbol
0
4
2
α 0 e
-1 0
γ
What is it? Helium nuclei Fast moving electron Electromagnetic wave

Electrical charge +2 -1 0

No. of protons 2 0 0
No. of neutrons 2 0 0
Stopped by Paper, thin sheet of aluminium and Thin sheet of aluminium and lead Lead
lead
Ionising power (how easy it is to Strong Weak Very weak
form an ion)
Penetrating power Low Medium High
Range in air Few cm Several metres Many metres
Uses Smoke alarms Monitor thickness of paper and Treat cancer. Sterilise medical
detect leaks in pipes. equipment.
Effect of electromagnetic field Weakly deflected Strongly deflected Not deflected

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30. Nuclear equations and half lives Half-Life:
The time taken for the number of radioactive nuclei in an isotope to halve.
Activity (the rate at which a source decays) is measured in Becquerel’s Bq (1Bq = 1 decay
Decay: Radioactive decay is a random event. per second).
Man made source of radiation:
e.g. if the initial activity of a sample is 600Bq what will it be after two half-lives?
Alpha decay causes the charge and mass of the nucleus to
decrease as the nucleus releases the alpha particle 1 half life = 600 ÷ 2 = 300Bq
2 half lives = 300 ÷ 2 = 150Bq

e.g. What fraction remains radioactive after 40 years if the half-life of an isotope is 10 years?

Beta decay causes the charge of the nucleus to increase but Number of half-lives = 40/10 = 4 half-lives.

the mass remains the same. Within the nucleus a neutron is After 1 half life – ½ remains

changed into a proton and releases an electron (beta particle) After 2 half lives - ¼ remains

After 3 half lives – ⅛ remains

After 4 half lives - 1/16 remains or 6.25%
Finding half-life from a graph:

Gamma rays do not change the mass or charge of the atom - Mark where half the activity level is.

they are emitted from - Find the corresponding time (1.8s in

Neutrons can also be an emitted form of radiation this example)

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 31. Applications of radiation, contamination and irradiation

Applications of radiation Radioactive contamination Irradiation Natural background It comes from either natural sources such as
radiation cosmic rays or radioactive rocks.

Destruction of unwanted The unwanted presence of Where an object is

Man-made radiation Medical x-rays or radiotherapy
tissue (cancer) or imaging radioactive materials. The deliberately exposed to a
Nuclear testing or accidents e.g. Chernobyl
internal organs. level of hazard depends on radioactive source.
the type of radiation and the
Dose The amount of radioactivity we are exposed
Radio-isotopes with a short amount of time you are Used to sterilise medical to.
half-life are used to limit exposed. equipment and food.
any damage.
Measured in sieverts (Sv).
Nuclear power plant fuel rods The irradiated object does not
1000 mSv = 1Sv
Alpha radiation cannot be and medical equipment with become radioactive, so it is
used for imaging because radioactive sources can have safe. How big a dose you receive will depend on
it cannot penetrate body sources that we need to store where you live and what your job is.
tissue and it is highly safely for long periods of time
Why radioactive Activity decreases quickly
ionising. at the end of their useful life.
waste should have a Risk of harm decreases quickly
short half-life
Over exposure to ionising
radiation can damage cells
and lead to cancer

31
 32. Required practical 1: Specific Heat Capacity

Method

1. Take a 1 kg block of copper.

2. Place an immersion heater in the larger hole in the block.

3. Connect the power supply to the joule meter (reset to read 0 Joules).

4. Connect the joule meter to the 12V immersion heater.

5. Place the thermometer into the other hole in the block.

6. Switch the power pack to 12 V. Turn it on.

7. After 1-minute record the temperature of the block and the reading from the joule meter. Processing data

8. Continue taking readings every minute until 10 minutes have passed. Plot graph work done against temperature
Specific heat capacity = 1 ÷ gradient
IV - Work done – (energy transferred to block measured by joulemeter)
DV - temperature
CV – Copper block of 1kg mass

Sources of Error
Heat is lost to the surroundings due to lack of insulation
The immersion heater is not fully immersed into the block
The graph may be curved at the start because it takes time for the
heater and block to transfer the energy
32
33. Required Practical 2: Thermal Insulation

Method
1. Pour 200 cm3 of hot water into a 250 ml beaker with a
single layer of insulating material around it.
2. Use a piece of cardboard as a lid for the beaker.
3. Insert the thermometer through the hole in the cardboard
lid
4. Record the temperature of the water and start the
stopwatch.
5. Record the temperature of the water every 30 seconds for The more layers of insulation the longer it takes for the

5 minutes. temperature to drop, indicating a better insulator.

