Tectonics Cluster Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.1 Plate tectonic theory + Convection currents: Currents of heat within the hot softened mantle below the crust, generated by the heat from the Earth's core, which drive tectonic plate movements. * Slab-pull force: Gravitational force that causes a denser ‘oceanic plate to sink further into the mantle under its own , weight. + Divergent plate boundaries: Where plates move away from each other. + Convergent plate boundaries: Where plates move towards each other. + Transform plate boundaries: Where plates slide past each other. + Subduction: The process of an oceanic plate colliding and descending beneath another less dense tectonic plate. What is the plate tectonic theory? CST, Mammy Core + The plate tectoni¢ theory explains that: 1. 0 Earth has a three-layered structure (see fae 1). © The Earth's lithosphere ibroken uinto fuge igedgatecpactaale fectonie 2: © plates. Lap ave wprerints port of 48 4,, 2 fectonic plates are constanlly moving. ” 9 Plate movements result in formation of landforms (e.g. mountain 4. ranges, oceanic trenches) and phenomena (e.g. earthquakes, tsunamis). Crust Lithosphere iignarnes Asthenosphere mantle Mantle Figure 1: A diagram showing the intemal structure of the Earth. Scanned with CamScannerTectonics Cluster jopic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.1 Plate tectonic theory Tayers | Position Temperature Thickness Gore | innermost | Highest, 4400 - 6000°C | Thickest, 3300km Mantle | inbetween 1000 - 3700°C. 2900km [Eecrust] outermost Lowest Thinnest, 6 - 70km Figure 2: A table showing the difference between the layers of the Earth, + The uppermost part of the manile and the crust are the solid ports of the Earth, Together, they are known as the lithosphere. + The lithosphere is divided into huge pieces called tectonic plates. + There are two types of crusts that make up tectonic plates: © Continental (make up the land masses). © Oceanic (make up the seafloor; denser than continental plate). + The semi-solid asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere. Heat from the core causes the rocks in the asthenosphere fo melt. + Plate movements give rise to three types of plate boundaries: © Divergent plate boundaries (plates are moving away from each other). © Convergent plate boundaries (plates are moving towards each other). © Transform plate boundaries (plates are sliding past each other) + There are two forces that are responsible for plate movements: 1. Convection currents. 2, Slab-pull force. How’do convection curtents lead to tectonic pplate'movement? Figure 3: A diagram showing convection currents in the mantle. + Convection currents (see Figure 3): 1. Heat from the earth's core causes the mantle material to become less dense. 2. Mantle material rises towards the surface. 3. The rising convection currents then spread beneath the plates and drag them apart, causing divergent plate movement. Scanned with CamScannerTectonics Cluster Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.1 Plate tectonic theory 4, The mantle material then loses heat and sinks towards the core. 5. Convergent plate movement occurs where the convection currents collide. 6. The materials then get heated up again, and the process repeats. This rising and sinking of the mantle material forms convection currents. How does slab-pull force contribute to tectonic plate movement? Figure 4: A diagram showing slab pull force. * Slab-pull force (Figure 4): 1. When two plates converge, the denser oceanic crust is pulled down by gravity os it subducts beneath the less dense crust. 2. The denser oceatic crust sinks deeper into the mantle under its own weight, pulling theyest of the plate with it, contributing to further convergence. " ew To access the learning materials on the Plate Tectonic Theory on the Singapore Student Leaming Space (SIS), scan the QR code or type the following URL: https://go.gov.sg/usgka037_ Scanned with CamScannerTectonics Cluster Tople 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.2 Seafloor spreading & eS Tectonics Cluster Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1,.2Seafloor spreading Learning Overview In this sub-lopic you will learn: * How the evidence of seafloor spreading supports the plate tectonic theory. Key Points in + Seafloor spreading happens when magma from deep within the Earth rises through mid-ocean ridges to form new oceanic crusts. * Rocks near the crest of the mid-ocean ridges are younger and are progressively older further away from the mid- ocean ridges. + The formation of new oceanic crusts at mid-ocean ridges and the destruction of older oceanic crusts at Irenches explain why: © There is litle sediment accumulation at oceanic trenches. ‘© Oceanic crusts are younger than continental crusts. Content Concepts * Seafloor spreading: A process where magma from deep within the Earth rises through mid-ocean ridges to create new oceanic crust + Mid-ocean ridge: A submarine mountain chain linearly located on the ocean floor at divergent plate boundaries. + Oceanic trench: Deep depression found in the ocean floor where one oceanic plate is subducting beneath another plate. Scanned with CamScannerTectonics Clu Topic 1 | Plate Tector 1.2 Seafioor spreag What is the evidence of seafloor spreading? Deometiion our + Figure 1 shows seafloor spreading. § core Mid-ocean ridge Uppermost mantle Figure 1: A diagram showing seafloor spreading. 