INTRODUCTION

24 June 2021 06:24 PM

What is an Application?
" Is a list of programs which helps us to perform some a
particular task/action "
Example: WhatsApp
MS office
Web browser [ CHROME, MOZILLA] Facebook
Instagram
GTA Vice city

Types of Applications:

1. Stand Alone Application.

2. Web Application.
3. Client / Server Application (Mobile Application).

1. STAND ALONE APPLICATION:

Software installed in one computer and used by only one

person.
Examples :– Installing s/w of a Calculator, Adobe
Photoshop, MS Office, AutoCAD, Paint etc.…

Advantages:
• Faster in access.
• Secured from Data hacking and virus.

Disadvantages:
• Single user access at a time.
•
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 • Installation is required

2.WEB APPLICATION:

Any Application which is opened through a browser is

known as WEB APPLICATION.

Examples: - Facebook , wiki , YouTube , Gmail ,

amazon , SkillRary etc. ...

Server: It is nothing but a super computer where in all the

applications are installed and can be accessed by anyone.
[ High Configuration]

3.CLIENT / SERVER APPLICATION:

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 In Client Server application, unlike Standalone
Application, part of application is installed on to the client
system and the remaining part is installed on to the server
machine.

Examples: - Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube,

Wiki, OLX, Flipkart etc.….

Advantages:
• Easy to access and faster in access if the bandwidth is
more
• Data security from data hacking and virus
• Data sharing is possible
• Maintenance is not so tough
• Multiple users can access the application.

Disadvantages:
• Installation is still required at client's place
• If the server goes down no one can access the application

EXAMPLE:

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 INTRIDUCTION OF SQL
22 July 2021 08:02 PM

SQL is standard computer language

SQL stands for STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

SQL is used to communicate / interact and manipulate the

DATABASE

WHAT CAN SQL DO……?

SQL can execute queries against a database

SQL can retrieve data from a database
SQL can insert records in a database
SQL can update records in a database
SQL can delete records from a database
SQL can create new tables in a database
SQL can create views in a database

HISTORY OF SQL
1) SQL WAS DESIGNED BY ‘RAYMOND BOYCE’ IN THE
YEAR 1970.
2) FATHER OF SQL IS KNOWN AS RAYMOND BOYCE.
3) E.F.CODD DESGINED RELATIONAL MODEL IN THE YEAR
OF 1970 (SYSTEM.R).
4) E.F CODD IS CALLED BY CO-FATHER OF SQL.
5) IN OLDEN DAYS SQL IS CALLED BY SEQUEL .
S→SIMPLE
E→ENGLISH
QUE→QUERY
L→ LANGUAGE
6) ONCE ANSI(AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD
INSTITUTE) TOOK OVER AND THEY WAS CHAGNED THE
NAME AS SQL.

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DATA:
" Data is a Raw fact which describe the property of an object "
Properties or Attributes object or entity

I am creating my account for myself

OBJECT
Attributes
LAPTOP LAPTOP
First Name: Krishna
Sur Name: Gowda
PH_no: 9874561230 Brand: Dell Brand: Dell
Password: xyz@123 RAM: 8gb RAM: 8gb
DOB: 12/4/19xx
Gender: Male
Touch: no Touch: yes

HIEGHT: 10CM

Example: WATER BOTTLE COLOUR: BULE

CAPACITY: 500ML

DATA BASE
"Data base is place or media which we can store the data in systematic and organized manner"

DATABASE

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➢ The basic operations that can be performed on the database are
 CREATE / INSERT
 READ / RETRIVE
 UPADTE / MODIFY
 DROP / DELETE
➢ "This operation are universally known as “CRUD’’ operation"
Data base Management system (DBMS)
DATA

QUERY
LANGUAGE

FILE
DATABASE SOFTWARE

➢ DBMS is a software which is used to maintain and manage the database

➢ Security and Authorization are the two imp Key feature provided by the DBMS.
➢ We use Query Language to communicate or interact the DBMS
➢ DBMS Stores the data in the form of Files

A B C D E

RELETIONAL DATE BASE MANGEMENT SYSTEM ( RDBMS)

DATA

STRUCTERD
QUERY
LANGUAGE

DATABASE SOFTWARE TABLE

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 DATABASE SOFTWARE TABLE

➢ RDBMS a type of the DBMS which is used to store the data in the Form of table
➢ We can use to communicate or interact RDBMS by using SQL (Structured Query Language)

EXAMPLE:
NAME
A
B
C
D
E

ASSINMENT:
1)DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE DBMS AND RDBMS

krish_sql_techie

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RELATIONAL MODEL
➢ Relational Model was designed by E.F. CODD
➢ In Relational model we store the Data in the form of Rows and Columns
Any DBMS which follows Relational model becomes on RDBMS

DBMS RELATIONAL MODEL RDBMS

OR
Any DBMS which follows E.F.CODD becomes on RDBMS

DBMS E.F.CODD RDBMS

Table:
Table is logical organization of Data which consists of Rows and columns

Column / Attribute / Field

Row
/
Record
/ CELL
Tuple

Columns:
➢ A columns is also known as attributes OR field.
➢ A column is used to represent property of all the entity.
Row:
➢ Row is also known as Record or Tuples.
➢ Row is used to represent all properties of a single entities.
Cell:
➢ Cell is the smallest unit of the table in which we store the data.
➢ The interaction of rows and columns generate cells.

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 RULES OF E.F.CODD

➢ The data entered into a cell must be "single valued data" (atomic)

➢ According to E.F. CODD we can store the data in multiple table, It necessary are can established the
connection between the table with the help of “key attribute”

➢ In RDBMS are store everything in the form of table including “META DATA”

➢ Data enter into the table must be validated

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➢ Data enter into the table must be validated
classified as two way
→ By assigning "DATATYPE"
→ By assigning "CONSTRAINTS"

Datatype are mandatory whereas constrains are optional

DATA TYPE:
"DATATYPE is used to specify/ determine the type /kind of data that will be stored in a particular
memory allocation."

DATA TYPES In SQL

1. Char
2. Varchar/ Varchr2
3. Number
4. Date
5. Large object
 Character large object (clob)
 Binary large object (blob)

Note: SQL is Not case sensitive Language

1) CHAR:
"In CHAR data type we can store characters such as"

Example: 'A-Z' , ‘a-z’ , ‘0-9’ and Special character ( '$', '#', '%', '&')

➢ Whenever we used char data type we must specify the size

Syntax: CHAR (Size)

Size: Numbers of characters

Size:
→ It is used to specify number of characters that can be stored
→ we can store a max of 2000 characters
→ character must always be with in single quote (' ')
Ex: ‘ABC’ ,‘Raju’ , ‘A’
➢ Character datatype follows "Fixed length memory allocation"
➢ Default size of char is one
Example: CHAR(8)
UNUSED MEMORY/
WASTAGE MEMORY
1 2 3 4 5
K R I S H
6 7 8
USED MEMORY

2) VARCHAR/ VARCHAR2:
"In VARCHAR data type we can store characters such as"

Example: 'A-Z' , ‘a-z’ , ‘0-9’ and Special character ( '$', '#', '%', '&')

➢ Whenever we used varchar data type we must specify the size

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➢ Whenever we used varchar data type we must specify the size

Syntax: VARCHAR (Size)

Size: Numbers of characters

Size:
→ It is used to specify number of characters that can be stored
→ we can store a max of 2000 characters
→ character must always be with in single quote (' ')
Ex: ‘ABC’ ,‘Raju’ , ‘A’
➢ VARChar datatype follows "variable length memory allocation" , default size of varchar is zero

Example: VARCHAR(8)
UNUSED MEMORY/
FREE MEMORY
1 2 3 4 5
K R I S H
6 7 8
USED MEMORY

NOTE:
VARCHAR2 is nothing but update version of varchar

MAX size is 4000 character

ASSIGNMENT

1)DIFFRENACE BETWEEN CHAR AND VARCAHR/varchar2

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3.NUMBER
' This number datatype is used to store numeric value'

Number datatype can accept 2 arguments such as

□ Precision
□ Scale

SYNTAX OPTIONAL
NUMBER(Precision, [scale])

 Precision

□ Precision is used to determine the number of digit used to store 'Integer value'
□ The range of the precision is 1 to 38

 Scale

□ Scale is used to determine the number of digit used to store Decimal (float) value
within the precision
□ The default value of scale is 'zero'
□ The range of scale is -84 to 127

Examples :

1 NUMBER(3) +/-999
2 NUMBER(4) +/-9999
3 NUMBER(5,2) +/-999.99

PRECISION SCALE

5 NUMBER(7,3) +/- 9999.999

6 NUMBER(3,6) +/- 0.000999
7 NUMBER(2,7) +/- 0.0000099
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7 NUMBER(2,7) +/- 0.0000099
8 NUMBER(5,8) +/-0.00099999
9 NUMBER(3,3) +/- 0.999

4.DATE
The date datatype is used to store the date in specific format given by oracle

SYNTAX: DATE

Format:
1) 'DD-MON-YY' '28-JUN-21'

OR

2) 'DD-MON-YYYY' '28-JUN-2021'

5.LARGE OBJECT

❖ CHARACTER LARGE OBJECT : (CLOB)

Character large object (CLOB) is used to store huge amount of the character up-to
4GB of size

SYNTAX

{CLOB | CHARACTER LARGE OBJECT } [(LENGTH [{K|M|G}])]

❖ BINARY LARGE OBJECT : (BLOB)

Binary large object (BLOB) is used to store the binary values of "IMAGES, MP3,
MP4, PDF" etc. up-to 4GB of size

SYNTAX

{BLOB | BINARY LARGE OBJECT } [(LENGTH [{K|M|G}])]

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CONSTRAINTS :

It is a rule given to a column for validation .

Types of Constraints :
1. UNIQUE
2. NOT NULL
3. CHECK
4. PRIMARY KEY
5. FOREIGN KEY .

1. UNIQUE : "It is used to avoid duplicate values into the column ".

2. NOT NULL : "It is used to avoid Null ".

3. CHECK : "It is an extra validation with a condition If the condition is satisfied then the value is
accepted else Rejected ".

EXAMPLE: CHECK(LENGTH(PH_NO))=10
CHECK (PERCENTAGE>60)

4. PRIMARY KEY : "It is a constraint which is used to identify a record Uniquely from the
table" .

Characteristics of Primary key :

➢ We can have only 1 PK in a table

➢ PK cannot accept duplicate / repeated values .
➢ PK cannot accept Null
➢ PK is always a combination of Unique and Not Null Constraint.
➢ PK is not mandatory but highly recommended.

5. FOREIGN KEY : "It is used to establish a connection between the The tables "

Characteristics of Foreign key :

➢ We can have Multiple FK in a table

➢ FK can accept duplicate / repeated values .
➢ FK can accept Null
➢ FK is not a combination of Unique and Not Null Constraint.
➢ For an Attribute ( column ) to become a FK ,it is mandatory
that it must be a PK in its own table .
➢ FK are present in child table but it actually belongs to parent table
➢ FK is also known as "REFRENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINT"

Example :

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Example :

EMP
PK

CHECK(SALARY> CHECK(LENTH(PHONE)=
0) 10)
NOT NULL NOT NULL NOT NULL NOT NULL NOT NULL
UNIQUE UNIQUE
EID NAME SALARY DOJ PHONE
NUMBER(4) VARCHAR(10) NUMBER(6,2) DATE NUMBER(10)
123 RAJU 5000.00 '26-JUN-1998' 1234567890
321 PRADEEP 6000.00 '28-JAN-2001' 3214567890

Example for Foreign Key : CUSTOMER

EMP CID CNAME CNO

EID NAME SALARY Cid(fk) Dno(fk) 1 X 1001
1 A 10000 1 10 2 Y 2002
2 B 20000 1 20 3 Z 3003
Parent/donar

3 C 35000 20
4 D 50000 2 10
Child / accepter

DEPT
DNO DNAME LOC
10 D1 L1
20 D2 L2

ASSIGNMENT :
1. Differentiate between Primary key and Foreign key .

PRIMARY KEY FOREIGN KEY

It is used to identify a records It is used to establish a connection
Uniquely from the table. Between the tables
It cannot accept Null It can accept Null
It cannot accept duplicate values It can accept duplicate values
It is always a combination of Not Null It is not a combination of
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 It is always a combination of Not Null It is not a combination of
and Unique constraint Not Null and Unique constraint
We can have only 1 PK in a table We can have Multiple FK in a table

NOTE : NULL
Null Is a keyword which is used to represent Nothing / Empty Cell.

Characteristics of Null :

➢ Null doesn’t represent 0 or Space .

➢ Any operations performed on a Null will result in Null itself
➢ Null doesn’t Occupy any Memory .
➢ We cannot Equate Null .

Ex:
emp 200*null= null
200+null= null
eid ename sal comm 200-null= null
200+ null= null
1 a 100 30
200=null (not possible)
2 b 200

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STATEMENTS

OVERVIEW OF SQL STATEMENTS :

1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE ( DDL )
2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE ( DML )
3. TRANSCATION CONTROL LANGUAGE ( TCL )
4. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE ( DCL )
5. DATA QUERY LANGUAGE ( DQL )

DATA QUERY LANGUAGE ( DQL ) :

" DQL is used to retrieve/Read/fetch the data from the database " .

It has 4 statements :
1. SELECT
2. PROJECTION
3. SELECTION
4. JOIN

SELECT :"It is used to retrieve the data from the table and display it.

PROJECTION :
"It is a process of retrieving the data by selecting only the columns is known as
Projection " .
➢ In projection all the records / values present in a particular columns are by default
selected .