6. Repeat steps 1‒5 increasing the number of layers of

insulating material wrapped around the beaker until you
reach 4 layers.
7. Repeat the experiment with no insulation around the
beaker.
7. Plot a graph of temperature versus time.

IV – Time (s)
DV – Temperature change
CV – Volume of water, material of insulation, starting temperature.

33
 34. Required Practical 3: Resistance of a wire

Method:
1. Set up equipment as shown in the diagram.
2. Connect the crocodile clips to the resistance wire, 100 cm apart.
3. Record the reading on the ammeter and on the voltmeter.
4. Move one of the crocodile clips closer until they are 90 cm apart.
5. Record the new readings on the ammeter and the voltmeter.
6. Repeat the previous steps reducing the length of the wire by 10 cm each time down to a
minimum length of 10 cm.
7. Plot a line graph of length of wire (x axis) against resistance (y axis)
Reason for inaccuracy of readings: The resolution of the length of
wire is lower due to where the crocodile clips are attached to the wire
IV: length of the wire
Improve accuracy of readings: Turn off the circuit between the
DV: voltage and current
readings. This will stop the wire heating up and the temperature
CV: type of wire, diameter of wire and the battery
changing

Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

Possible errors: Wire heating up and increasing resistance, incorrect
reading of ammeter and voltmeter and internal resistance of
equipment

Conclusion: The length of the wire is proportional to the resistance

of the wire.
34
 35. Required practical 4: Component IV characteristics
IV—Potential Difference (Volts)
DV—Current (Amps)
CV— Same components, voltage from power pack, temperature – take the readings, immediately, Repeats to reduce the impact of outliers.

Fixed Resistor
Method

At a constant temperature, the current is 1. Measure the current in the resistor using the ammeter.

directly proportion to the voltage. 2. Measure the potential difference across resistor using the

This means it obeys Ohm’s Law. voltmeter.

3. Vary the resistance of the variable resistor
4. Record a range of values of current and potential difference.
Filament Bulb 5. Ensure current is low to avoid temperature increase.
As the voltage increases the current
6. Switch circuit off between readings
increases. This causes the filament to
7. Reverse connection of the resistor to the power supply.
get hotter, meaning the resistance
8. Repeat measurements of I and V in negative direction.
increases. Therefore as the voltage
9. Plot a graph of current against potential difference
continues to increase the current levels
off.
How to improve accuracy of readings:
Diode
• Circuit is switched off between readings
The current can only flow in one direction
• Temperature does not change
because a diode has a very high resistance
in the opposite direction.

35
36. Required practical 5: Calculating density
Liquid
Regular shaped object Irregular shaped object

1. Using a balance, measure the mass of the

object.
2. Fill a measuring cylinder with 100 cm3 of 1. Using a balance, record the mass of
1. Measure the length, width and water a beaker
height using a ruler.
3. Put object into measuring cylinder 2. Pour 100 cm3 of liquid into the
2. Calculate the volume (l x w x h) measuring cylinder.
4. Difference in volume of water is the volume of
2. Measure the mass using a balance. the object 3. Pour liquid into a beaker and record
the mass of the beaker and its contents
5. Use the equation mass ÷ volume to calculate
3. Use the equation mass ÷ volume to
the density. 4. Difference in mass of (beaker +
calculate the density.
contents) from the beaker is the mass
of the liquid.
5. Use the equation mass ÷ volume to
calculate the density.

36
Physics Paper 2 (Combined Higher)

37. Magnets 48. Refraction of waves 61. Thinking, braking and stopping distance
38. Compasses and magnets 49. Electromagnetic spectrum 62. Required practical 6: Force and extension
39. Electromagnetism 50. Forces - vectors and scalars 63. Required practical 7: The effect of force on
acceleration
40. Investigating electromagnetism 51. Resultant Forces
64. Required practical 8: The effect of mass on
41. Uses for electromagnets 52. Resolving forces - parallelogram of forces 1 acceleration
42. Flemings left hand rule 53. Resolving forces – parallelogram of forces 2 65. Required practical 9: Infrared radiation
43. Motor effect 54. Resolving forces – on an inclined plane 1 66. Required practical 10: The speed of a water
44. Wave properties 55. Resolving forces – on an inclined plane 2 wave

45. Transverse and longitudinal waves 56. Elasticity 67. Maths in science 1

46. Sound waves and speed of sound 57. Newtons laws of motion 68. Maths in science 2
experiment 69. Physics equation sheet
58. Momentum
47. Reflection, transmission and absorption of
waves 59. Speed, velocity and acceleration
60. Graphs of motion
 37. Magnets
Magnetic metals Iron (steel), nickel and cobalt

Permanent magnets Magnetic all the time. Produce their own magnetic field.