1. Where two plates move away from each other at divergent plate boundaries, seafloor spreading occurs. 2. Magma from deep within the earth rises through the mid-ocean ridge. 3. New oceanic crust is formed. Scanned with CamScannertectonics Cluster Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.2 Seaffoor spreading Why does evidence of seafloor spreading support the plate tectonic theory? * The age of rocks at the seabed shows a pattem: © Rocks nearer to the crest (centre) of the mid-ocean ridge are the youngest, © Rocks further away from the ridge are progressively older. * Shows how new oceanic crust is created at divergent boundaries and then moves laterally on both sides of the mid-ocean ridge as seafloor spreading continues. * Little sediment accumulation is found at oceanic trenches, as older ‘oceanic crust is being destroyed at at oceanic trenches. * Asa result, oceanic crusts are usually younger than continental crusts. * Proves that new crust is continually formed at divergent boundaries at the mid-ocean ridges, and as plates move, older crust is destroyed further away at oceanic trenches. To access the leaming materials on seafloor spreading on the Singapore Student Learning Space (SLS), scan the QR code or type the following URL: https://go.gov.sg/usgka038 Scanned with CamScannerTopic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.3 Magnetic striping Tectonics Cluster Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.3 Magnetic striping Learning Overview AEE” In this sub-topic you will leam: “2 °* + How magnetic striping supports the plate tectonic theory. wi Key Points it + Magnetic striping is evident from stripes of rock on the SS! seafloor with alternating magnetic properties, recording normal and reversed polarity. * The oceanic crust contains basalt, a volcanic rock. * Basalt contains minerals that can be influenced by Earth's magnetic field. * The alternating polarity in the rocks, which forms a striped patter, is not a random or isolated occurrence. %, Content Concepts + Geographic North: The direction towards the fixed point on Earth called the North Pole. * Geographic South: The direction towards the fixed point on Earth called the South Pole. + Magnetic North: Direction that a compass needle points to. This is the direction of the Earth's magnetic North pole, where the Earth acts as a magnet itself. + Magnetic South: The South direction that a compass needle points to. This is the direction of the Earth's magnetic South pole. + Normal polarity: When the Earth's magnetic North points towards geographic North and magnetic South points towards geographic South. -* Reverse polarity: When the Earth's magnetic North points towards geographic South and magnetic South points towards geographic North. Scanned with CamScannercluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1,3 Magnetic striping What is magnetic striping? + Earth has a geographic North and a geographic South as well as. magnetic North and magnetic South. + The geographic North and geographic Southidolfiot change. + However, the magnetic North and magnetic South can shift, and they have reversed multiple times over geological time. + Currently, the magnetic North points roughly towards the geographic North, and the magnetic South points roughly towards the geographic South - this is known ai larity. + Reversé polarity happens when the magnetic North points roughly towards the geographic South, and the magnetic South points roughly towards the geographic North. + Over geological time, the Earth's polarity has fiipped multiple times, altemating between normal and reverse polarity (see Figure | below). Geographic North Pole Geographic North Pole Magnetic Magnetic North Pole South Pole | Magnetic South Pole Magnetic North Pole’ I Geographic South Pole Geographic South Pole ‘Normal Polarity Reverse Polarity Figure 1: A diagram showing normal and reverse polarity. Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.3 Magnetic striping + Magnetic striping is the zebra-like-pattern-where there are’Stripsiof » normal polarity rocks alternating alongside strips of reversed polarity focks on the seafloor (see Figure 2 below]. * Itis symmetrical on both sides of the mid-ocean ridge. Older Youngest _ Older Mid-ocean ridge € > ca Hi A. (J Normal polarity HB Reverse polarity Figure 2: A diagram showing magnetic striping observed at sea-floor. Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.3 Magnetic striping + Magnetic striping occurs as: © Basaltic rocks from the oceanic crust are volcanic rocks formed from iromtich lava. © They contain magnetic materials. © When the iron-rich lava erupts, it cools and solidifies. o Its magnetic material towards Earth's magnetic North, recording evidence of Earth's polarity at that time. Why does evidence of magnetic striping support the plate tectonic theory? * This zebrovike pattem is symmetrical on either side of mid-ocean ridges, showing that this is not a random or isolated occurrence. * Provides evidence that plates move, supporting the plate tectonics theory as: © Oceanic plates move away from each other. 