SELECTION :
"It is a process of retrieving the data by selecting both the columns and rows is known
as Selection " .

JOIN :
"It is a process of retrieving the data from Multiple tables simultaneously is known as
Join " .

PROJECTION

➢ "It is a process of retrieving the data by selecting only the columns is known as Projection " .
➢ In projection all the records / values present in a particular columns are by default selected .

SYNTAX :

SELECT * / [DISTINCT] Column_Name / Expression [ALIAS]

FROM Table_Name ;

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 SELECT * / [DISTINCT] Column_Name / Expression [ALIAS]
FROM Table_Name ;

ORDER OF EXECUTION

1. FROM Clause
2. SELECT Clause

Example : .Write a query to display names of all the students

SELECT SNAME
FROM STUDENT;
DATABSE
TABLE

OUTPUT OF SELECT CLAUSE

OUTPUT OF FROM CLASUE

STUDENT SNAME
SID SNAME BRANCH PER A
1 A ECE 60 B

2 B CSE 75 C
D
3 C ME 50
E
4 D ECE 80
F
5 C CSE 75
6 E CIVIL 95

FROM CLAUSE:
➢ FROM Clause starts the execution .
➢ For FROM Clause we can pass Table Name as an argument .
➢ The job of FROM Clause is to go to the Database and search for the table and put the table
under execution .

SELECT CLAUSE

➢ SELECT Clause will execute after the execution of FROM Clause

➢ For SELECT Clause we pass 3 arguments
i. Asterisk(*)
ii. Column_Name
iii. Expression
➢ The job of SELECT Clause is to go the table under execution and select the columns
mentioned .
➢ SELECT Clause is responsible for preparing the result table .

NOTE

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 ➢ Asterisk(*) : it means to select all the columns from the table .
➢ Semicolon : it means end of the query .

Example
➢ WAQTD student id and student names for all the students.

➢ WAQTD name and branch of all the students .

➢ WAQTD NAME , BRANCH AND PERCENTAGE FOR ALL THE STUDENTS .

➢ WAQTD details of all the students from students table .

➢ WAQTD sname , sid , per , branch of all the students .

EMP Table :

EXAMPLE OF EMP TABLE

➢ WAQTD name salary and commission given to all the employees .

➢ WAQTD name of the employee along with their date of joining .

DEPT :
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

➢ WAQTD dname and location for all the depts .

WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF DEPT TABEL

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 WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF DEPT TABEL

QUESTIONS ON EMP AND DEPT TABLE:

1. WRITE A QUERY TO DISPLAY ALL THE DETAILS FROM THE

EMPLOYEE TABLE.
2. WAQTD NAMES OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES.
3. WAQTD NAME AND SALARY GIVEN TO ALL THE EMPLOYEES.
4. WAQTD NAME AND COMMISSION GIVEN TO ALL THE EMPLOYEES.
5. WAQTD EMPLOYEE ID AND DEPARTMENT NUMBER OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES
IN EMP TABLE.
6. WAQTD ENAME AND HIREDATE OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES .
7. WAQTD NAME AND DESIGNATION OF ALL THE EMPLPOYEES .
8. WAQTD NAME , JOB AND SALARY GIVEN ALL THE EMPLOYEES.
9. WAQTD DNAMES PRESENT IN DEPARTMENT TABLE.
10. WAQTD DNAME AND LOCATION PRESENT IN DEPT TABLE.

DISTINCT Clause

" It is used to remove the duplicate or repeated values from the Result table ".

➢ Distinct clause has to be used as the first argument to select clause.

➢ Distinct clause must be used before column name/ expression
➢ We can use multiple columns as an argument to distinct clause, it will remove the combination
of columns in which the records are duplicated

Example : SELECT DISTNICT SNAME,PER,BRANCH

FROM STUDENT;
Student
SID SNAME BRANCH PER SNAME PER BRANCH
1 A ECE 60 SNAME PER BRANCH
A 60 ECE
A 60 ECE
2 B CSE 75 B 75 CSE B 75 CSE
3 C ME 50
C 50 ME C 50 ME
4 D ECE 80
D 80 ECE C 50 CSE
5 C CSE 50 D 80 ECE
6 E CIVIL 95
C 50 CSE
E 95 CIV
E 95 CIV

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EXPRESSION

"Any statement which gives result is known as Expression ". Expression is a combination Operand
and Operator .

Operand : These are the values that we pass .

Operator : These are the Symbols which perform some Operation on The Operand .

OPERAND
Example : 5 * 10
OPERATOR

EMP
EID ENAME SAL
1 A 100
2 B 200
3 C 100

➢ WAQTD name and salary given to the employees .

➢ WAQTD name and annual salary of the employees .

➢ WAQTD all the details of the employee along with annual salary

➢ WAQTD name and salary with a hike of 20%.

➢ WAQTD name and salary of an employee with a deduction Of 10% .

ALIAS
"It is an alternate name given to a Column or an Expression In the result table " .

➢ We can assign alias name with or without using 'As' keyword .

➢ Alias names have to be a single string which is separated by An underscore or enclosed within
double quotes .

FORMAT : ANNUAL_SALARY
"ANNUAL SALARY"

➢ WAQTD name and salary with a deduction 32% .

SELECT ENAME,SAL,SAL-SAL*32/100 DEDUCTION
FROM EMP;
WAQTD annual salary for all the employees .
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 ➢ WAQTD annual salary for all the employees .
SELECT SAL*12
FROM EMP;

ASSIGNMENT ON EXPRESSION & ALIAS

1) WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE ALONG WITH THEIR ANNUAL SALARY.

2) WAQTD ENAME AND JOB FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEE WITH THEIR HALF TERM
SALARY.
3) WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES ALONG WITH AN ANNUALBONUS OF
2000.
4) WAQTD NAME SALARY AND SALARY WITH A HIKE OF 10%.
5) WAQTD NAME AND SALARY WITH DEDUCTION OF 25%.
6) WAQTD NAME AND SALARY WITH MONTHLY HIKE OF 50%.
7) WAQTD NAME AND ANNUAL SALARY WITH DEDUCTION OF 10%.
8) WAQTD TOTAL SALARY GIVEN TO EACH EMPLOYEE (SAL+COMM).
9) WAQTD DETAILS OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES ALONG WITH ANNUAL SALARY.
10) WAQTD NAME AND DESIGNATION ALONG WITH 100 PENALTY IN SALARY.

COMMANDS ON SQL*Plus :
1. CLEAR SCREEN [ CL SCR ] : To clear the screen
2. SET LINES 100 PAGES 100 : To set the dimensions of the output page .
3. EXIT / QUIT : To Close the Software .
4. When account is Locked !!!
Log in as SYSTEM
Password Oracle1234

ALTER USER SCOTT ACCOUNT UNLOCK ;

ALTER USER SCOTT IDENTIFIED BY TIGER ;

5. SELECT * FROM TAB ;

➢ EMP
➢ DEPT
➢ SALGRADE
➢ BONUS

DESC TABEL_NAME------ DESCRIPTION THE TABLES

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SELECTION:

"It is a process of retrieving the data by selecting both the columns and rows is known as
Selection "

SYNTAX :

SELECT * / [DISTINCT] Column_Name / Expression [ALIAS]

FROM Table_Name
WHERE <Filter_Condition> ;

ORDER OF EXECUTION
1. FROM
2.WHERE
3.SELECT

WHERE Clause

"Where clause is used to filter the records ".

➢ Where clause execute row by row

➢ Where clause execute after the execution of from clause.
➢ In Where clause we can write the filter_condition.
➢ The return type of condition in the form of Boolean (true or false).
➢ We can write multiple condition in where clause with the help of logical operator.

EXAMPLE:

➢ WAQTD names of the employees working in dept 20 .

1. WAQTD names of the employees getting salary More than 300 .

2. WAQTD names and salary of the employees working in dept 10.

3. WAQTD all the details of the employees whose salary is Less than 1000 rupees .

4. WAQTD name and hiredate of an employee hired on '09-JUN-1981'

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5. WAQTD details of the employee whose name is 'Miller'

6. WAQTD details of the employee hired after '01-JAN-1982'

7. WAQTD name sal and hiredate of the employees who were Hired before 1985 .
SELECT ENAME,SAL,HIREDATE
FROM EMP
WHERE HIREDATE < '01-JAN-1985';

8. WAQTD name sal and hiredate of the employees who were Hired after 1985 .

9. WAQTD name of the employees who was hired on Valentine's day 2021 .

ASSIGNMENT ON WHERE Clause .

1.WAQTD THE ANNUAL SALARY OF THE EMPLOYEE WHOS NAME IS SMITH
2.WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK

3.WAQTD SALARY OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE WORKING AS SALESMAN

4.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMP WHO EARNS MORE THAN 2000
5.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMP WHOS NAME IS JONES
6.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMP WHO WAS HIRED AFTER 01-JAN-81
7.WAQTD NAME AND SAL ALONG WITH HIS ANNUAL SALARY IF THE ANNUAL
SALARY IS MORE THAN 12000
8.WAQTD EMPNO OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE WORKING IN DEPT 30
9.WAQTD ENAME AND HIREDATE IF THEY ARE HIRED BEFORE 1981
10.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER
11.WAQTD NAME AND SALARY GIVEN TO AN EMPLOYEE IF EMPLOYEE EARNS
A COMMISSION OF RUPEES 1400
12.WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES HAVING COMMISSION MORE THAN
SALARY
13.WAQTD EMPNO OF EMPLOYEES HIRED BEFORE THE YEAR 87
14.WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS AN ANALYST

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15.WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPS EARNING MORE THAN 2000 RUPEES PER MONTH

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OPERATORS IN SQL

1) ARITHEMATIC OPERATORS :- ( + , - , * , / )
2) CONCATENATION OPERATOR :- ( || )
3) COMPARISION OPERATORS :- ( = , != or <> )
4) RELATIONAL OPERATOR :- ( > , < , >= , <= )
5) LOGICAL OP : ( AND , OR , NOT )
6) SPECIAL OPERATOR :-
1. IN
2. NOT IN
3. BETWEEN
4. NOT BETWEEN
5. IS
6. IS NOT
7. LIKE
8. NOT LIKE
7) SUBQUERY OPERATORS:-
1. ALL
2. ANY
3. EXISTS
4. NOT EXISTS

CONCATENATION Operator :

" It is used to join the strings ".

Symbol : ||

SYNTAX
'STRING1' || 'STRING 2'

NOTE :
We can join 'N' number of strings by using a concatenation operator.

Example:
WAQTD ename the emp working as manager
SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE JOB= 'MANAGER';
ENAME
ALLEN
JONES

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 JONES

SELECT 'HI ' || ENAME

FROM EMP
WHERE JOB='MANAGER';
ENAME
HI ALLEN
HI JONES

LOGICAL OPERATORS

➢ AND
➢ OR
➢ NOT

We use logical operators to write multiple conditions .

➢ WAQTD name and deptno along with job for the employee working in dept 10 .

➢ WAQTD name and deptno along with job for the employee working as manager in dept 10 .

➢ WAQTD name , deptno , salary of the employee working in dep 20 and earning less than 3000 .

➢ WAQTD name and salary of the employee if emp earns More than 1250 but less than 3000 .
➢ WAQTD name and deptno of the employees if the EMP works in dept 10 or 20 .
➢ WAQTD name and sal and deptno of the employees If emp gets more than 1250 but less than
4000 and works in dept 20 .

➢ WAQTD name , job , deptno of the employees working as a manager in dept 10 or 30 .

➢ WAQTD name , deptno , job of the employees working in dept 10 or 20 or 30 as a clerk .

➢ WAQTD name , job and deptno of the employees working as clerk or manager in dept 10 .
➢ WAQTD name , job , deptno , sal of the employees working as clerk or salesman in dept 10 or
30 and earning more than 1800 .

➢ WAQTD ENAME AND DEPTNO OF THE EMPLOYEES BY EXCLUDING THE

EMPLOYEES OF DEPT 10 ,61 20 .

ASSIGNMENT ON LOGICAL OPERATORS :

1. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK AND EARNING LESS

THAN 1500
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 THAN 1500
2. WAQTD NAME AND HIREDATE OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER IN
DEPT 30
3. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMP ALONG WITH ANNUAL SALARY IF THEY ARE
WORKING IN DEPT 30 AS SALESMAN AND THEIR ANNUAL SALARY HAS TO BE
GREATER THAN 14000.
4. WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF THE EMP WORKING IN DEPT 30 OR AS ANALYST
5. WAQTD NAMES OF THE EMPMLOYEES WHOS
6. SALARY IS LESS THAN 1100 AND THEIR DESIGNATION IS CLERK
7. WAQTD NAME AND SAL , ANNUAL SAL AND DEPTNO IF DEPTNO IS 20 EARNING
MORE THAN 1100 AND ANNUAL SALARY EXCEEDS 12000
8. WAQTD EMPNO AND NAMES OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER IN
DEPT 20
9. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN DEPT 20 OR 30 .
10. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS ANALYST IN DEPT 10 .
11. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEE WORKING AS PRESIDENT WITH SALARY OF
RUPEES 4000 11.WAQTD NAMES AND DEPTNO , JOB OF EMPS WORKING AS CLERK
IN DEPT 10 OR 20
12. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK OR MANAGER IN DEPT 10 .
13. WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN DEPT 10 , 20 , 30 , 40 .
14. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WITH EMPNO
15. 7902,7839.
16. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER OR SALESMAN OR
CLERK
17. WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER 81 AND BEFORE 87
18. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES EARNING MORE THAN 1250 BUT LESS THAN
3000
19. WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER 81 INTO DEPT 10 OR 30
20. WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES ALONG WITH ANNUAL SALARY FOR THE
EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER OR CLERK INTO DEPT 10 OR 30 20.
21. WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS ALONG WITH ANNUAL SALARY IF SAL IS BETWEEN
1000 AND 4000 ANNUAL SALARY MORE THAN 15000

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New Section 1 Page 33
DAY 9
15 May 2021 03:19 PM

SPECIAL OPERATORS :

1. IN
2. NOT IN
3. BETWEEN
4. NOT BETWEEN
5. IS
6. IS NOT
7. LIKE
8. NOT LIKE

IN :It is a multi-valued operator which can accept multiple values At the RHS .
Syntax: Column_Name / Exp IN ( v1 , v2 , . . Vn )

Example :

➢ WAQTD name and deptno of the employees working in dept 10 or 30 .