Induced magnets Made from magnetic materials. Only turns into a magnet when held in a magnetic field
e.g. core of an electromagnet Opposite poles attract

North and south pole of a The part of the magnet where the magnetic field is the strongest
magnet

Magnetic field A region where force is experienced by magnetic materials

Magnetism A non-contact force from a magnetic to a magnetic field

Field lines Point away from north and show the direction a north pole would point of it was placedin a
field. Like poles repel

Closer the field lines in a magnetic field = stronger the magnetic force.
Field lines run from north pole to south pole.

Compass A small bar magnet that is free to move. Always points north in a magnetic field

Evidence that the Earth’s The Earth’s iron core creates a magnetic field. The north poles of magnets are attracted
core is magnetic to the geographic North Pole of the Earth.
37
38. Compasses and magnets

Iron filings Plotting compass Using a plotting compass to find the

Method Sprinkle iron filings on a Use a plotting compass magnetic field of a bar magnet
piece of paper over the around the magnet with the 1. Place magnet on a sheet of (plain) paper
magnet needle showing the 2. Place the compass near the north pole of the
direction. magnet
3. Mark the position that the compass needle
Advantage Field lines easily seen Direction of field lines points to
shown 4. Move the compass so the opposite end of the
Disadvantage Iron filings easily spilt and Compasses affected by needle is at this position and mark the new
stick to magnet. Not magnets and do not always position where the compass tip settles
permanent. work so well. Takes longer. 5. Repeat above until you reach the south pole,
then connect the marks together to construct
a field line .
6. Add arrows to field lines (pointing north to
south).

38
39. Electromagnetism
Magnetic Field around a Wire Solenoid: a coil of wire
Outside solenoid: Magnetic field lines are like a bar
magnet
Inside solenoid Magnetic field is strong. Same strength
and direction in all places. Field lines are parallel.
Electromagnet: a solenoid with an iron core

Advantages of an electromagnet:
▪ Arrows on the field line show the direction of the magnetic field. Can be turned on or off. Strength of magnet can be increased or
▪ Reverse the direction of the current, the direction of the magnetic decreased.

field reverses.
▪ If the field lines are closer, there is a larger the current. North
pole South
▪ Further away from the wire, the weaker the magnetic field pole

Right Hand Grip Rule

Your thumb points in the direction of the

current.
Your fingers point in the direction of the
magnetic field.

39
40. Investigating electromagnetism

How to make an electromagnet

1. Set up equipment as shown in diagram
2. Wrap the wire around the nail
3. Connect the wire to the power supply
4. Switch on the power supply

How to test the electromagnet

• the more paperclips suspended, the stronger the electromagnet is
IV: Increase strength of electromagnet by (3 x Cs):
• clamp the electromagnet at different distances from the paperclip(s)
a) Increase the number of coils
• the further the distance from which paperclips can be attracted the stronger the electromagnet is
b) Increase the current
• use de-magnetised paper clips
c) Change the core
DV: Number of paperclips picked up
CV: Same type of paperclip.

40
41. Uses for Electromagnets

1. Completing the circuit turns the electromagnet on

2. There is a current in the coil 1. Closing the switch causes a current to pass through the
3. A magnetic field is produced around the coil electromagnet
4. The iron core becomes magnetised 2. The iron core of the electromagnet becomes magnetised
5. Move electromagnet towards the blocks 3. The electromagnet attracts the short side of the iron arm
6. The block is attracted to the electromagnet 4. The iron arm pushes the starter motor together
7. Moving the crane moves the block 5. The starter motor circuit is complete
8. Switching off the current switches off the electromagnet 6. A current flows through the starter motor
9. Releasing the block

41
 42. Fleming Left Hand Rule
Use Flemings "left hand rule" to find the direction of the force
When a wire carrying a current is exposed to the magnetic field of another
magnet, then a force is produced on the wire at a right angle to the direction of
the magnetic field produced.
This is called the motor effect.
force (N) = magnetic flux density (T) × current (A) × length (m)
F=BIl

•F is force in newtons (N)

•B is magnetic flux density (magnetic field strength) in tesla (T)
•I is current in amps (A)
•l is length in metres (m)

