ICH404: Polymer Technology

Prepared by Dr. Lukman B. Abdulra’uf

Large scale industrial polymerisation processes; mechanical properties of polymers; introduction to polymer
rheology, polymer processing – injection, extrusion, calendaring, compression and transfer; moulding
of thermoplastics; important methods of processing thermosets; polymer morphology

1. Ebewele, R. O. (1996). Polymer science and technology. Boca Raton: CRC Press pp258
2. Goodwin, J. W. and Hughes, R. W. (2012). Rheology for Chemists. Cambridge: RSC Publishing
3. Guo, Q (ed). Polymer morphology: principles, characterization and processing. New Jersey: John Wiley
& Sons

Polymer Processing
Polymer processing is the activities performed on polymeric materials, to increase their usefulness. It involves
synthesis, shaping, transforming, compounding, functionalization and stabilization of the materials. The
combination of these operations determines the final properties and performance of any polymeric products.
Polymer processing involves creating structires, using polymer by changing their viscosity and rheological
properties.
Polymer processing may be divided into two broad areas. The first is the processing of the polymer into some
form such as pellets or powder. The second type describes the process of converting polymeric materials into
useful articles of desired shapes.

Compounding Processes
These are the processing stages between the manufacturing of the crude polymer and the final molding step.
The process include storage, transportation. metering, mixing, plastication and granulation.
1. Mixing: it allows obtaining a homogeneous mixture of polymer and additives. The additive is
distributed uniformly throughout the crude polymer, without any unnecessary stressing. Mixing can occur
under the action of gravitational forces in a tumble mixer; or in a ribbon mixer, where materials are mixed in
a horizontal barrel in a spiral manner. Such mixers are collectively known as cold mixers. When the polymers
are heated by contact with heated metal components, it is called hot mixer.
2. Rolling and Kneading: it involves passing a plastic between two counter rotating, heated rods
wherein it is pressed into a thin layer. It is an open process in which additives can be added, and other scrap
materials may be reintroduced. PVC is one plastic which extensively employs this process. Moreover, the
material temperature can be controlled precisely and cleaning of the machine is easy.
3. Pelletizing: It is the method of producing granules of equal size and shape. This enables the optimum
feed behaviour on the processing equipment. Pelletizing can be done in hot or cold conditions. Using a
pelletizing die, strands, ribbons or sheets are formed; and after solidification, they are chopped into the desired
shapes. This is one procedure strictly followed in cold pelletizing. However, in hot pelletizing, the plasticated
material is sent through a die, and a blade that rotates on thesurface of the die plate chops the exiting strands.
The melt is then cooled; and subsequently the water is removed.
4. Shredding and Grinding: Regranulating is achieved through cutting mills. The material is added
through a feed system wherein a rotor revolves with high momentum. The system is further equipped with
multiple cutting heads that operate against stationary cutting edges. The rotating cutting heads are divided and
displaced with respect to each other in some other machines. As soon as the desired particle size is obtained,
the material is ejected through a sieve, the pores of which determine the size of the particles
5. Storage and Transportation: The storage and transportation of base polymers and intermediate
products are achieved through automatic equipment. These equipment have an edge over the manually
operated ones as they ensure improved working conditions, lower work place, lower contamination of
materials and subsequent reduction losses. Moreover, accident hazards are also reduced. Large external silos
are used for the storage of polymers, either in powder form, or in the pellet form. By incorporating vibrating

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frames, bunker cushions, slotted shelves or similar techniques as ventilation, the formation of granule bridges
is avoided.

Properties that Influence Polymer Processing

1. Quality and production rate
2. Size of final product
3. Dimension accuracy and surface finish
4. Transparency, toughness, flexibility and aspect ratio
Unit Operations in Polymer Processing
1. Extrusion is a processing technique for converting thermoplastic materials in powdered or granular form
into a continuous uniform melt, which is shaped into items of uniform cross-sectional area by forcing it
through a die. The extrusion line, consists of an extruder into which the polymer is poured in form of granules
or pellets and where it is melted and pumped through the die of desired shape. The molten polymer then enters
a sizing and cooling trough or rolls where the correct size and shape are developed. From the trough, the
product enters the motor-driven, rubber-covered rolls (puller), which essentially pull the molten resin from
the die through the sizer into the cutter or coiler where final product handling takes place.