SELECT ENAME,DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO =10 OR DEPTNO=30;
OR
SELECT ENAME,DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO IN (10,30);
➢ WAQTD name and job of the employee working as a clerk or manager Or salesman .
SELECT ENAME,JOB
FROM EMP
WHERE JOB IN ('CLERK', ' MANAGER' , 'SALESMAN');

➢ WAQTD empno , ename and salary of the employees whose empno Is 7902 or 7839 and getting
salary more than 2925.
SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,SAL
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN (7902,7839) AND SAL>2925;

NOT IN : It is a multi-valued operator which can accept multiple values At the RHS . It is similar
to IN op instead of selecting it Rejects the values .

Syntax: Column_Name / Exp NOT IN ( v1 , v2 , . .vn )

Example :

➢ WAQTD name and deptno of all the employees except the emp Working in dept 10 or 40 .
SELECT ENAME,DEPTNO
FROM EMP

New Section 1 Page 34

 FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO NOT IN(10,40);

➢ WAQTD name , deptno and job of the employee working in dept 20 but not as a clerk or
manager .
SELECT ENAME,DEPTNO,JOB
FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO=20 AND JOB NOT IN ('CLERK' , 'MANAGER');

BETWEEN :"It is used whenever we have range of values "

[ Start value and Stop/end Value ] .
Syntax:
Column_Name BETWEEN Lower_Range AND Higher_Range ;

→ Between Op works including the range

→ We cannot interchange the range !!.

Example :

➢ WAQTD name and salary of the employees if the emp is earning Salary in the range 1000 to 3000 .
SELECT ENAME,SAL
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL BETWEEN 1000 AND 3000;

➢ WAQTD name and deptno of the employees working in dept 10 And hired during 2019 (the entire
year of 2019) .
SELECT ENAME,DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO IN 10 AND HIREDATE BETWEEN '01-JAN-2019' AND '31-DEC-2019';

➢ WAQTD name , sal and hiredate of the employees hired during 2017 into dept 20 with a salary
greater than 2000 .

 NOT BETWEEN : It is Opposite of Between .

Syntax:

Column_Name NOT BETWEEN Lower_Range AND Higher_Range ;

Example :

➢ WAQTD name and salary of the employees if the emp is not earning Salary in the range 1000 to
➢ 3000 .
SELECT ENAME,SAL
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 1000 AND 3000;

New Section 1 Page 35

 WHERE SAL NOT BETWEEN 1000 AND 3000;
➢ WAQTD name and deptno of the employees working in dept 10 And not hired during 2019 .

➢ WAQTD name , sal and hiredate of the employees who were not hired during 2017 into dept 20
➢ with a salary greater than 2000 .
SELECT ENAME,SAL,HIREDATE
FROM EMP
WHERE HIREDATE NOT BETWEEN '01-JAN-2017' AND '31-DEC-2017' AND DEPTNO IN 20 AND SAL>2000;

 IS : "It is used to compare only NULL "

Syntax: Column_Name IS NULL ;

Example :
EMP

EID ENAME SAL COMM

1 A 1000 100
2 B
3 C 200
4 D 2000

➢ WAQTD name of the employee who is not getting salary .

➢ WAQTD name of the emp who doesn’t get commission .
➢ WAQTD name , sal and comm of the emp if the emp doesn’t earn both(SAL AND COMM) .

 IS NOT : "It is used to compare the values with NOT NULL ".

Syntax: Column_Name IS NOT NULL ;

Example :

➢ WAQTD name of the employee who is getting salary .

➢ WAQTD name of the emp who gets commission .

➢ WAQTD name , sal and comm of the emp if the emp doesn’t earn commission but gets salary .

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS :

 WAQTD NAMES AND DEPTNO , JOB OF EMPS WORKING AS CLERK IN DEPT 10 OR 20

 WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK OR MANAGER IN DEPT 10
AND EARNING SAL MORE THAN 1250 .
 WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN DEPT 10 ,20 , 30 , 40 AS A CLERK
 WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WITH EMPNO 7902,7839 IN DEPT 10 OR 30
 WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER OR SALESMAN OR CLERK
IN DEPT 40
 WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER 81 AND BEFORE 87 AS A PRESIDENT
 WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES EARNING MORE THAN 1250 BUT LESS THAN 3000
New Section 1 Page 36
 WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES EARNING MORE THAN 1250 BUT LESS THAN 3000
 WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER 2020 INTO DEPT 10 OR 30
 WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WITH SALARY FOR THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS
MANAGER OR CLERK INTO DEPT 10 OR 30
 WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS IDSAL IS BETWEEN 1000 AND 4000 IN DEPT 10 OR 20 AND
WORKING AS A MANAGER OR ANALYST

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 DAY 10
18 May 2021 08:10 PM

LIKE : "It is used for Pattern Matching ".

To achieve pattern matching we use special characters .

➢ Percentile (%)
➢ Underscore ( _ )

➢ Percentile (%) : it is a special character which is used to match any number of character, any number of
time / number of character.
➢ Underscore ( _ ) : it is a special character which is used to match exactly once but any character.

Syntax: Column_Name/ exp LIKE 'pattern' ;

Example :

➢ WAQTD details of an employee whose name is SMITH .

SELECT *
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME = 'SMITH';

➢ WAQTD details of the employee whose name starts with 'S' .

SELECT *
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME LIKE 'S%';

➢ WAQTD details of the employee whose name ends with 'S' .

SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%S';

➢ WAQTD names of the employees who have character 'S' in their names .
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%S%';

NOTE:
'%A' SELECT LAST CHAR
'A%' SELECT FIRST CHAR
'%A%' SELECT ANYWHERE CHAR

➢ WAQTD names that starts with 'J' and ends with 'S' .
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE 'J%S';

➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp has char 'A' as his second character .
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAEM LIKE '_A%'

➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp has char 'A' as his Third character .
➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp has char 'A' as his second character and 'S' is last character .

➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp has char 'V' present atleast 2 times .
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE '%V%V%';

➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp name starts with 'A' and ends with 'A' .

New Section 1 Page 38

 ➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp's salary's last 2 digit is 50 rupees .
SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE SAL LIKE '%50';

➢ WAQTD names of the employees hired in November .

SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE HIREADTE LIKE '%NOV%';

➢ WAQTD names and sal of employee if the emp annual salary's last 3 digit is 200 rupees
SELECT ENAME ,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL*12 LIKE '%200';

NOT LIKE : Opposite of Like .

Syntax: Column_Name/exp NOT LIKE 'pattern' ;

➢ WAQTD names of the employees NOT hired in November

SELECT ENAME FROM EMP WHERE HIREDATE NOT LIKE '%NOV%';

➢ WAQTD names of the employee if the emp has not a char 'A' as his Third character .

ASSIGNMENT ON SEPCIAL OPERATORS :

1) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE COMMISSION IS NULL
2) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHO DON’T HAVE A REPORTING MANAGER
3) LIST ALL THE SALESMEN IN DEPT 30
4) LIST ALL THE SALESMEN IN DEPT NUMBER 30 AND HAVING SALARY GREATER THAN 1500
5) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE NAME STARTS WITH ‘S’ OR ‘A’
6) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES EXCEPT THOSE WHO ARE WORKING IN DEPT 10 & 20.
7) LIST THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE NAME DOES NOT START WITH ‘S’
8) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE HAVING REPORTING MANAGERS IN DEPT 10
9) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE COMMISSION IS NULL AND WORKING AS CLERK
10) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHO DON’T HAVE A REPORTING MANAGER IN DEPTNO 10 OR 30
11) LIST ALL THE SALESMEN IN DEPT 30 WITH SAL MORE THAN 2450
12) LIST ALL THE ANALYST IN DEPT NUMBER 20 AND HAVING SALARY GREATER THAN 2500
13) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE NAME STARTS WITH ‘M’ OR ‘J’
14) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WITH ANNUAL SALARY EXCEPT THOSE WHO ARE WORKING IN
DEPT 30
15) LIST THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE NAME DOES NOT END WITH ‘ES’ OR ‘R’
16) LIST ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE HAVING REPORTING MANAGERS IN DEPT 10 ALONG
WITH 10% HIKE IN SALARY
17) DISPLAY ALL THE EMPLOYEE WHO ARE ‘SALESMAN’S HAVING ‘E’ AS THE LAST BUT ONE
CHARACTER IN ENAME BUT SALARY HAVING EXACTLY 4 CHARACTER
18) DISPLAY ALL THE EMPLOYEE WHO ARE JOINED AFTER YEAR 81
19) DISPLAY ALL THE EMPLOYEE WHO ARE JOINED IN FEB
20) LIST THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE NOT WORKING AS MANAGERS AND CLERKS IN DEPT 10
AND 20 WITH A SALARY IN THE RANGE OF 1000 TO 3000.

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New Section 1 Page 40
New Section 1 Page 41
 DAY 11
18 May 2021 08:11 PM

FUNCTIONS

"Functions Are a block of code or list of instructions which are used to perform a specific task ".

There are 3 main components of a function

1) Function_Name
2) Number_of_arguments ( no of inputs )
3) Return type

TWO TYPES

USER DEFINED BUILT IN FUNCTION

FUNCTION

SINGLE ROW MULTI ROW

FUNCTION FUNCTION

SRF() MRF()
OUTPUT input
INPUT
1 1
2
3
2 OUTPUT
4
N
N

EX: LENGTH () EX: MAX()

ENAME SAL
ENAME SAL
ALLEN 100
ALLEN 100
JONES 200
JONES 200
MR.ALEX 300
MR.ALEX 300 LENGTH(ENAME)
5
5 SELECT MAX(SAL)
SELECT LENGTH(ENAME) 7 FROM EMP;
FROM EMP;

function argument return type MAX(SAL)

300

❖ Single row function:

1. SRF execute ROW BY ROW
2. SRF takes one input process and executes it to generate an output and takes next input and so on
New Section 1 Page 42
 2. SRF takes one input process and executes it to generate an output and takes next input and so on
3. IF We pass 'n' number input to the single row function, it returns 'n' number of output

❖ Multi Row Functions;

1. MRF execute GROUP BY GROUP
2. It takes all the inputs at one shot and then executes and provides A single output .
3. If we pass 'n' number of inputs to a MRF( ) it returns '1' Output .

List of MRF ( )

➢ MAX( ) : it is used to obtain the maximum value present in the column

➢ MIN ( ) : it is used to obtain the minimum value present in the column
➢ SUM ( ) : it is used to obtain the summation of values present in the column
➢ AVG( ) : it is used to obtain the average of values present in the column
➢ COUNT( ) : it is used to obtain the number of values present in the column

NOTE :

➢ Multi row functions can accept only one argument , i.e. a Column_Name or an Expression

MRF ( Column_Name / Exp )

➢ Along with a MRF( ) we are not supposed to use any other Column_Name in the select clause .
➢ MRF( ) ignore the Null .
➢ We cannot use a MRF( ) in where clause .
➢ COUNT( ) is the only MRF which can accept * as an Argument . (count(*))

Examples :

➢ WAQTD maximum salary given to a manager .

➢ WAQTD Total salary given to dept 10

➢ WAQTD number of employees earning more than 1500 in dept 20

➢ WAQTD number of employee having 'E' in their names .

➢ WAQTD minimum salary given to the employees working as clerk in Dept 10 or 20 .

➢ WAQTD number of employees hired after 1982 and before 1985 into Dept 10 or 30 .
➢ WAQTD number of employees getting commission .
➢ WAQTD maximum salary given to employees if the emp has character 'S' in the name and works as a
Manager in dept 10 with as salary of more than 1800 .

➢ WAQTD number of employees working in dept 10 or 30 and getting commission without the salary .

➢ WAQTD maximum salary given to a manager working in dept 20 and also his comm must be greater than his
salary .