The force on a given length of wire in a magnetic field increases

• Use your left hand
when:
• The angle between your index finger and middle finger should be a
•the current in the wire increases
right angle on the horizontal plane.
•the strength of the magnetic field increases
• The angle between your index finger and thumb should be a right
The force is greatest when the direction of the current is 90° to the
angle on the vertical plane.
direction of the magnetic field.
• Your thumb represents the direction of the force.
• Your index finger represents the direction of the magnetic field.
There is no motor effect force if the current and magnetic field are
• Your middle finger represents the direction of the current flowing
parallel to each other.
through the wire. 42
 43. Motor Effect
•The motor effect can be used to create a simple d.c electric motor.
•Electricity is used to create motion
•The simple d.c. motor consists of a coil of wire (which is free to rotate) The split ring commutator swaps the contacts of the coil. This reverses the

positioned in a uniform magnetic field. direction in which the current is flowing.

The two halves of the split ring commutator ensure that the current supplied
When the current is flowing in the coil at 90 o to the direction of the
to the wire changes direction each half-turn (or that the current supplied is the
magnetic field:
same direction on each side of the motor) and as a result, the force produced
• The current creates a magnetic field around the coil
maintains a constant rotation in one direction overall.
• The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the
field produced by the magnets
• This results in a force being exerted on the coil
Reversing the direction of the current will also reverse the direction in which the
• As current will flow in opposite directions on each side of the
forces are acting. As a result, the coil will continue to rotate
coil, the force produced from the magnetic field will push one
side of the coil up and the other side of the coil down

43
 44. Wave properties
Wavelength - the distance Amplitude - the
between adjacent waves maximum
Mechanical Waves travel through a medium (substance). (i.e. from peak to peak or displacement from the
The particles oscillate (vibrate) and transfer energy. trough to trough) horizontal mid-line.
The particles do not travel along in the wave.

Frequency (f) - the number of complete waves that pass a

point every second.
1 wave per second has a frequency of 1Hz (hertz).

Time period (T) - the time for a complete cycle of a single wave. Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)

Frequency (Hz) = 1 ÷ time period (s)

V=fλ
F=1 ÷T
Example: How fast is a wave travelling which has a 3m wavelength and a frequency
Example: What is the frequency for a wave with a time period of 0.2s of 20Hz?

E f =1÷T E V=fxλ
V T = 0.2 s V f = 20 Hz; λ = 3 m
E f = 1 ÷ 0.2
R 5 E V = 20 x 3
Y Hz R V = 60
Y m/s
f = 5Hz

44
45. Transverse and Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal Waves Transverse Waves

The oscillations (vibrations causing the wave are parallel to the The oscillations (vibrations causing the wave) are
direction of energy transfer. perpendicular (90°) to the direction of energy transfer.

Oscillations

One wavelength Example: Light waves, X-rays and water waves (ripples)
All electromagnetic waves
Compression: particles bunch up
Rarefaction: particles spread out
Example: Sound waves

45
 46. Sound Waves and Speed of Sound experiment
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves.
Sound waves
They need a medium to travel through.
Bigger the amplitude – taller the wave – louder the sound

The speed of sound can be calculated using: Higher the frequency – more waves per second – higher pitch

Speed (m/s) = distance (m) ÷ time (s)

Unit conversions:
km to m: x 1000
cm to m: ÷ 100
minutes to seconds: x 60
hours to seconds: x 3600

Speed of sound experiment

1. Measure the distance between the person and the wall using a metre
ruler.
2. Double this distance.
3. Using a stop clock, measure the time taken from the clap being made
to hearings it’s echo.
4. Use the equation,
speed = distance ÷ time.
46
 47. Reflection, transmission and absorption of waves

Reflection
Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at
90o to the mirror (boundary)
Normal = an imaginary line drawn at 90 o to the surface
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of
incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of
reflection (r)
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Transmission
Transmission occurs when a wave passes through a substance
Absorption The more transparent the material, the more light will pass through
Occurs when energy is transferred from the wave into the particles of a substance For the process to count as transmission, the wave must pass through
Sound waves are absorbed by brick or concrete in houses the material and emerge from the other side
Light will be absorbed if the frequency of light matches the energy levels of the When passing through a material, waves are usually partially absorbed
electrons The transmitted wave may have a lower amplitude because of some
If an object appears red, only red light has been reflected. All the other absorption
frequencies of visible light have been absorbed For example, sound waves are quieter after they pass through a wall

47
 48. Refraction of waves
Refraction
Waves change speed when they cross a boundary between two materials of different density
or a boundary of different depths. Refraction of Light ray

If the wave enters a medium of higher density at an angle the ray bends towards the normal
(see diagram). Angle of incidence Normal
(always at 900 to the
boundary)
If it enters a medium along the normal then the wave does not change direction but the Incoming
ray
wavelength and speed decrease. Angle of Refracted
refraction ray Boundary
(waves closer together on diagram below but have not changed direction)

Wave Front Diagrams

The part of the wave front that enters the more dense medium first, slows down as the rest of
the wave front continues at the same speed but has to travel further. The difference in
Angle of Refracted ray
distance and speed causes the wave to refract. A wave travelling from deep to shallow water refraction
also refracts.