0 Iron-rich lava erupts from the centre of the ridge. © Lava cools, solidifies, and forms new oceanic crust. © The crust is then Fyeetipbamatsetonecab form the ridge when new lava erupts and solidifies as plates move apart. © When Earth's polarity reverses, the rocks record the reversals. © Over time, as more lavdimoves away from the ridge due to plate divergence, a symmetrical zebra-lke pattem forms. To access the learning materials on magnetic striping on the Singapore Student Learning Space (SLS), scan the QR code or type the following URL: https://g0.gov.sg/usgka03? Scanned with CamScannerTopic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries Tectonics Cluster Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries Learning Overview £ In this sub-topic you will learn: * What happens at plate boundaries when tectonic plat move. Key Points ity * At divergent plate boundaries. os a = © Plates move away from each other. © Results in mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes including submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands, rift systems ; ‘and earthquakes. Converaen + At convergent plate boundaries. © Plates move towards each other. ly oP-OP ‘0 Results in fold mountains, volcanoes including submarine ? & P és volcanoes, oceanic trenches and earthquakes. CPaC * At transform plate boundaries. or-cPR © Plates slide past each other. © Resulls in faults and earthquakes. ‘Diver z A er wae * Volcano: Landform created when lava erupts onto the ¢ Earth's surface. aod 5 Torso + Rif valley: Linear lowland region with steep sides. * Earthquake: Shaking of the ground due to the sudden \ release of energy when two plates suddenly slip past each Lp{oult iW, other. + Fold mountain: Mountains that are formed due to two converging plates that cause the Earth's layers to fold. + Fault: A fracture along which the blocks of crust on either side have moved relative to one another. Content Concepts Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundarles What are the different tectonic plate boundaries? * Tectonic plates (oceanic and continental) at different plate boundavie: are associated with plate movements that are: 1. Divergent, 2. Convergent, or 3. Transform. . Divergent plate boundary is where two tectonic plates move apart. Examples: + Oceanic-oceanic divergent plate boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate. * Confinental-continental divergent plate boundary between the Nubian Plate and Somalian Plate. xv .. Convergent plate boundary is where two tectonic plates move towards each other. Examples: * Oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundary between the Philippine Plate and the Pacific Plate. * Continental-continental convergent plate boundary between the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate. * Oceanic-continental convergent plate boundary between the Nazca Plate and the South American Pilate. » . Transform plate boundary is where two tectonic plates slide past each other. Example: « San Andreas Fault where the Pacific Plate slides past the North American Plate. Scanned with CamScannerWhat happens at divergent plate boundaries? Reps + Tectonic plates are moving away from each other, resulting in mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes including submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands, rift systems, and earthquakes. Oceanic-oceanic divergent plate boundaries. * Figure 1 shows two oceanic plates moving apart. Mid-ocean ridge and volcanoes Figure 1: A diagram of two oceanic plates moving apart. 1. Two oceanic plates move apart~ 2. The decrease in overlying pressure Causes parts of the undetvng - mantle to met, forming magma: 2, Magmet oo. rough eae ‘areas in the crust to the Earth's surface, ‘and fills gaps Be tone by the spreading plates. mid cron rilye —— Sulerorenime { Volcano I A e couvection YZ valhen out tant Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries * Lava cools and solidifies to form basaltic rocks. + The rocks make up a new oceanic crust. + An extensive in - the mid-ocean ridge - form; Example: © The oceanic North American Plate and oceanic Eurasian Plate move apart. © This forms the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. == At the centre of the ridge is a deep rift valley with steep sides. —<* Magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth's surface, - forming submarine volcanoes. + After many eruptions, the volcanoes may break the surface of the ‘ocean to form volcanic islands, such as in Surtsey, Iceland. — * Earthquakes also occur here due to the stress and tension released when plates move. Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonlc processes at different plate boundaries Continental-continental divergent plate boundaries. + Figure 2 shows two continental plates moving apart. Figure 2: Diagrams showing two continental plates moving apart. 