ASSIGNEMENT ON MRF( )

 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES GETTING SALARY LESS THAN 2000 IN DEPTNO 10

New Section 1 Page 43

 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES GETTING SALARY LESS THAN 2000 IN DEPTNO 10
 WAQTD TOTAL SALARY NEEDED TO PAY EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK
 WAQTD AVERAGE SALARY NEEDED TO PAY ALL EMPLOYEES
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES HAVING 'A' AS THEIR FIRST CHARACTER
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK OR
MANAGER
 WAQTD TOTAL SALARY NEEDED TO PAY EMPLOYEES HIRED IN FEB
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES REPORTING TO 7839 (MGR)
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES GETTING COMISSION IN DEPTNO 30
 WAQTD AVG SAL , TOTAL SAL , NUMBER OF EMPS AND MAXIMUM SALARY GIVEN TO
EMPLOYEES WORKING AS PERSIDENT
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES HAVING 'A' IN THEIR NAMES
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPS AND TOTAL SALARY NEEDED TO PAY THE EMPLOYEES WHO
HAVE 2 CONSICUTIVE L's IN THEIR NAMES
 WAQTD NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTS PRESENT IN EMPLOYEE TABLE
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES HAVING CHARACTER 'Z' IN THEIR NAMES
 WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES HAVING '$' IN THEIR NAMES .
 WAQTD TOTAL SALARY GIVEN TO EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK IN DEPT 30
 WAQTD MAXIMUM SALARY GIVEN TO THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS ANALYST
 WAQTD NUMBER OF DISTINCT SALARIES PRESENT IN EMPLOYEE TABLE
 WAQTD NUMBER OF JOBS PRESENT IN EMPLOYEE TABLE
 WATQD AVG SALARY GIVEN TO THE CLERK
 WAQTD MINIMUM SALARY GIVEN TO THE EMPLOYEES WHO WORK IN DEPT 10 AS MANAGER
OR A CLERK

DIFFRENACE BETWEEN SRF AND MRF

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DAY 12
18 May 2021 08:13 PM

GROUP & FILTERING

GROUPING:GROUP-BY Clause

Group by clause is used to group the records .

NOTE :

1. Group By clause executes row by row .

2. After the execution of Group By clause we get Groups .
3. Therefore any clause that executes after group by must execute Group By Group .
4. The Column_Name or expression used for grouping can be used In select clause .
5. Group By clause can be used without using Where clause .

SYNTAX:

SELECT group_by_expression / group_function

FROM table_name
[WHERE <filter_condition>]
GROUP BY column_name/expression

ORDER OF EXECUTION:

1. FROM
2. WHERE (if used) [ROW-BY-ROW]
3. GROUP BY [ROW-BY-ROW]
4. SELECT [GROUP-BY-GROUP]

EMP
EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO
1 A 100 20
2 B 200 10
3 C 300 30
4 D 100 10
5 E 200 10
6 A 400 30
7 C 500 20
8 F 200 30

Example :

WAQTD number of employees working in each dept .

SELECT COUNT(*),DEPTNO
FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO;
OUTPUT OF GROUP BY CLAUSE

10

OUTPUT OF FROM CLAUSE 2 B 200 10

4 D 100 10
EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO
5 E 200 10
1 A 100 20
2 B 200 10 OUTPUT OF THE SELECT CLAUSE
20
3 C 300 30 COUNT(*) DEPTNO
1 A 100 20 3 10
4 D 100 10
7 C 500 20
5 E 200 10 2 20

New Section 1 Page 45

 20
3 C 300 30 COUNT(*) DEPTNO
1 A 100 20 3 10
4 D 100 10
7 C 500 20
5 E 200 10 2 20
3 30
6 A 400 30
7 C 500 20 30
8 F 200 30
3 C 300 30
6 A 400 30
8 F 200 30

Questions :

➢ WAQTD number of employees working in each dept except the Employee working as analyst .
➢ WAQTD maximum salary given to each job .

➢ WAQTD number of employees working in each job if the employees Have character 'A' in their names .
WAQTD number of employees getting commission in each dept .

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS ON GROUP BY

1. WAQTD NUMBEROF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN EACH DEPARTEMENT EXCEPT PRESIDENT.

2. WAQTD TOTAL SALARY NEEDED TO PAY ALL THE EMPLOYEES IN EACH JOB.
3. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEEES WORKING AS MANAGER IN EACH DEPARTMENT .
4. WAQTD AVG SALARY NEEDED TO PAY ALL THE EMPLOYEES IN EACH DEPARTMENT EXCLUDING THE
EMPLOYEES OF DEPTNO 20.
5. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES HAVING CHARACTER 'A' IN THEIR NAMES IN EACH JOB .
6. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES AND AVG SALARY NEEDED TO PAY THE EMPLOYEES WHO SALARY IN
GREATER THAN 2000 IN EACH DEPT.
7. WAQTD TOTAL SALARY NEEDED TO PAY AND NUMBER OF SALESMANS IN EACH
DEPT.
8. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES WITH THEIR MAXIMUM SALARIES IN EACH JOB.
9. WAQTD MAXIMUM SALARIES GIVEN TO AN EMPLOYEE WORKING IN EACH DEPT.
10. WAQTD NUMBER OF TIMES THE SALARIES PRESENT IN EMPLOYEE TABLE .

FILTERING : HAVING Clause

" Having Clause is used to Filter the Group "

NOTE:

1. Having clause execute group by group

2. Having clause always use after group by clause.
3. In Having clause we write group filter condition
4. Having clause cannot we used without the group by clause
5. In Having clause we can use multi row function(MRF) as condition.

SYNTAX:

SELECT group_by_expression / group_function

FROM table_name
[WHERE <filter_condition>]
GROUP BY column_name/expression
HAVING <group_filter_condition>

ORDER OF EXECUTION:

1. FROM
2. WHERE(if used) [ROW-BY-ROW]
3. GROUP BY(if used) [ROW-BY-ROW]
4. HAVING (if used ) [GROUP-BY-GROUP]
5. SELECT [GROUP-BY-GROUP]

Example :

New Section 1 Page 46

WAQTD to find number of employees working in each Dept if there are at least 3 employees in each dept .
SELECT DEPTNO ,COUNT(*)
FROM EMP
GROUP BY DEPTNO
HAVING COUNT(*)>=3;

OUTPUT OF HAVING CLAUSE GROUP _FILTER CONDTION

COUNT(*)>=3
DEPTNO 10
2 B 200 10 3>=3
4 D 100 10
OUTPUT OF SELECT CLAUSE
5 E 200 10
2>=3
DEPTNO 30
DEPTNO COUNT(*)
3 C 300 30
10 3
6 A 400 30
30 3
8 F 200 30
3>=3

Questions :

1. WAQTD the designations in which there are at least 2 employees Present .

2. WAQTD the names that are repeated .
3. WAQTD names that are repeated exactly twice .
4. WAQTD the salary that is repeated .
5. WAQTD number of employees working in each dept having At least 2 emp's Character 'A' or 'S' in their names .
6. WAQTD job and total salary of each job , if the total salary Of each job is greater than 3450 .
7. WAQTD job and total salary of the employees if the employees Are earning more than 1500.
8. WAQTD Job wise maximum salary if the maximum salary Of each job exceeds 2000 .

NOTE :

Differentiate between Where and Having .

WHERE HAVING
Where clause is used to Filter the Having clause is used to Filter
records the groups .
Where clause executes row By Having clause executes Group by
row . group
In Where Clause we cannot Use Can use MRF( ).
MRF( )

New Section 1 Page 47

Where clause executes before Having clause executes After
Group by clause . group by clause .

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS ON HAVING CLAUSE

1. WAQTD DNO AND NUMBER OF EMP WORKING IN EACH DEPT IF THERE ARE ATLEAST 2 CLERKS IN EACH DEPT
2. WAQTD DNO AND TOTAL SAALARYNEEDED TO PAY ALL EMP IN EACH DEPT IF THERE ARE ATLEAST 4 EMP IN
EACH DEPT
3. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMP EARNING SAL MORE THAN 1200 IN EACH JOB AND THE TOTAL SAL NEEDED TO PAY
EMP OF EACH JOB MUST EXCEES 3800
4. WAQTD DEPTNO AND NUMBER OF EMP WORKING ONLY IF THERE ARE 2 EMP WORKING IN EACH DEPT AS
MANAGER .
5. WAQTD JOB AND MAX SAL OF EMP IN EACH JOB IF THE MAX SAL EXCEEDS 2600
6. WAQTD THE SALARIES WHICH ARE REPEATED IN EMP TABLE
7. WAQTD THE HIREDATE WHICH ARE DUPLICATED IN EMP TABLE
8. WAQTD AVG SALARY OF EACH DEPT IF AVG SAL IS LESS THAN 3000
9. WAQTD DEPTNO IF THERE ARE ATLEAST 3 EMP IN EACH DEPT WHOS NAME HAS CHAR 'A' OR 'S' .
10. WAQTD MIN AND MAX SALARIES OF EACH JOB IF MIN SAL IS MORE THAN 1000 AND MAX SAL IS LESS THAN
5000 .

ORDER BY CLAUSE

Order by clause is used to arrange the records either in ascending order or descending order.

1. Order by clause execute after select clause (execute at the last).

2. Order by clause should always be written at the last.
3. By default order by clause sorts the records in ascending order.

SYNTAX:

SELECT group_by_expression / group_function

FROM table_name
[WHERE <filter_condition>]
[GROUP BY column_name/expression]
[HAVING <group_filter_condition>]
ORDER BY Column_name/expression [ASC]/DESC

ORDER OF EXECUTION:

1. FROM
2. WHERE(if used) [ROW-BY-ROW]
3. GROUP BY(if used) [ROW-BY-ROW]
4. HAVING (if used ) [GROUP-BY-GROUP]
5. SELECT [GROUP-BY-GROUP]
6. ORDER BY [ROW-BY-ROW]

EXAMPLE
SAL
120
300
50

SELECT SAL
FROM EMP
ORDER BY SAL [ASC];

SAL
50
120
300

New Section 1 Page 48

SELECT SAL
FROM EMP
ORDER BY SAL DESC

SAL
300
120
50

New Section 1 Page 49

 DAY 13
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

SUB-QUERY:

"A query written inside another query is known As sub query "

Working Principle :

Let us consider two queries Outer Query and Inner Query .

a. Inner Query executes first and produces an Output .

b. The Output of Inner Query is given / fed as an Input to Outer Query .
c. The Outer Query generates the Result.
d. Therefore we can state that 'the Outer Query is dependent on Inner Query' and

this is the Execution Principle of Sub Query.

Why / When Do we use SUB QUERY :

Case 1:
Whenever we have Unknowns present in the Question, We use sub query to find The Unknown values.

Example :

EMP
EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO
1 ALLEN 1000 20
2 BLAKE 2000 10
3 CLARK 3000 30
4 MILLER 1500 10
5 SMITH 2500 10

1. WAQTD names of the employees earning more than 2500 .

2. WAQTD names of the employees earning less than MILLER .
3. WAQTD name and deptno of the employees working in the same Dept as SMITH .
4. WAQTD name and hiredate of the employees if the employee Was hired after JONES .
5. WAQTD all the details of the employee working in the same Designation as KING .
6. WAQTD name , sal , deptno of the employees if the employees Earn more than 2000 and work in the same dept as JAMES .
7. WAQTD all the details of the employees working in the Same designation as MILLER and earning more than 1500.
8. WAQTD details of the employees earning more than SMITH But less than KING .
9. WAQTD name , sal and deptno of the employees if the employee Is earning commission in dept 20 and earning salary more than Scott .
WAQTD name and hiredate of the employees whose name ends with 'S' and hired after James .
10. WAQTD names of the employees working in the same dept as JAMES and earning salary more than ADAMS
and working in the same job role as MILLER and hired after MARTIN .
11. WAQTD all the details of the employees working as salesman in the dept 20 and earning commission more than Smith and hired after KING .
12. WAQTD number of employees earning more than SMITH and less than MARTIN .
13. WAQTD Ename and SAL for all the employees earning more than JONES .

NOTE:
• In the Inner Query / Sub Query we cannot select more than One column .
• The corresponding columns need not be same , but the datatypes of those has to be same .

ASSIGNMENT ON CASE 1

1) WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEES EARNING MORE THAN ADAMS

2) WAQTD NAME AND SALARY OF THE EMPLOYEES EARNING LESS THAN KING

New Section 1 Page 50

 2) WAQTD NAME AND SALARY OF THE EMPLOYEES EARNING LESS THAN KING
3) WAQTD NAME AND DEPTNO OF THE EMPLOYEES IF THEY ARE WORKING IN THE SAME DEPT AS JONES
4) WAQTD NAME AND JOB OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES WORKING IN THE SAME DESIGNATION AS JAMES
5) WAQTD EMPNO AND ENAME ALONG WITH ANNUAL SALARY OF ALL THEEMPLOYEES IF THEIR ANNUAL
6) SALARY IS GREATER THAN WARDS ANNUAL SALARY.
7) WAQTD NAME AND HIREDATE OF THE EMPLOYEES IF THEY ARE HIRED BEFORE SCOTT
8) WAQTD NAME AND HIREDATE OF THE EMPLOYEES IF THEY ARE HIRED AFTER THE PRESIDENT
9) WAQTD NAME AND SAL OF THE EMPLOYEE IF THEY ARE EARNING SAL LESS THAN THE EMPLOYEE WHOS EMPNO IS 7839
10) WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES IF THE EMPLOYEES ARE HIRED BEFORE MILLER
11) WAQTD ENAME AND EMPNO OF THE EMPLOYEES IF EMPLOYEES ARE EARNING MORE THAN ALLEN
12) WAQTD ENAME AND SALARY OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE EARNING MORE THAN MILLER BUT LESS THAN ALLEN .
13) WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING IN DEPT 20 AND WORKING IN THE SAME DESIGNATION AS SMITH
14) WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER IN THE SAME DEPT AS TURNER
15) WAQTD NAME AND HIREDATE OF THE EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER 1980 AND BEFORE KING
16) WAQTD NAME AND SAL ALONG WITH ANNUAL SAL FOR ALL EMPLOYEES WHOS SAL IS LESS THAN BLAKE AND MORE THAN 3500
17) WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WHO EARN MORE THAN SCOTT BUT LESS THAN KING
18) WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEES WHOS NAME STARTS WITH 'A' AND WORKS IN THE SAME DEPT AS BLAKE
19) WAQTD NAME AND COMM IF EMPLOYEES EARN COMISSION AND WORK IN THE SAME DESIGNATION AS SMITH
20) WAQTD DETAILS OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK IN THE SAME DEPT AS TURNER .
21) WAQTD ENAME, SAL AND DESIGNATION OF THE EMPLOYEES
22) WHOS ANNUAL SALARY IS MORE THAN SMITH AND LESS THAN KING.