Change in speed but no change in direction

as wave entered along the normal

Deep Shallow
water water 48
49. Electromagnetic Spectrum
All parts of the EM spectrum travel at the same speed.
They all travel at 300,000,000 m/s.
They are all transverse waves
All parts of the EM spectrum can travel through a vacuum (e.g. space)

Radio Waves Used for communication. Used for television and radios.
Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical circuits. When radio waves are absorbed they may create an alternating current
with the same frequency as the radio wave itself, so radio waves can themselves induce oscillations in an electrical circuit.
Microwaves Used to communicate with satellites (T.V, mobile Phone)
Cooking food.
Infra-red Radiation (IR) Used for electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras

Visible Light Optical fibres transmit data using light over long distances

Ultra Violet Radiation (UV) energy efficient lamps, sun tanning

UV can damage surface cells, causing sunburn and increasing the risk of skin cancer.
X-Rays X-Rays pass through flesh but are absorbed by the more dense bone.
Ionising, so can cause mutations in DNA, destroy cells and cause cancer
Gamma Rays Gamma rays can be used as a tracer. A gamma source is injected and its path through the body can be detected. Both are used to treat
cancer as they kill cells. Ionising, so can cause mutations in DNA, destroy cells and cause cancer

49
50. Forces
Scalar A quantity Speed, distance, time, Contact Involves 2 or more Friction, air resistance
which has mass… Force
objects that must
only touch to act on each
magnitude other
Vector A quantity Force, velocity, Non contact Involves 2 or more Gravitational force, electrostatic force,
which has momentum, acceleration.. force
objects that do not magnetic force
both need to be touching
magnitude for forces to act on
and direction each other

Mass: Amount of matter in an object

Weight (N) = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg)
Measured using a balance
Measured in kg W = mg
Weight: A force depending on the object's mass and force of gravity e.g. What is the weight of a 2kg mass on earth

Measured using a Newton meter E W=m x g

Measured in N V m = 2kg and g = 9.8N/kg
E W = 2 x 9.8
R W = 19.6
Centre of mass: The point through which the weight of an object acts. Y N
• The wider base an object has, the lower its centre of mass and it is
more stable
• The narrower base an object has, the higher its centre of mass and
the object is more likely to topple over if pushed

50
51. Resultant Forces
Found by adding together any forces acting along the same line (direction) and subtracting any that act in the opposite direction:

Drag (50N) The resultant force is 30N (80-50)

The resultant force is a single force which is equivalent to the 2 forces acting together
downwards.
Weight 30N
(80N)

When a force moves an object through a distance, energy is transferred and work is done.

To make something move a force must be applied, which requires energy.

The force does work to move the object and energy is transferred between stores.

Calculating Resultant Forces using a diagram

A scooter is pushed with 4N north and is blown 3N east by the wind. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.

1. Draw a scale diagram.

2. Join the ends of the two forces (dotted arrow)

3.Measure the length of this line and use the scale to work out the size (magnitude) 37O to vertical

of the force.

4. Measure the bearing (angle) with a protractor.

51
52. Resolving Forces—Parallelogram of forces 1
You will be given this vector diagram 1. Draw the missing side of the parallelogram from the highlighted force

5000N 5000N

Co interior angles add

600 600 up to 1800

8000N 8000N
5000N
1200

3. Draw the resultant force and measure with a ruler 2. Draw in the last side of the parallelogram

5000N 5000N
8000N 8000N
600 600

11.3 cm

8000N 8000N
5000N 5000N
120 0 1200
52
53. Resolving Forces—Parallelogram of forces 2
4. Use your scale to calculate the size of the resultant
force
Measure angle to give vector angle
e.g 1100 from vertical

Resultant force length = 11.3 cm

Scale = 1 cm = 1000 N
11.3 x 1000 = 11300N Resultant force = 11300 N

Measure angle resultant force acts at from vertical because vector requires magnitude and direction.

Resultant force = 11.3 kN at 1100 to vertical

53
54. Resolving Forces – On an inclined plane 1
A box is resting on a 30o incline. Resolve the force into a parallel 1. Draw a line parallel to the slope
& perpendicular components. The box has a weight of 50N.