Fig. 10. Sketch of an extrusion line

Extruder
The extruder (Fig. 11), consists a barrel which runs from the hopper (through which the polymer is fed into
the barrel at the rear) to the die at the front end of the extruder. The screw, which is the moving part of the
extruder is designed to pick up, mix, compress, and move the polymer as it changes from solid granules to a
viscous melt. The screw turns in the barrel with power supplied by a motor operating through a gear reducer.
The heart of the extruder is the rotating screw. The thread of an extruder screw is called a flight, and the axial
distance from the edge of one flight to the corresponding edge on the next flight is called the pitch. The pitch
is a measure of the coarseness of the thread and is related to the helix angle.

Fig. 11: Parts of an extruder

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Extrusion end products include pipes for water, gas, drains, and vents; tubing for garden hose, automobiles,
control cable housings, soda straws; profiles for construction, automobile, and appliance industries; film for
packaging; insulated wire for homes, automobiles, appliances, telephones and electric power distribution;
filaments for brush bristles, rope and twine, fishing line, tennis rackets; parisons for blow molding.
2. Injection Molding: is one of the processing techniques for converting thermoplastics, and recently,
thermosetting materials, from the pellet or powder form into a variety of useful products. Injection molding
consists of heating the pellet or powder until it melts. The melt is then injected into and held in a cooled mold
under pressure until the material solidifies. The mold opens and the product is ejected. The injection molding
machine must, therefore, perform essentially three functions:
1. Melt the plastic so that it can flow under pressure
2. Inject the molten material into the mold.
3. Hold the melt in the cold mold, while it solidifies and then eject the solid plastic

Fig. 12: Diagram of a plunger-type injection molding machine

Units of an Injection Molding Machine
Injection Unit: The injection unit performs two functions: melting of the pellet or powder and injection of
the melt into mold. The injection unit consist of the hopper (used for feeding process materials), a heating
chamber (where materials are melted), and a device for injecting the molten materials into the mold.
Clamping Unit: The clamp unit performs three functions: opens and closes the mold at appropriate times
during the molding cycle; ejects the molded part; and provides enough pressure to prevent the mold from
opening. Due to the pressure developed in the mold cavity as it is filled with the melt by the injection unit.
Auxiliary Systems: The operation of the injection and clamp units is controlled by the auxiliary systems,
which is an electric motor that supplied power: It contains the hydraulic and control systems. The hydraulic
system, transmits and controls the power to the various parts of the machine. Machine functions are regulated
by a careful control of the flow, direction, and pressure of the hydraulic fluid.
Injection molding is used to produce a variety of useful products. Forks, spoons, computer, television, and
radio cabinets.

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3. Blow Molding: the process consists of a sequence of steps leading to the production of a hollow tube or
parison from a molten thermoplastic resin. This is then entrapped between the two halves of a mold of the
desire desired shape. Air, usually at about 100 psi, is blown into the soft parison, expanding it against the
contours of the cold mold cavity. The part is cooled and removed from the mold, and where necessary the
excess plastic material or flash accompanying the molded part is trimmed and reclaimed for reuse. The blow
molding process therefore involves essentially two properly synchronized operations: parison formation from
the plastic material and blowing the parison into the shape of the desired part.