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 DAY 14
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

SUB-QUERY
CASE-2:
Whenever the data to be selected and the condition to be executed are present in different tables we use Sub Query .

Example :

EMP DEPT
EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
1 ALLEN 1000 20 10 D1 L1
2 BLAKE 2000 10 20 D2 L2
3 CLARK 3000 30 30 D3 L3
4 MILLER 1500 10
5 ADAMS 2500 20

1. WAQTD deptno of the employee whose name is Miller .

2. WAQTD dname of the employee whose name is Miller .
SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO= (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='MILLER');

3. WAQTD Location of ADAMS

SELECT LOC
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO =(SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='ADAMS');

4. WAQTD names of the employees working in Location L2.

5. WAQTD number of employees working in dept D3 .
6. WAQTD Ename , sal of all the employee earning more than Scott and working in dept 20 .
7. WAQTD all the details of the employee working as a Manager In the dept Accounting .
8. WAQTD all the details of the employee working in the same designation as Miller and works in location New York .
9. WAQTD number of employees working as a clerk in the same deptno as SMITH and earning more than KING hired after
MARTIN in the location BOSTON .

10. WAQTD maximum salary given to a person working in DALLAS .

EXAMPLE 2:

CUSTOMER PRODUCT
CID CNAME CNO PID PID PNAME PRICE DISCOUNT
1 SMITH 12345 101 101 Iphone 11 51000 0
2 JONES 12349 102 102 Iphone 12 74000 1000
3 ALLEN 12346 103 103 iPad 40000 100

11. WATQD the name of the product that smith purchased .

SELECT PNAME
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE PID =(SELECT PID
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CNAME='SMITH');

New Section 1 Page 52

12. WAQTD the names of the customers who have purchased Iphone 12.

ASSIGNMENT ON CASE 2 :
1.WAQTD DNAME OF THE EMPLOYEES WHOS NAME IS SMITH
2.WAQTD DNAME AND LOC OF THE EMPLOYEE WHOS ENAME IS KING
3.WAQTD LOC OF THE EMP WHOS EMPLOYEE NUMBER IS 7902
4.WAQTD DNAME AND LOC ALONG WITH DEPTNO OF THE EMPLOYEE WHOS NAME
ENDS WITH 'R' .
5.WAQTD DNAME OF THE EMPLOYEE WHOS DESIGNATION IS PRESIDENT
6.WAQTD NAMES OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING IN ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT
7.WAQTD ENAME AND SALARIES OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE WORKING IN THE
LOCATION CHICAGO
8.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING IN SALES
9.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMP ALONG WITH ANNUAL SALARY IF EMPLOYEES
ARE WORKING IN NEW YORK
10. WAQTD NAMES OF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT
ASSIGNMENT ON CASE 1 & 2
1.WAQTD NAMES OF THE EMPLOYEES EARNING MORE THAN SCOTT IN ACCOUNTING DEPT
2.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGER IN THE LOCATION CHICAGO
3.WAQTD NAME AND SAL OF THE EMPLOYEES EARNING MORE THAN KING IN THE DEPT ACCOUNTING
4.WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS SALESMAN IN THE DEPARTEMENT SALES
5.WAQTD NAME , SAL , JOB , HIREDATE OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING IN OPERATIONS DEPARTMENT AND
HIRED BEFORE KING
6.DISPLAY ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHOSE DEPARTMET NAMES ENDING 'S'.
7.WAQTD DNAME OF THE EMPLOYEES WHOS NAMES HAS CHARACTER 'A' IN IT .
8.WAQTD DNAME AND LOC OF THE EMPLOYEES WHOS SALARY IS RUPEES 800 .
9.WAQTD DNAME OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO EARN COMISSION
10.WAQTD LOC OF THE EMPLOYEES IF THEY EARN COMISSION IN DEPT 40

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 DAY 15
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

TYPES OF SUB - QUERY :

1) SINGLE ROW SUB QUERY

2) MULTI ROW SUB QUERY

EXAMPLE:

EMP DEPT
EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
1 ALLEN 1000 20 10 D1 L1
2 BLAKE 2000 10 20 D2 L2
3 CLARK 3000 30 30 D3 L3
4 MILLER 1500 10
5 SMITH 2500 10

❖ SINGLE ROW SUB QUERY:

➢ If the sub query returns exactly 1 record / value we call it as Single Row Sub
Query.
➢ If it returns only 1 value then we can use the normal operators Or the Special
Operators to compare the values.

EXAMPLE

➢ WAQTD DNAME OF ALLEN

SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO =(SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='ALLEN');

❖ MULTI ROW SUB QUERY:

➢ If the sub query returns more than1 record / value we call it as Multi Row Sub
Query.
➢ If it returns more than 1 value then we cannot use the normal operators We have
to use only Special Operators to compare the values.

New Section 1 Page 54

 EXAMPLE

➢ WAQTD DNAMES OF ALLEN OR SMITH.

SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO = (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME IN('ALLEN' , 'SMITH');

Here ,since the sub query returns

2 records / values so we cannot use
'=' op.
we have to use 'IN' OP

SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME IN('ALLEN' , 'SMITH');
Note :

It is difficult to identify whether a query Belongs Single or Multi row So , it is

always recommended to use Special Operators to Compare The values.

1. WAQTD Ename and salary of the employees earning more than Employees of
dept 10.

EMP
EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO
1 ALLEN 1000 20
2 BLAKE 2000 10 = OR IN
3 CLARK 3000 30 <> OR NOT IN

4 MILLER 1500 10 >(SINGLE VALUES )

>ALL (MULTI)
5 SMITH 2500 10
1500>1500,3000

New Section 1 Page 55

 4 MILLER 1500 10 >(SINGLE VALUES )
>ALL (MULTI)
5 SMITH 2500 10
1500>1500,3000
SELECT ENAME ,SAL 2000
FROM EMP
1500
WHERE SAL > (SELECT SAL
2500
FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO= 10);

HERE we cannot use > symbol to compare

multiple values

we cannot use IN or NOT IN OP as well because

it is used for = and <> symbol

therefore we have to use SUB QUREY OP

to comparing relational operators such as (>,<,<=,>=)

Sub Query Operators :

1. ALL
2. ANY
3. EXIST
4. NOT EXIST

❖ ALL :

"It is special Op used along with a relational Op ( > , < , > = , <= ) to compare the
values present at the RHS".

ALL Op returns true if all the values at the RHS have satisfied the condition .

EAXMPLE
1. WAQTD Ename and salary of the employees earning more than Employees of
dept 10.
SELECT ENAME,SAL (CLARK, 3000)
FROM EMP 2000
WHERE SAL > ALL (SELECT SAL 1500
FROM EMP 2500
1000 WHERE DEPTNO =10);

New Section 1 Page 56

 FROM EMP 2500
1000 WHERE DEPTNO =10);
2000
3000
❖ 1500
❖ 2500 1000 > 2000 FALSE
❖ 1000> 1500 FALSE REJECTED
❖ 1000 > 2500 FALSE
❖
❖
❖ 2000 > 2000 F
❖ 2000>1500 T
❖ 2000 >2500 F
❖ REJECTED
❖
❖
❖ 3000>2000 T
❖ 3000> 1500 T
❖ 3000>2500 T
❖ SELECTED
❖
❖ 1500 >2000 F
❖ 1500> 1500 F
❖ 1500>2500 F
❖
REJECTED
❖
❖
❖ 2500>2000 T
❖ 2500>1500 T
❖ 2500> 2500 F
❖ REJECTED
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖
❖ ANY:

"It is special Op used along with a relational Op ( > , < , > = , <= ) to compare the
values present at the RHS ".

ANY Op returns true if one of the values at the RHS have satisfied the condition.

Example :
➢ WAQTD ENAME,SAL WHO ARE EARNING SAL MORE THAN ANY ONE

New Section 1 Page 57

➢ WAQTD ENAME,SAL WHO ARE EARNING SAL MORE THAN ANY ONE
OF THE EMPLOYEE IN THE DEPTNO 10

SELECT ENAME,SAL (BLAKE ,CLARK ,SMITH 2000,3000,2500)

FROM EMP
WHERE SAL >ANY (SELECT SAL 2000
FROM EMP 1500
1000 2500
WHERE DEPTNO=10);
2000
3000
1500
2500

1000>2000 F 3000>2000 T 2500>2000 T

1000>1500 F 3000> 1500 T 2500>1500 T
1000 > 2500 F 3000>2500 T 2500>2500 F
REJECTED SELECTED SELECTED
2000>2000 F 1500>2000 F
2000>1500 T 1500>1500 F
2000>2500 F 1500> 2500 F
SELECETD REJECTED

1. WAQTD name of the employee if the employee earns less than ALL The
employees working as salesman .
SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL <ALL(SELECT SAL
FROM EMP
WHERE JOB='SALESMAN');
2. WAQTD name of the employee if the employee earns less than At least a
salesman
3. WAQTD names of the employees earning more than ADAMS .

ASSIGNMENT ON TYPES OF SUB QUERY .

1. WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEES EARNING SALARY MORE THAN
THE SALESMAN
2. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER ALL THE CLERKS
3. WAQTD NAME AND SALARY FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEES IF THEY ARE
EARNING LESS THAN ATLEST A MANAGER
4. WAQTD NAME AND HIREDATE OF EMPLOYEES HIRED BEFORE ALL
THE MANAGERS
5. WAQTD NAMES OF THE EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER ALL THE
MANAGERS AND EARNING SALARY MORE THAN ALL THE CLERKS
6. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS CLERK AND
HIRED BEFORE ATLEST A SALESMAN
New Section 1 Page 58
 HIRED BEFORE ATLEST A SALESMAN
7. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN ACCOUNTING OR
SALES DEPT
8. WAQTD DEPARTMENT NAMES OF THE EMPOYEES WITH NAME SMITH ,
KING AND MILLER
9. WAQTD DETAILS OF EMPLOYEES WORKING NEWYORK OR CHICAGO
10. WAQTD EMP NAMES IF EMPLOYEES ARE HIRED AFTER ALL THE
EMPLOYEES OF DEPT 10

NESTED SUB QUERY:

“A sub query written inside a sub query is known as Nested Subquery”

➢ WE CAN NEST ABOUT 255 SUB QUERIES

SAL
1000
2000
4000
3000
5000

11. WAQTD MAXIMUM SALARY GIVEN TO AN EMPLOYEE .

SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP;

12. WAQTD SECOND MAXIMUM SALARY GIVEN TO AN EMPLOYEE.

SELECT MAX(SAL) 3000
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL < (SELECT MAX(SAL) 5000
FROM EMP);

WAQTD 3RD MAXIMUM SALARY.

SELECT MAX(SAL)
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL<(SELECT MAX(SAL)
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL<(SELECT MAX(SAL)
FROM EMP));
New Section 1 Page 59
 FROM EMP));
WAQTD 4TH MAXIMUM SALARY.
13. WAQTD 3 MINIMUM SALARY .
SELECT MIN(SAL)
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL>(SELECT MIN(SAL)
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL>(SELECT MIN(SAL)
FROM EMP));

14. WAQTD DEPT NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE GETTING 2ND MINIMUM

SALARY .
SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL=(SELECT MIN(SAL)
FROM EMP
WHERE SAL>(SELECT MIN(SAL)
FROM EMP)));

REMEMBER :

MAXIMUM MAX( ) <

MINIMUM MIN( ) >

ASSIGNMENT ON NESTED SUB QUERY :

15. WAQTD 2ND MINIMUM SALARY
16. WAQTD 5TH MAXIMUM SALARY
17. WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE EARNING 3RD MAXIMUM SALARY
18. WAQTD EMPNO OF THE EMPLOYEE EARNING 2ND MAXIMUM SALARY
19. WAQTD DEPARTMENT NAME OF AN EMPLOYEE GETTING 4TH MAX
SAL
20. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEE WHO WAS HIRED 2ND
21. WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE HIRED BEFORE THE LAST
EMPLOYEE
22. WAQTD LOC OF THE EMPLOYEE WHO WAS HIRED FIRST
23. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEE EARNING 7TH MINIMUM SALARY
24. WAQTD DNAME OF EMPLOYEE GETTING 2ND MAXIMUM SALARY

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DAY 16
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

EMPLOYEE AND MANAGER RELATION:

EMP
EMPNO ENAME MGR
1 ALLEN 3
2 SMITH 1
3 JAMES 2
4 KING 3

NOTE:

To find Manager/Reporting mgr Select MGR in Sub Q

To find Employees Select EMPNO in Sub Q

CASE 1: TO FIND MANAGER

1. WAQTD name of Allen's manager

SELECT ENAME (JAMES)
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO= (SELECT MGR (3)
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='ALLEN');

2. WAQTD name of SMITH's manager .

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN (SELECT MGR
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='SMITH');

3. WAQTD Names of smiths manager’s manager.

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN(SELECT MGR
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN(SELECT MGR
FROM EMP
New Section 1 Page 61
 FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='SMITH'));

4. WAQTD dname of King's Manager.

SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN (SELECT MGR
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='KING'));
5. WAQTD Location of Adams's manager's manager .
SELECT LOC
FROM DEPT
WHERE DETPNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN(SELECT MGR
FROM EMP
WHERE EMPNO IN(SELECT MGR
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='ADAMS')));

CASE 2: TO FIND EMPLOYEES

1. WAQTD Names of the employees reporting to KING.

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE MGR IN (SELECT EMPNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='KING');

2. WAQTD Name and salary given to the employees reporting To James .

SELECT ENAME,SAL
FROM EMP
WHERE MGR IN (SELECT EMPNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='JAMES');
3. WAQTD dname of the employee reporting to President .
SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE MGR IN (SELECT EMPNO
FROM EMP
WHERE JOB='PRESIDENT'));

New Section 1 Page 62

 4. WAQTD Department details of the employees who are reporting to MILLER .

SELECT *
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE MGR IN (SELECT EMPNO
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='MILLER'));

ASSIGNMENT ON EMP AND MANAGER RELATION

1. WAQTD SMITHS REPORTING MANAGER'S NAME

2. WAQTD ADAMS MANAGER'S MANAGER NAME
3. WAQTD DNAME OF JONES MANAGER
4. WAQTD MILLER'S MANAGER'S SALARY
5. WAQTD LOC OF SMITH'S MANAGER'S MANAGER.
6. WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEES REPORTING TO BLAKE
7. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLPOYEES REPORTING TO KING
8. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEES REPORTING TO JONES
9. WAQTD ENAMES OF THE EMPLOYEES REPORTING TO BLAKE'S MANAGER
10. WAQTD NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES REPORTING TO FORD'S MANAGER

SUB QUERY:

What is Sub Query ?