1 cm = 10N

30o
30o

50N
represented by drawing 5cm long 50N
line downwards

3. Draw a second line parallel to the slope 2. Draw a line perpendicular to this and
at the end of the 50N line through the centre of the object

30o 30o

50N
50N
54
55. Resolving Forces – On an inclined plane 2

4. Measure the length of the perpendicular and parallel 5. Calculate your parallel and perpendicular component lines as below

1 cm = 10 N
Parallel Component = 4.8 cm
4.8 X 10 = 48 N

8.8 cm

30o
Perpendicular Component = 8.8 cm
8.8 X 10 = 88 N
50N

4.8cm

55
56. Elasticity

Elastic Potential Energy

To stretch, compress or bend an object more than one force
A force acting on an object may cause the shape of an object to change.
must act on it.
Extension is directly proportional to force: Elastic objects can store elastic potential energy if they are stretched or squashed.
For example, this happens when a catapult is used or a spring is stretched.
Force (N) = spring constant (N/m) x extension (m)
Objects can also store elastic potential energy when they are squashed.
F = ke
Elastic potential energy (J) = 0.5 x spring constant (N/m) x extension2 (m)

Unit conversions:
kJ to J: x 1000
Inelastically deformed
cm to m: ÷ 100
Object cannot return to its original shape
and extension is not directly proportional to
force.
F no longer proportional to e. (curved line)

Elastically deformed
Object can return to its original
shape and

Extension ∝ force. (Straight Line)

56
57. Newton’s laws of motion

First Law A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion, unless it is acted upon by an unbalanced force.

Inertia is the tendency of a body to remain inthe same state of motion

Second Law The amount a body accelerates is directly proportional to the force applied Inertial mass is the property of an object which describes how difficult
to it and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. it is to change its velocity
F = ma Inertial mass = force ÷ acceleration
Inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force to acceleration
e.g. An aeroplane accelerates from a low speed to a high speed with the Inertial mass is inversely proportional to acceleration
engines at maximum power (mass = 1 ÷ acceleration)
At maximum power the forward force of the engines is constant as it Larger inertial masses will experience small accelerations
accelerates the air resistance increases Smaller inertial masses will experience large accelerations

.
resultant force = force from engines – air resistance
Therefore resultant force decreases acceleration is directly proportional
to resultant force
Third Law When two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.
This is anequilibrium situation - neither object moves because the forces are balanced.

57
 58. Momentum
Force = change in momentum
A vector quantity (has size and direction). change in time

Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)

P = mv
Change in momentum safety features
Seat belts
Conserved momentum:
Seat belts stop you tumbling around inside the car if there is a collision. However,
total momentum before = total momentum
they are designed to stretch a bit in a collision.
afterwards
This increases the time taken for the body's momentum to reach zero, and so
reduces the forces on it.
e.g. A 2 kg object (A) moving at 3m/s crashes into a
Air bags
4 kg stationary object (B) causing both objects to
Air bags increase the time taken for the head's momentum to reach zero, and so
move away locked together.
reduce the forces on it.
What velocity do they move away at?
They also act a soft cushion and prevent cuts.
Total momentum before = (mA x vA ) + (mB x vB) Crumple zones
= (2 x 3) + (4 x 0) = 6kgm/s Crumple zones are areas of a vehicle that are designed to crush in a controlled way
in a collision.
Total momentum after = 6kgm/s = (mA +mB) x vnew They increase the time taken to change the momentum of the driver and passengers
Vnew = 6 / (2+4) = 1m/s in a crash, which reduces the force involved.

Momentum is a vector therefore the direction is the same

because it is a positive answer. A negative sign would show
58
the opposite direction.
59. Speed, velocity and acceleration

Typical Speed 1.5 m/s Speed Terminal Velocity

How fast something is going without reference
Walking The maximum speed an object will fall at through a fluid
to a direction. It is a scalar quantity.
Running 3 m/s (liquid or gas).
Velocity A speed in a given direction
Cycling 6 m/s As the speed of a falling object increases so does the
Acceleration How quickly something is speeding up, or its
Car 25 m/s frictional force (drag) opposing the objects weight (which
rate of change of velocity. Deceleration is how
Train 55 m/s doesn’t change).
quickly something is slowing down or negative
Plane 250 m/s The resultant force is therefore reducing until the drag is
acceleration.
equal to the weight. Acceleration is reduced to zero and
the terminal velocity is reached.
Uniform Acceleration
This can happen due to gravity acting on an object in free fall. Fdrag
v = final velocity (m/s)
u = initial velocity (m/s)
v2 – u2 = 2 a s a = acceleration (m/s2)
s = distance (m)