1. Two continental plates move apart. 2. Rocks eventually fracture to form'parallelfaults. 3. The rock between these faults Collapses to form adeep (ft valley with steep sides. 4, As the plates move apan the decrease in overlying pressure causes parts of the underlying mantle to melt, forming magma.|Magma Tises through weak areas in the crust fo the Earth's surface, forming volcanoes. * Earthquakes occur as stress and tension are released when plates move. Example: © The Nubian Plate pulls apart from the Somatian Plate. © This forms the Great Rift Valley. © Examples of volcanoes formed: Mount Kenya, Mount Kilimanjaro. camera —. pe (Pa 3 (P ae x 4m Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries What happens at convergent plate boundaries? * Tectonic plates are moving towards each other, resulting in fold mountains, volcanoes including submarine volcanoes, oceanic trenches, and earthquakes. * There are three kinds of convergent plate boundaries: 0 Oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundaries. © Continental-continental convergent plate boundaries. © Oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries. Oceanic-oceanic convergent plate boundaries. + Figure 3 shows two oceanic plates moving towards each other. Volcano Oceanic trench Yaa Gore 2 6 Figure 3: A diagraln'showjr rappest oceanic convergent plore undary. Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries 1. Two oceanic plates collide. 2. The denser plate subducts beneath the other plate. 3. This forms a deep depression known as an oceanic trench. 4, As the subducting plate sinks into the mantle, the high pressure forces water out of its oceanic crust. Water lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle, causing it to melt, forming magma. 5. Magma rises through weak areas in the crust fo the Earth's surface. 6. This forms a chain of volcanoes, known as a volcanic island. “BeHIEEIOFG the suscueting oceanic plate ato coures earthquakes jo Occur Example: © The oceanic Pacific Plate subducts beneath the oceanic Philippine { Plate. : ‘4 This forms the Mariana Trench, as well as volcanic islands known as 7 the Mariana Islands. as ‘© Guam, an isiand near the Mariana Trench, commonly experiences earthquakes. Figure 4: A diagram showing continental-continental convergent plate boundary. 1. Two continental plates collide. 2. Subduction does not take place because continental plates are too buoyant to subduct. Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundarles 3, Enormous pressure causes the rocks to be uplifted and buckled fp form fold mountains. along the convergent plate boundary also causes earthquor, tooccur. + Magma does not rise to the surface, hence no volcanoes are forme Example: ‘© Continental Indo-Australian Plate converges with the continental Eurasian Plate. © This forms the Himalayan Mountain range. © This area experiences many earthquakes, such as the devastating 2015 Nepal earthquake. ‘Oceanic-continental convergent plate boundaries. a + Figute 5 shows an oceanic plate and a continental plate moving Me ry sie towards each other. fold non Volcano Fold mountains sudluther = Figure 5: A diagram showing oceanic-continental convergent plate Crock, i vin... boundary. 1, An oceanic plate collides with a continental plate. 2. The denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate. 3. This forms an oceanic trench in the subduction zone. 4. As the subducting plate sinks into the mantle, the high pressure force water out of its oceanic crust. Water lowers the melting point of the ‘overlying mantle, causing it to melt, forming magma. ‘5, Magma rises through weak areas in the crust to the Earth's surface, forming volcanoes on the continental plate. gf) © Friction along the subducting oceanic plate causes earthquakes to occur. Scanned with CamScannerCluster 4 | Tectonics Topic 1 | Plate Tectonics 1.4 Tectonic processes at different plate boundaries 6. Enormous pressure at this plate boundary causes rocks on the continental plate to be uplifted and buckled, forming fold mountains. Example: © Oceanic Nazca Plate converges with the continental South ‘American Plate. 0 Denser Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate, forming: a The Peru-Chile trench. = The Andes fold mountain range. The Nevado del Ruiz volcano. © Earthquakes are also common here, such as the 2010 Chile earthquake. What happens at transform plate boundaries702. * Tectonic plates slide past each other. + No crust is created or destroyed (see Figure 6). Fault Figure 6: A diagram showing two plates sliding past each other at a transform plate boundary. 'Sites5 caused by the plate movement , which is a zone + Earthquakes occur here as one plate sudden! st ano + Magma does not rse to Earth's surfaee, Hence there are no volcanoes, Example: ° fealiogior sliding post the N © This forms the © Earthquakes are common here, such as the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake in California. \ tf 20 Scanned with CamScanner