Explain ? ( draw )
Why ? When ?
Types of Sub Query
• Single Row Sub Query
• Multi Row Sub Query
Sub Query Operators
1.ALL
2.ANY
Nested Sub Query
EMP-MGR

New Section 1 Page 63

DAY 17
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

JOINS:
"The process of retrieval of data from multiple tables simultaneously is known as JOINS ".

WHEN/ WHY do we use joins:

"whenever we have to select attribute from more than one table then we use joins"

Types of JOINS .

1. CARTESIAN JOIN / CROSS JOIN

2. INNER JOIN / EQUI JOIN
3. OUTER JOIN
a) LEFT OUTER JOIN
b) RIGHT OUTER JOIN
c) FULL OUTER JOIN
4. SELF JOIN
5. NATURAL JOIN .

1. CARTESIAN JOIN / CROSS JOIN :

In Cartesian Join a record from table 1 will be merged with All the records of table 2

Number of Columns in the Result table : will be equivalent to the summations of columns present in both the tables .

Number of Col = Number of Col T1 + Number of Col T2

2+2
= 4 Columns

Number of Rows in the Result table : will be equivalent to the product of number of rows present in the both the
tables .

Number of Rows = Number of Rows T1 x Number of Rows T2

3x3
= 9 Rows .

Example

EMP DEPT
ENAME DEPTNO
DNAME DEPTNO
A 30
B 10 D1 10
C 20 D2 20
D3 30

Result Table :

ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO

A 30 D1 10
A 30 D2 20
A 30 D3 30
B 10 D1 10
B 10 D2 20
B 10 D3 30
C 20 D1 10
C 20 D2 20

New Section 1 Page 64

 C 20 D2 20
C 20 D3 30

SYNTAX:
1. ANSI [ American National Standard Institute ]
SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 CROSS JOIN Table_Name2 ;

2. Oracle

SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 , Table_Name2 ;

Example :

WAQTD ename and dept name for all the employees .

SELECT ENAME,DNAME
FROM EMP,DEPT;
OR
SELECT ENAME,DNAME
FROM EMP CROSS JOIN DEPT;

INNER JOIN:

"It is used to Obtain only Matching Records " Or " A records which has a Pair " .

EMP DEPT
ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO
A 20 D1 10
B 30
D2 20
C 10
D3 30

JOIN Condition : It is a condition on which the two tables Are merged .

Syntax: Table_Name1.Col_Name = Table_Name2.Col_Name

Join Condition :EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO

20=10 F 30=10 F 10=10 T

20=20 T 30=20 F 10=20 F
20=30 F 30=30 T 10=30 F

Result Table :

ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO

A 20 D2 20
B 30 D3 30
C 10 D1 10

SYNTAX:

New Section 1 Page 65

 SYNTAX:
1. ANSI [ American National Standard Institute ]
SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 INNER JOIN Table_Name2
ON < JOIN_CONDITION> ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP INNER JOIN DEPT
ON EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO ;

2. Oracle

SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1, Table_Name2
WHERE <JOIN_CONDITION > ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP , DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO ;

1. WAQTD ename and dept name for all the employees .

SELECT ENAME,DNAME
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO ;

2. WAQTD ename and loc for all the employees working as Manager .
SEELECT ENAME,LOC
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO AND JOB='MANAGER';

3. WAQTD ename , sal and dname of the employee working as Clerk in dept 20 with a salary of more than 1800 .
SELECT ENAME,SAL,DNAME
FROM EMP, DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO =DEPT.DEPTNO AND JOB='CLERK' AND DEPTNO=20 AND SAL>1800;

COLUMN IS AMBIGUOSLY DEFINED

SELECT ENAME,SAL,DNAME
FROM EMP, DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO =DEPT.DEPTNO AND JOB='CLERK' AND DEPT.DEPTNO=20 AND SAL>1800;

4. WAQTD ename,deptno , dname and loc of the employee earning more than 2000 in New York .

SELECT ENAME,DNAME,LOC,DEPTNO
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP . DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO AND SAL>2000 AND LOC='NEW YARK';

SELECT ENAME,DNAME,LOC,EMP.DEPTNO
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP . DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO AND SAL>2000 AND LOC='NEW YARK';

ASSIGNMENT ON INNER JOIN :

1. NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE AND HIS LOCATION OF ALL THE EMPLOYEES .

2. WAQTD DNAME AND SALARY FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEE WORKING IN ACCOUNTING.

New Section 1 Page 66

 2. WAQTD DNAME AND SALARY FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEE WORKING IN ACCOUNTING.
3. WAQTD DNAME AND ANNUAL SALARY FOR ALL EMPLOYEES WHOS SALARY IS MORE THAN 2340
4. WAQTD ENAME AND DNAME FOR EMPLOYEES HAVING CAHARACTER 'A' IN THEIR DNAME
5. WAQTD ENAME AND DNAME FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEES WORKING AS SALESMAN
6. WADTD DNAME AND JOB FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHOS JOB AND DNAME STARTS WITH
CHARACTER 'S'
7. WAQTD DNAME AND MGR NO FOR EMPLOYEES REPORTING TO 7839
8. WAQTD DNAME AND HIREDATE FOR EMPLOYEES HIRED AFTER 83 INTO ACCOUNTING OR
RESEARCH DEPT
9. WAQTD ENAME AND DNAME OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO ARE GETTING COMM IN DEPT 10 OR 30
10. WAQTD DNAME AND EMPNO FOR ALL THE EMPLOYEES WHO'S EMPNO ARE (7839,7902) AND ARE
WORKING IN LOC NEW YORK.

New Section 1 Page 67

DAY 18
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

OUTER JOIN:

"It is used to Obtain Un-Matched Records "

Left Outer Join:

"It is used to obtain Un-Matched Records of Left Table Along with Matching Records ".

OUTER JOIN OPERATOR

Example :

EMP DEPT
ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO
A 20 D1 10
B 30 D2 20
C 10 D3 30
D 60 D4 40
Left Right

Result Table :

New Section 1 Page 68

ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO
A 20 D2 20
C 10 D1 10
B 30 D3 30
D 60 NULL NULL

WAQTD names and dname of all the employees even though the employees Don’t work in any
dept .
SELECT ENAME,DNAME
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO (+);

ENAME DNAME
A D2
C D1
B NULL
D NULL

Right Outer Join:

"It is used to obtain Un-Matched Records of Right Table Along with Matching Records ".

SYNTAX:
ANSI [ American National Standard Institute ]
SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 RIGHT[OUTER] JOIN Table_Name2
ON < JOIN_CONDITION> ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP RIGHT JOIN DEPT
ON EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO ;

Oracle

SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 , Table_Name2
WHERE Table1.Col_Name (+) = Table2.Col_Name ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP , DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO(+) = DEPT.DEPTNO ;

Example :

DEPT EMP
New Section 1 Page 69
DEPT EMP
DNAME DEPTNO ENAME DEPTNO
D1 10 A 20
D2 20 B 30
D3 30 C 10
D4 40 D Null
Left Right

Result Table :

DNAME DEPTNO ENAME DEPTNO

D1 10 C 10
D2 20 A 20
D3 30 B 30
NULL NULL D NULL

WAQTD names and dname of all the employees even though the there are no employees in a
dept .
SELECT ENAME,DNAME
FROM EMP,DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO(+)=DEPT.DEPTNO;

Full Outer Join :

"It is used to obtain Un-Matched Records of both Left & Right Table Along with Matching
Records ".

SYNTAX
1. ANSI [ American National Standard Institute ]
SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 FULL [OUTER] JOIN Table_Name2
ON < JOIN_CONDITION> ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP FULL JOIN DEPT
ON EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO ;

Example :

EMP DEPT
ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO
A 20 D1 10

New Section 1 Page 70

ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO
A 20 D1 10
B Null D2 20
C 10 D3 30
D Null D4 40

Result Table :
ENAME DEPTNO DNAME DEPTNO MATCHING RECORDS OF BOTH TABLE
A 20 D2 20
C 10 D1 10
B NULL NULL NULL UNMATCHED RECORDS OF LEFT TABLE
D NULL NULL NULL
NULL NULL D3 30
NULL NULL D4 40 UNMATCHED RECORDS OF RIGHT TABLE

WAQTD names and dname of all the employees and depts even though the employees Don’t
work in any dept and a dept having no employees.
SELECT ENAME,DNAME
FROM EMP FULL JOIN DEPT
ON EMP.DEPTNO = DEPT.DEPTNO;

SELF JOIN :

"Joining a table by itself is known as Self Join "

Why ? / When ?

"Whenever the data to select is in the same table but present

In different records we use self-join ".

SYNTAX:
ANSI [ American National Standard Institute ]
SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1 JOIN Table_Name2
ON < JOIN_CONDITION> ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP E1 JOIN EMP E2
ON E1.MGR = E2.EMPNO ;

Oracle
New Section 1 Page 71
Oracle

SELECT Column_Name
FROM Table_Name1T1 , Table_Name2 T2
WHERE < Join_Condition > ;

SELECT *
FROM EMP E1 , EMP E2
WHERE E1.MGR = E2.EMPNO;

EXAMPLE

EMP E1
EMPNO ENAME E1.MGR
1 ALLEN 3
2 SMITH 1
3 MILLER 2

JOIN CONDTION E1.MGR = E2.EMPNO

RESULT TABLE;
E1.EMPNO E1.ENAME E1.MGR E2.EMPNO E2.ENAME E2.MRG
1 ALLEN 3 3 MILLER 2
2 SMITH 1 1 ALLEN 3
3 MILLER 2 2 SMITH 1

EMP DETAILS - E1 MANAGERS DETAILS -E2

1. WAQTD Ename and Manager's name for all the employees .

SELECT E1.ENAME ,E2.ENAME MGR_NAME
FROM EMP E1,EMP E2
WHERE E1.MGR=E2.EMPNO;
2. WAQTD Ename , sal along with manager's name and manager's salary for all the
employees .
SELECT E1.ENAME,E1.SAL, E2.ENAME MGR_NAME ,E2.SAL MGR_SAL
FROM EMP E1,EMP E2
WHERE E1.MGR=E2.EMPNO ;
3. WAQTD Ename , manager's name along with their deptno If employee is working as clerk .
SELECT E1.ENAME, E2.ENAME MGR_NAME, E1.DEPTNO ,E2.DEPTNO
MGR_DEPT
FROM EMP E1,EMP E2
WHERE E1.MGR=E2.EMPNO AND E1.JOB IN ' CLERK';
4. WAQTD Ename , manager's job if manager works as Analyst .
5. WAQTD Ename and manager's name along with their job if emp and manager are working
for same designation .
New Section 1 Page 72
 for same designation .
SELECT E1.ENAME,E2.ENAME, E1.JOB,E2.JOB
FROM EMP E1 , EMP E2
WHERE E1.MGR=E2.EMPNO AND E1.JOB=E2.JOB;
6. WAQTD Ename emp salary manager's name manager's salary If manager earns more than
employee .
7. WAQTD Ename and manager's name along with manager's commission if manager earns
commission .

NOTE :
TO join 'N' number of tables we need to write 'N-1' number of join conditions

ASSIGNMENT ON SELF JOIN :

➢ WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE AND HIS MANAGER'S NAME IF EMPLOYEE

IS WORKING AS CLERK

➢ WAQTD NAME OF THE EMPLOYEE AND MANAGER'S DESIGNATION IF

MANAGER WORKS IN DEPT 10 OR 20

➢ WAQTD NAME OF THE EMP AND MANAGERS SALARY IF EMPLOYEE AND

MANAGER BOTH EARN MORE THAN 2300

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND MANAGER'S HIREDATE IF EMPLOYEE WAS HIRED

BEFORE1982

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND MANAGER'S COMM IF EMPLOYEE WORKS AS

SALESMAN AND MANAGER WORKS IN DEPT 30

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND MANAGER NAME AND THEIR SALARIES IF EMPLOYEE
EARNS MORE THAN MANAGER

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND HIREDATE , MANAGER NAME AND HIREDATE IF

MANAGER WAS HIRED BEFORE EMPLOYEE

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND MANAGER NAME IF BOTH ARE WORKING IN SAME
JOB

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND MANAGER NAME IF MANAGER IS WORKING AS

ACTUAL MANAGER

➢ WAQTD EMP NAME AND MANAGER NAME ALONG WITH THEIR ANNUAL
SALARIES IF EMPLOYEE WORKS IN DEPT 10 , 20 AND MANAGER'S SAL IS
GREATER THAN EMPLOYEES SALARY .