Velocity and circular motion

When an object travels along a circular path, its velocity is always changing
Fw eight
The speed of the object moving in a circle is constant (travelling the same distance every second)
The direction of travel is always changing as the object moves along the circular path
This means that an object moving in circular motion travels at a constant speed but has a changing velocity
59
60. Graphs of Motion

Distance – time graph Velocity – time graph

Gradient = speed of object

Gradient = acceleration of object
Gradient = change in y Distance travelled = area under the line
change in x Average velocity = (v + u) / 2

60
61. Thinking, Braking and Stopping Distances
Reaction time experiment:
Typical reaction time for a person is 0.2-0.9s
Ruler drop test

Thinking distance – the distance travelled during the reaction time. The Computer based experiments
distance between the driver seeing the danger and taking action to avoid it.

Braking distance – distance travelled before a car stops after the brakes
have been applied. It increases as the speed of the car increases. Braking distance is affected by:

Stopping distance= thinking distance + braking distance • Speed

Reaction time – the time taken for the driver to react to the stimulus • Weather and the road surface e.g. icy

• Condition of tyres e.g. bald tyres cannot get rid of

Thinking distance is affected by:
the water in wet conditions leading to skidding
• Speed • Quality of brakes
• Your reaction time which is affected by:

I. Alcohol

II. Drugs

III. Sleep deprivation

IV. Distractions

61
62. Required Practical 6: Force and extension

Force and Extension

The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the force applied,
provided its limit of proportionality is not exceeded

Independent variable - Force applied (N)

Dependent variable - Extension of spring (m)

Control variable - same spring, keep ruler in the same position.

Method

1. Hang the spring on the end of the clamp and gently clamp it to secure it.
2. Measure the original length of the spring and record this length.

3. Add a 100 g (1 Newton) mass holder to the end of the spring.

4. Measure the new length and calculate the extension.

5. Add 100 g masses, one at a time, measuring the length and calculating (and recording) the extension Spring constant (N/m) = Force (N) ÷ extension (m)
Spring constant = gradient of the line
of the spring each time.

6. Stop when you have added a total of 500 g. Be careful not to overstretch the spring.

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 63. Required Practical 7: The effect of force on acceleration
Independent variable – Force (N) (weight due to mass W=mg)
Dependent variable – acceleration (m/s2)
Control variables – mass of trolley, same trolley starts from same position each time

Method

1. Measure the length of each card segment and make a note of this.
2.Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below. When the trolley is as close to the pulley
as it can get, the bottom of the mass holder should be between 0.5 cm and 1 cm above the floor.
3. During this experiment the trolley will travel towards the pulley.
4.Set up the data logger. You will use its measurements to
find the trolley's acceleration.
5. Add mass to the mass holder so that the total mass,
including the holder, is 250 g.
6.Pull back the trolley, set the data logger to record, and then let the trolley run to the pulley.
Collect the necessary measurements from the data logger.
7.Take 50 g off the mass holder and place it onto the trolley. You may need to use a small
The acceleration of an object is
amount of tape or sticky tack to hold the mass securely in place. Repeat step 6.
proportional to the resultant force acting
8. Repeat steps 6-7 until there is 200 g on the trolley - this will be the fifth and final run. upon it. F = ma or a = F/m

m is the mass of the trolley and not the

How to reduce random errors weight being attached to the string
Repeat the measurements/investigation
Ignore anomalies and calculate the mean
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64. Required Practical 8: The effect of mass on acceleration
Independent variable – mass of the trolley (N)
Dependent variable – acceleration (m/s2)
Control variables – Force being applied, trolley starts from same position each time
Method
1.Measure the length of each card segment and make a note of this.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below. When the trolley is as close to the pulley as it can get, the bottom of the mass holder should be between 0.5
cm and 1 cm above the floor.
3. During this experiment the trolley will travel towards the pulley. If you need to, place a lump of modelling clay or a block in front of the pulley to protect it from being hit
by the trolley.
4. Set up the data logger. You will use its measurements to find the trolley's acceleration. There are different ways of doing this, depend- ing on the data logger and the
method your teacher asks you to use.
5. You will be changing the mass (by stacking extra trolleys under the first one) but keeping the applied force the same (by keeping the same number of masses on the
mass holder). First, measure the mass of one trolley. (You can assume all trolleys have the same mass.)
6. Each time you change the number of stacked trolleys, measure the acceleration. You may need to change the height of the light gate so that the card still passes
through it.