Fig. 13: Schematic diagram of the blowing stage. (a) The molten, hollow tube — the parison or preform — is
placed between the halves of the mold; (b) the mold closes around the parison; (c) the parison, still molten,
is pinched off and inflated by an air blast that forces its wall against the inside contours of the cooled mold;
(d) when the piece has cooled enough to have become solid, the mold is opened and the finished piece is
ejected

Types of Blow Bolding

Blow molding can either be extrusion blow molding which is characterized by scrap production or injection
blow molding which is versatile and scrap free.
a. Extrusion Blow Molding: extrusion blow molding, an extruder, is used to plasticize the resin and form the
parison. The process may be continuous or intermittent. In the continuous process, a continuous parison is
formed at a rate synchronized with the rates of part blowing, cooling, and removal.
Two general mold clamp mechanisms are used for part formation from the extruded parison.
-In the first arrangement or shuttle system, the blowing station is situated on one or both sides of the extruder.
As soon as an appropriate length of parison is extruded, the clamp mechanism moves from the blowing station
to a position under the die head, captures and cuts the parison, and then returns to the blowing station for part
blowing, cooling, and removal. This ensures that there is no interference with parison formation.
-In the second or rotary system, a number of clamping stations are mounted on a vertical or horizontal wheel.
As the wheel rotates at a predetermined rate, blowing stations successively pass the parison head(s) where it
is entrapped for subsequent part formation.
b. Injection Blow Molding: this process is a non-continuous cyclic process consisting essentially of two
phases.
In the first phase, a preform is molded by injecting melted plastic into a steel mold cavity where it is kept hot
and conditioned. In the second or subsequent phase, the preform is metered into the blow mold where the
blowing operation takes place to form the final part. The major advantages of injection blow molding are the
quality of the molded part and productivity. There is no flash production. Therefore, the molded part neither
has a pinch-off scar from flash nor requires additional trimming or other finishing steps for waste retrieval.
Also, the molded parts show hardly any variation in weight, wall thickness, and volume from the accurately
molded preform

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Blow molding is a process used extensively for the production of bottles and other hollow plastic items with
thin walls.
4. Rotational Molding: is a process used for producing hollow, seamless products having heavy and/or
complex shapes. In rotational molding a premeasured amount of powder or liquid polymer is placed in the
bottom half of the mold, and the two halves of the mold are locked together mechanically. The mold is then
rotated continuously about its vertical and horizontal axes to distribute the material uniformly over the inner
surface of the mold. The rotating mold then passes through a heated oven. As the mold is heated, the powdered
polymer particles fuse forming a porous skin that subsequently melts and forms a homogeneous layer of
uniform thickness. While still rotating axially, the mold passes into a cooling chamber where it is cooled by
forced air and/or water spray. The mold is then moved to the work station and opened, and the finished solid
part whose outside surfaces and contour faithfully duplicate those of the inner mold surface is removed.

Fig. 14: Diagram of rotation molding

5. Thermoforming: is a process for forming moderately complex shaped parts that cannot be injection molded
because the part is either very large, too expensive or has very thin walls. It consists essentially of two stages:
elevation of the temperature of a thermoplastic sheet material until it is soft and pliable and forming the
material into the desired shape using one of several techniques.
Thermoforming techniques may be grouped into three broad categories: vacuum, mechanical, and air blowing
processes: Vacuum forming; Mechanical forming, Air blowing process.
a. Vacuum Forming: The plastic sheet is clamped in place mechanically and heated. A vacuum is then placed
beneath the hot elastic sheet, and this makes atmospheric pressure push the sheet down onto the contours of
the cold mold. The plastic material cools down, and after an appropriate time the cooled part is removed.
b. Mechanical Forming: In this case, a hot sheet is stretched over a mold or matched molds without the use
of air or pressure. In matched mold forming, the heated sheet is clamped over a female mold or draped over
the mold force (male mold). The two molds are then closed. The resulting part has excellent dimensional
accuracy and good reproduction of the mold detail, including any lettering and grained surfaces.
c. Air Blowing Process: It involves using of a compressed air to form the sheet. In one variation, a plastic
sheet is heated and sealed across the female cavity. Air at controlled pressure is introduced into the mold
cavity. This blows the sheet upward into an evenly stretched bubble. A plug which fits roughly into the mold
cavity descends on the sheet. When the plug reaches its lowest possible position, a vacuum or, in some cases,
air under pressure is used to complete part formation.

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