➢ WAQTD EMPLOYEE'S NAME AND MANAGER'S DESIGNATION FOR ALL THE

EMPLOYEES

➢ WAQTD EMPLOYEE'S NAME AND MANAGER'S SALARY FOR ALL THE

EMPLOYEES IF MANAGER'S SALARY ENDS WITH 50

New Section 1 Page 73

5. NATURAL JOIN:

"It behaves as INNER JOIN if there is a relation between the given two tables , else it behaves
as CROSS JOIN" .

SYNTAX:

ANSI :

SELECT Col_Name
FROM Table_Name1 NATURAL JOIN Table_Name2;

EXAMPLE

RESULT TABLE:
ENAME DEPTNO DNAME
A 20 D2
B 30 D3
C 10 D1

EMP CUSTOMER

RESULT TABLE

ENAME DEPTNO CNAME CID

A 20 X 101
A 20 Y 102
A 20 Z 103
B 30 X 101

New Section 1 Page 74

 B 30 Y 102
B 30 Z 103
C 10 X 101
C 10 Y 102
C 10 Z 103

EXAMPLE (NOTE)/ (BLOCK DIAGRAM)

WAQTD ENAME AND DNAME FOR ALL THE EMP.

EMP DEPT

EMP.DEPTNO =DEPT. DEPTNO

WAQTD ENAME,DNAME AND MANGER'S NAME

E1.MGR=E2.EMPNO

EMP DEPT EMP E2 3-1=2

EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO

SELECT E1.ENAME,DNAME,E2.ENAME
FROM EMP E1,EMP E2,DEPT
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO AND E1.MGR=E2.EMPNO;

New Section 1 Page 75

 DAY 19
5 July 2021 12:24 PM

CO - RELATED SUB QUERY

" A query written inside another query such that the outer query and the inner
query are Dependent on each other , this is known as Co-Related Sub-Query ".

WORKING PRINCIPLE :

Let us consider two queries inner and outer query respectively ,

1. Outer query executes first but partially (50 PER)
2. The partially executed output is given as an input to the inner Query
3. The inner query executes completely and generates an output
4. The output of inner query is fed as an input to the Outer query and Outer Query
produces the result .
5. Therefore, we can state that the outer query and the inner query both are
INTERDEPENDENT ( dependent on each other ) .

NOTE :

i. In co-related sub query a Join condition is a must , And must be written only in the
Inner Query .
ii. Co-Related sub query works with the principles of both SUB QUERY & JOINS .

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUB QUERY AND CO RELATED SUB QUERY .

SUB QUERY CO-RELATED SUB QUERY
Inner query executes first Outer query executes first
Outer query is dependent on inner Both are interdependent
query
Join condition not mandatory Join condition is mandatory and
must be written in inner query
Outer query executes Once Outer query executes Twice .

Example :

New Section 1 Page 76

 DEPT EMP
ENAME DNO
DNAME DNO A 20
D1 10 B 10
D2 20 C 20
D3 30 D 30
D4 40

D1 D2 D3 NULL
10
(20,20)
SELECT DNAME
FROM DEPT 30

WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNO NULL

FROM EMP
10 WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO);
20
30
20
10
40 10
20
10=10 TRUE 30=10 F 20
10=20 F 30=20 F 30
30
10=20 F 30=20 F 40
10=30 F 30=30 T

20=10 F 40=10 F
20=20 T 40=20 F
20=20 T 40=20 F
20=30 F 40=30 F

EX:

1. WAQTD dname in which there are employees working .

SELECT DNAME,DEPTNO
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO);

2. WAQTD dname in which there are no employees working .

SELECT DNAME,DEPTNO
FROM DEPT
WHERE DEPTNO NOT IN (SELECT DEPTNO
FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO);

EXISTS & NOT EXISTS OPERATORS :

New Section 1 Page 77

 EXISTS & NOT EXISTS OPERATORS :

1. EXISTS : " Exists Op is a Unary Op ( One Operand ) which can accept one
operand towards RHS and that operand has to be co related sub -query
➢ Exists Op returns true if the Sub Query returns Any value other than Null.

example: 10
d1,d2,d3 (20,20)
SELECT DNAME 30
FROM DEPT NULL
WHERE exists (SELECT DNO
FROM EMP
WHERE EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO);
10=10 TRUE 30=10 F
10=20 F 30=20 F
10=20 F 30=20 F
10=30 F 30=30 T

20=10 F 40=10 F
20=20 T 40=20 F
20=20 T 40=20 F
20=30 F 40=30 F

2. NOT EXISTS :
"NOT EXISTS operator is a unary op(one operand) which can accept one
operand towards RHS and that operand has to a co related sub query"

➢ Not Exists Op returns true if the Sub Query returns NULL .

To Find MAX & MIN salary :

To find MAXIMUM salary :

SELECT SAL
FROM EMP E1
WHERE ( SELECT COUNT( DISTINCT SAL )
FROM EMP E2
WHERE E1.SAL < E2.SAL ) = N-1 ;

4TH MAX SAL , 8TH, 10TH

E1.SAL
1000 SELECT SAL
FROM EMP E1
3000 WHERE (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT SAL)
FROM EMP E2
2000 WHERE E1.SAL < E2.SAL) IN (3,7,9);

3000
New Section 1 Page 78
3000
2000
4000
5000

To find MINIMUM salary :

SELECT SAL
FROM EMP E1
WHERE ( SELECT COUNT( DISTINCT SAL )
FROM EMP E2
WHERE E1.SAL > E2.SAL ) = N-1 ;

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS:

1. WAQTD 5TH MAX SALARY

2. WAQTD 3RD MIN SALARY
3. WAQTD 2ND 5TH 8TH MAX SAL
4. WAQTD 7TH MAX SAL
5. WAQTD 5TH MIN SAL

SAL
1000
6000
2000
3000
4000
5000
8000
7000
6000
9000

New Section 1 Page 79

 DAY 20
10 July 2021 02:58 PM

SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS:

1. LENGTH( )
2. CONCAT( )
3. UPPER( )
4. LOWER( )
5. INITCAP( )
6. REVERSE( )
7. SUBSTR()
8. INSTR( )
9. REPLACE( )
10. MOD( )
11. TRUNC( )
12. ROUND( )
13. MONTHS_BETWEEN()
14. LAST_DAY()
15. TO_CHAR( )
16. NVL( )
17. ASCII()
18. POWER()
19. SQRT()
20. SIN()
21. TAN()

LENGTH: "It is used to count the number of characters present In the given
string ".
SYNTAX: LENGTH ( 'string' )

Example :

WAQTd count number of characters present in 'SMITH' .

SELECT LENGTH (ENAME) LENGTH(ENAME)

FROM EMP 5
WHERE ENAME='SMITH'

SELECT LENGTH('SMITH')
FROM DUAL;

SELECT LENGTH('KRISHNA')
New Section 1 Page 80
SELECT LENGTH('KRISHNA')
FROM DUAL;

NOTE :
DUAL TABLE
It is a DUMMY table which has 1 col and 1 row .Which is used to output the
result .

○ DESC DUAL ;
○ SELECT * FROM DUAL ;

CONCAT( ) : "It is used to join the given two strings '

SYNTAX : CONCAT ( 'string1' , 'String2' )

Example :
SELECT CONCAT('MR' , ENAME)
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME='SMITH'; MR SMITH

UPPER( ) : "It is used to convert a given string to upper case "

SYNTAX: UPPER ( 'string' )

LOWER( ) :"It is used to convert a given string to lower case "

SYNTAX: LOWER( 'string' )

INITCAP( ):"It is used to convert a given string to initial capital letter case ".

SYNTAX: INITCAP( 'string' )

REVERSE( ): "It is used to reverse a given string ".

SYNTAX: REVERSE( 'string' )

New Section 1 Page 81

SUBSTR : "It is used to extract a part of string from the given Original string " .

SYNTAX: SUBSTR ( 'Original String' , Position, [ Length ] )

NOTE: Length is not mandatory , If length is not mentioned then Consider the
complete string .

Example :

-ve
-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
Q S P I D E R
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
+ve

Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 2 , 3 ) SPI

Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 3 , 3 ) PID
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 2 ) SPIDER
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 1 , 6 ) QSPIDE
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 4, 1) I
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 1 , 1 ) Q
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 7 , 1) R
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 6 ) ER
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 1 , 3 ) QSP
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , 6 , 6 ) ER
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , -2 , 1 ) E
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , -5 , 3 ) PID
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , -7 , 2 ) QS
Example : SUBSTR( 'QSPIDER' , -1 ) R

WAQTD extract first 3 characters of the emp names .

SELECT SUBSTR(ENAME,1,3)
New Section 1 Page 82
SELECT SUBSTR(ENAME,1,3)
FROM EMP;

WAQT extract last 3 characters of the employee names .

SELECT SUBSTR(ENAME,-3)
FROM EMP;

WAQTD to display first half of employee names .(50% OF NAME )

ENAME OUTPUT
SMITH SM
MILLER MIL
JONES JO
WARD WA

SELECT SUBSTR( ENAME , 1 , LENGTH( ENAME ) / 2 ) FROM EMP ;

SUBSTR( 'SMITH' , 1 , LENGTH ( 'SMITH' ) / 2 )
SUBSTR( 'SMITH' , 1 , 5 / 2 ) 2
SUBSTR( 'SMITH' , 1 , 2 )
SM
WARD SUBSTR( ENAME , 1 , LENGTH( ENAME ) / 2 )
SUBSTR( 'WARD' , 1 , LENGTH ('WARD' ) / 2 )
SUBSTR( 'WARD' , 1 , 4 / 2 )
SUBSTR( 'WARD' , 1 , 2 )
WA
SUBSTR( ENAME , 1 , LENGTH( ENAME ) / 2 )
SMITH

WAQT to display second half of employee names .(50-100 OF ENAME)

ENAME OUTPUT
SMITH ITH
MILLER LER
JONES NES
WARD RD

New Section 1 Page 83

SELECT SUBSTR( ENAME , LENGTH( ENAME ) / 2 + 1 ) FROM EMP ;

SMITH SUBSTR( ENAME , LENGTH( ENAME ) / 2 +1)

SUBSTR( 'SMITH' , LENGTH ( 'SMITH' ) / 2 +1)
SUBSTR( 'SMITH' , 5 / 2 +1)
SUBSTR( 'SMITH' , 3 )
ITH

WARD SUBSTR( ENAME , LENGTH( ENAME ) / 2+1 )

SUBSTR( 'WARD' , LENGTH ('WARD' ) / 2+1 )
SUBSTR( 'WARD' , 4 / 2 +1)
SUBSTR( 'WARD' , 3)
RD

REPLACE ( ) : "It is used to replace a string with another string in

The original string.

SYNTAX:REPLACE ( 'Original_String' , 'string' , [ 'new_String' ] )

Example : REPLACE ( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 'C' ) BCNCNC

Example : REPLACE ( 'BANANA' , 'N' , 'ABC' ) BAABCAABCA
Example : REPLACE ( 'OPPO' , 'OPPO' , SAMSUNG
'SAMSUNG' )
Example : REPLACE ( 'BANANA' , 'A' ) BNN
Example : REPLACE ( 'ENGINEERING' , 'E' ) NGINRING
Example : REPLACE ( 'ENGINEERING' , 'E' , '123' ) 123NGIN123123RIN
G

NOTE : if the third argument is not mentioned the default Value of it is Null .

WAQTD the number of times char 'A' is present in BANANA !!!

SELECT LENGTH('BANANA') - LENGTH(REAPLCE('BANANA','A'))
FROM DUAL; LENGTH('BNN')

6-3 =3 TIMES PRESENT

New Section 1 Page 84
6-3 =3 TIMES PRESENT

WAQTD to count number of time 'A' is present in 'MALAYALAM'

New Section 1 Page 85

DAY 21
10 July 2021 02:58 PM

9. INSTR ( ):"it is used to obtain the position in which the string is present in the Original
string ".

It is used to search for a string in the Original string if present it returns the POSITION
Else it returns 0 ".

SYNTAX

INSTR('ORIGINAL_STRING', 'STRING' , POSITION [, OCCURANCE]

Note : if occurrence is not Mentioned then , the default value of Occurrence is 1 .