The acceleration of an object is

inversely proportional to the
mass of the object.

a = F/m

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 All bodies (objects) emit and absorb infrared radiation.
65. Required practical 9: Infra red radiation
An object that is good at absorbing radiation is also a good emitter, so a perfect black
Demonstration
body would be the best possible emitter of radiation.

White and shiny silvery surfaces are the worst absorbers, as they reflect all visible
light wavelengths. Poor absorbers are also poor emitters, and do not emit radiation as
quickly as darker colours. Radiators in homes are usually painted white so that the
infrared radiation is emitted gradually.

Class practical
1. Fill a matt black boiling tube and a shiny boiling tube with equal volumes of hot water.
Method:
2. Record temperature of water inside boiling tubes every 30 seconds.
1. Set up equipment as shown in diagram
3. Plot results on a graph
2. Fill cube with hot water and put on lid
3. Use the detector to measure the amount of radiation from
IV: surface of boiling tube
each surface
DV: temperature of hot water
IV: surface CV: volume of hot water, time intervals recording the temperature
DV: Amount of IR absorbed or radiated
CV: Distance between surface and IR detector Matt black boiling tube: Temperature drops the most and it is the best at it is the best at
emitting heat.
Advantages of using this cube:
• All surfaces are at the same temperature
• More surfaces are tested
• Volume and temperature of the water does not need to be
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measured
66. Required practical 10: Speed of water waves How to find the frequency of a wave using a ripple tank: count the
number of ripples that pass a point in 10 seconds. Divide the number of
1. Set up the ripple tank as shown in the diagram. waves by 10.
2. Make sure that there is a large sheet of white card or
paper on the floor under the tank. How to measure the wavelength: measure the distance across 10 gaps
3. Pour water to a depth of about 5 mm into the tank. between the shadow lines. Divide this distance by 10.
4. Adjust the height of the wooden rod so that it just
touches the surface of the water. How to calculate the speed of the wave
5. Switch on the overhead lamp and the electric motor. Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) x wavelength (m)
6. Adjust the speed of the motor to produce low frequency
water waves. How to improve the method of calculating the wavelength:
7. Adjust the height of the lamp so that the pattern of the Take a photo of the shadows and the ruler.
waves can be clearly seen on the white card. Benefit is that the waves are not being disturbed.

Reasons for using a:

Lamp: create shadows of the ripples
Metre ruler: measure the distance between 10 waves.
Signal generator: The vibration generator can have a built in signal generator
so that you can directly set the frequency of paddle oscillation i.e. frequency
of the ripple waves.

Deeper water means longer wavelength because velocity increases and

frequency is constant 66
67. Maths in Science 1
Prefixes
1 kJ = 1 x 103 J = 1000 J
Anomalous result A number that does not fit the pattern
1 pm = 1 x 10-12 m
Mean Adding up a list of numbers and dividing by how many numbers 1 mm = 1 x 10-3 m= 0.001 m
are in the list.
Exclude the anomalous result. kilo 10 3
centi 10 -2
Median The middle value when a list of numbers is put in order from
milli 10 -3
smallest to largest micro 10 -6
nano 10 -9
Mode The most common value in a list of numbers.
pico 10 -12
If two values are tied then there are two modes.
If more than two values are tied then there is no mode.
5607.376
Range The largest number take away the smallest value in a set of data Standard form: 5.607 x 103
or written as X-Y. 2 decimal places: 5607.38
3 significant figures: 5610
Uncertainty range ÷ 2

0.03581
Surface area of a cube (area of 1 side) x 6 sides
Standard form: 3.581 x 10-2
Volume of a cube Width x height x depth 2 decimal places: 0.04
3 significant figures: 0.0358
Area of a circle ∏ x (radius)2

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68. Maths in Science 2
x axis = independent variable = left hand column of results table
y axis = dependent variable = right hand column of results table
Calculating percentage: (part ÷ whole) x 100
e.g. Out of 90 insects, 40 of them were ladybirds. What is
the % of ladybirds?
(40 ÷ 90) x 100 = 44 % Categoric data: data put into
groups e.g. colour of eyes
Draw a bar chart
Calculating percentage change:
(difference ÷ starting value) x 100

(0.59 ÷ 2.22) x 100 = 26.6 %

Conc of Mass of Mass of Change in Continuous data: data that

Sucrose potato potato at end mass (g) can take any value e.g. current
(M) at start (g) (g) Draw a line graph
0 2.22 2.81 0.59

Graphs

Proportional ( )
Gradient and Graphs
When the line passes
through the origin Gradient = Change in y
Change in x

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