B A N A N A
1 2 3 4 5 6

Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 1 , 1 ) Pos:2

Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 2 , 1 ) Pos:2
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 1 , 2 ) Pos: 4
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 1 , 3 ) Pos:6
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 1 , 4 ) Pos:0
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 4 , 2 ) Pos:6
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 2 ) Pos:2
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'N' , 2 , 1) Pos:3
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'O' , 1 ,1 ) Pos:0
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'NA' , 2 , 2 ) POS:5
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'A' , 3 , 3 ) POS:0
Example : INSTR( 'BANANA' , 'ANA' , 1 , 2 ) POS:4

MOD( ) : "It is used to obtain modulus/remainder of the given number "

Syntax: MOD ( m , n )

New Section 1 Page 86

 Example : SELECT MOD( 5 , 2 )
FROM DUAL ;
1 . WAQTD ENAMES OF THE EMPLOYEES WHO EARN SALARY IN
MULTIPLES OF 3
SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE MOD(SAL,3)=0
2. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEE WHO HAVE ODD EID
SELECT *
FROM EMP
WHERE MOD(EMPNO,2)=1

ROUND( ) : this function is used to round of the given number to its nearest value

Syntax: ROUND ( Number , [ Scale ] )

The default value of scale is 0

Example : ROUND ( 5.6 ) 6

Example : ROUND ( 5.5 ) 6
Example : ROUND ( 5.4 ) 5 Round (253.5248 ,-1)= 250
Example : ROUND ( 9.9 ) 10 Round (253.52 , -2)=300
Round (233.52 ,-2)=200
Example : ROUND ( 9.4 ) 9
Example : round(253.5 , 1) 254

TRUNC( ): "It is similar to ROUND() but it always rounds-off the given number to
the lower value "

SYNATX:TRUNC (NUMBER)

Example : TRUNC ( 5.6 ) 5

Example : TRUNC ( 5.5 ) 5
Example : TRUNC ( 5.4 ) 5
Example : TRUNC ( 9.9 ) 9
Example : TRUNC ( 9.4 ) 9
Example : TRUNC (8.6 ) 8

New Section 1 Page 87

 NOTE :
DATE COMMANDS :
i. SYSDATE : " it is used to obtain Todays Date "
ii. CURRENT_DATE : " it is also used to obtain todays date "
iii. SYSTIMESTAMP : "It is used to obtain date , time and time zone "

SQL> SELECT SYSDATE

FROM DUAL ;

SYSDATE
----------------
'17-JUL-21'

SQL> SELECT CURRENT_DATE

FROM DUAL ;

CURRENT_D
-----------------
'17-JUL-21'

SQL> SELECT SYSTIMESTAMP

FROM DUAL ;

SYSTIMESTAMP

MONTHS_BETWEEN( ): "It is used to Obtain the number of months present

between the Given two dates "

SYNTAX : MONTHS_BETWEEN(DATE1 ,DATE2)

SELECT TRUNC( MONTHS_BETWEEN( SYSDATE , HIREDATE ) ) || ' Months'

FROM EMP;

LAST_DAY( ): " it is used to Obtain the last day in the particular of the given date" .
New Section 1 Page 88
 LAST_DAY( ): " it is used to Obtain the last day in the particular of the given date" .

SYNATX: LAST_DAY(DATE)

SELECT LAST_DAY( SYSDATE )

FROM DUAL ;

TO_CHAR( ) :"It is used to convert the given date into String format based on the
Model given "

SYNTAX : TO_CHAR(DATE,'FROMAT_MODELS')

Format Models :

i. YEAR : TWENTY TWENTY

ii. YYYY : 2020
iii. YY : 20
iv. MONTH : JULY
v. MON : JUL
vi. MM : 07
vii. DAY : WEDNESDAY
viii. DY : WED
ix. DD : 08
x. D : 4 ( day of the week )
xi. HH24 : 17 hours
xii. HH12 : 5 hours
xiii. MI : 22 minutes
xiv. SS : 53 seconds
xv. 'HH12:MI:SS' : 5 : 22 : 53
xvi. 'DD-MM-YY' : 17 - 05 - 20
xvii. 'MM-DD-YYYY' : 05 - 17 - 2020

1. WAQTD DETAILS OF THE EMPLOYEE WHO WAS HIRED ON A SUNDAY .

SELECT *
FROM EMP
WHERE TO_CHAR(HIRADTE, 'DAY')='SUNDAY';

2. WAUQTD DETAILS OF AN EMPLOYEE HIRED ON MONDAY AT 3PM

New Section 1 Page 89

2. WAUQTD DETAILS OF AN EMPLOYEE HIRED ON MONDAY AT 3PM
SELECT *
FROM EMP
WHERE TO _CHAR(HIREDATE,'DAY')='MONDAY' AND
TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'HH12')=3;

NVL( ) : [ NULL VALUE LOGIC ] " It is used to eliminate the side effects of using
null in arithmetic operations " .

ENAME SAL COMM ENAME SAL+COMM

A 500 100 A 600
B 1000 NULL B NULL
C 2000 200 C 2200
D 2000 NULL D NULL

BY Using Null value logic :

SYNTAX: NVL(ARGUMENT1,ARGUMENT 2)

Argument 1 : Here write any column / exp which can result In null .
Argument 2 : Here we write a numeric value which will be substituted if argument 1
results in Null , If argument 1 is NOT NULL then the same value will be considered .

SELECT ENAME,SAL+NVL(COMM,0)
FROM EMP;
ENAME SAL+NVL(COMM,0)
ENAME SAL COMM A (500+NVL(100,0)= 500+100=600
A 500 100 B (1000+NVL(NULL,0)= 1000+0=1000
B 1000 NULL C (2000+NVL(200,0))= 2000+200=2200
C 2000 200 D (2000+NVL(NULL,0))=2000+0=2000
D 2000 NULL

RESULT
600
1000

New Section 1 Page 90

 2200
2000

ASCII(): IT IS USED TO DETERMINE THE ASCII VALUES FOR THE

SPECIFIC CHARACTER
SYNTAX:

ASCII(STRING)

POWER(): IT IS USED TO GET THE VALUES OF A NUMBER RAISED TO THE

POWER OF ANOTHER NUMBER

SYNTAX:

POWER(A , B ) A: BASE VALUE

B: EXPONENT

SQRT():IT IS USED TO GET THE SQUARE ROOT OF A NUMBER

SYNTAX

SQRT(NUMBER)

TAN(): IT IS USED TO GET THE TANGENT OF A NUMBER

SYNTAX:
TAN(NUMBER)

SIN(): IT IS USED TO GET THE SINE OF A NUMBER

SYNATX:
SIN(NUMBER)

ASSIGNEMT
1. List employees whose name having 4 characters

2. List employees whose job is having 7 characters

3. Find out how many times letter 'S' occurs in 'qspiders'

4. List the employees whose job is having last 3 characters as 'man'

5. List employees whose job is having first 3 characters as 'man'.
6. Display all the names whose name is having exactly 1 'L'

7. Display dept names which are having letter 'O'

New Section 1 Page 91

1. Calculate number of L in string 'HELLLLL'
2. Display all the employees whose job has a string 'MAN'
3. Display all the employees whose job starts with string 'MAN'

4. Display all the employees whose job ends with string 'MAN'

5. Display first 3 characters of Ename in lower case and rest everything in upper case.
If Ename is 'QSPIDERS' then display this as ‘qspIDERS’

6. Display the result from emp table as below. SMITH is a CLERK and gets salary 2000
Here SMITH is ename column, CLERK is JOB and 2000 is SAL column and rest
everything is literal strings.

7. list the employees hired on a Wednesday

8. list the employees hired on a leap year

9. list the employees hired on a Sunday in the month of may

New Section 1 Page 92

 DAY 22
10 July 2021 03:01 PM

STATEMENTS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO 5 DIFFERENT TYPES

➢ DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE ( DDL )

➢ DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE ( DML )
➢ TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE ( TCL )
➢ DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE ( DCL )
➢ DATA QUERY LANGUAGE ( DQL )

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE ( DDL ):

" DDL is used to construct an object in the database and deals with the Structure of the Object "

It has 5 statements :

1. CREATE
2. RENAME
3. ALTER
4. TRUNCATE
5. DROP

1. CREATE : " IT IS USED TO BUILD / CONSTRUCT AN OBJECT "

HOW TO CREATE/BUILD A TABLE :

1. Name of the table (OBJECT)

Tables cannot have same names .
2. Number of Columns .
3. Assign datatypes for the Columns. {MANDATORY }
4. Assign Constraints [ NOT MANDATORY ] .

EXAMPLE 1:

TABLE NAME: PRODUCT (OBJECT)

N0_OF COLUMNS: 4

COL_NAME PID PNAME PRICE DISCOUNT

DATA TYPE NUMBER(2) VARCHAR (10) NUMBER(7,2) NUMBER(6,2)
CONTARINTS NOTNULL NOTNULL NOT NULL NOT NULL
UNIQUE
CHECK(PRICE>0)
PK

New Section 1 Page 93

CREATE TABLE PRODUCT (
PID NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY,
PNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
PRICE NUMBER(7,2) NOT NULL CHECK(PRICE>0),
DISCOUNT NUMBER(7,2)
);

Syntax to create a table :

CREATE TABLE Table_Name (

Column_Name1 datatype constraint_type ,
Column_Name2 datatype constraint_type ,
Column_Name3 datatype constraint_type ,
.
.
Column_NameN datatype constraint_type
);

EXAMPLE 2:
TABEL NAME= CUSTOMER (OBJECT)
NO OF COL =5

CID CNAME PH_NO ADDRESS PID

NUMBER VARCHAR(15) NUMBER(10) VARCAHR(10) NUMBER(2)
(3)
NOT NULL NOT NULL NOT NULL NOT NULL
UNIQUE
CHECK(LENGTH (PH_NO=10))
PK
FK

CREATE TABEL CUST (

CID NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
CNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL,
PH_NO NUMBER(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE CHECK(LENGTH(PH_NO)=10),
ADDRESS VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
PID NUMBER(2) NOT NULL,
FOREIGN KEY (PID) REFERENCES PRODUCT(PID)
);
(FOREIGN KEY (COL_NAME) REFERENCES TABEL_NAME1 (COL_NAME)

OR

New Section 1 Page 94

 CONSTRAINT PID _FK FOREGIN KEY (PID) PRODUCT (PID)

2. RENAME : "IT IS USED TO CHANGE THE NAME OF THE OBJECT "

Syntax: RENAME Table_Name TO New_Name ;

RENAME CUST TO CUSTOMER;

3. ALTER :" IT IS USED TO MODIFY THE STRUCTURE OF THE TABLE "

➢ TO ADD A COLUMN :

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name

ADD Column_Name Datatype Constraint_type

EXAMPLE: ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER

ADD EMAIL VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;

➢ TO DROP A COLUMN :

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name

DROP COLUMN Column_Name ;

EXAMPLE
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMER
DROP COLUMN EMAIL ;

➢ TO RENAME A COLUMN :

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name

RENAME COLUMN Column_Name TO new_Column_Name ;

EXAMPLE:
ALTER TABLE PRODUCT
RENAME COLUMN DISCOUNT TO DISC;

➢ TO MODIFY THE DATATYPE :

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name

MODIFY COLUMN_NAME New_Datatype;

➢ EXAMPLE:
ALTER TABEL CUSTOMER

New Section 1 Page 95

 ALTER TABEL CUSTOMER
MODIFY ADDRESS VARCHAR(15);

➢ TO MODIFY NOT NULL CONSTRAINTS :

Syntax: ALTER TABLE Table_Name

MODIFY COLUMN_NAME Existing_datatype [NULL]/NOT NULL;

Example : ALTER TABLE PRODUCT

MODIFY DISC NUMBER(7,2) Not Null ;

TRUNCATE : " IT IS USED TO REMOVE ALL THE RECORDS/ROWS/TUPLE FROM THE

TABLE PREMANENTLY "

Syntax:TRUNCATE TABLE Table_Name ;

DROP: " IT IS USED TO REMOVE THE TABLE FROM THE DATABASE "

Syntax: DROP TABLE Table_Name ;

TO RECOVER THE TABLE:

Syntax: FLASHBACK TABLE Table_Name

TO BEFORE DROP ;

EXAMPLE

ADDRESS: BIN$123QASSDAD BIN FOLDER

CUSTOMER

FLASHBACK

FLASHBACK TABLE CUSTOMER

TO BEFORE DROP;

TO DELETE THE TABLE FROM BIN FOLDER :

New Section 1 Page 96

 Syntax: PURGE TABLE Table_Name ;

NOTE : DDL STATEMENTS ARE AUTO-COMMIT STATEMENTS

New Section 1 Page 97

 DAY 23
10 July 2021 03:01 PM

DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE ( DML )

It is used to Manipulate the Object by performing insertion , updating and deletion .

1. INSERT
2. UPDATE
3. DELETE

1. INSERT : It is used to insert / create records in the table .

Syntax: INSERT INTO Table_Name VALUES( v1 , v2 , v3 …… ) ;
PRODUCT:
PID PNAME PRICE DISCOUNT
NUMBER(2) VARCHAR(10) NUMBER(7,2) NUMBER(7,2

EXAMPLE;
INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES(11, 'REALME' , 5000.00, 1000.00);

2. UPDATE :It is used to modify an existing value .

Syntax: UPDATE Table_Name

SET Col_Name = Value , Col_Name = Value ,,,,,
[WHERE stmt ] ;

EXAMPLE:
CUSTOMER:
CID CNAME PH_NO ADDRESS PID
NUMBER(3) VARCHAR(15) NUMBER(10) VARCHAR(15) NUMBER(2)
1 DINGA 9874561231 BANGLORE 12
2 DINGI 9874654123 BANGLORE 22

EXAMPLE:
WAQTD UPADTE OF PHONE OF DINGA TO 1234567890
UPADTE CUSTOMER
SET PH_NO=1234567890, ADDRESS = 'MANGLORE'
WHERE CNAME='DINGA';

New Section 1 Page 98

3. DELETE : It is used to remove a particular record from the table .

Syntax: DELETE
FROM Table_Name
[ WHERE stmt ];

CUSTOMER:
CID CNAME PH_NO ADDRESS PID
NUMBER(3) VARCHAR(15) NUMBER(10) VARCHAR(15) NUMBER(2)
1 DINGA 9874561231 BANGLORE 12
2 DINGI 9874654123 BANGLORE 22

EXAAMPLE:
WAQTD REMOVE DINGA FROM THE LIST OF CUSTOMER
DELETE FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CNAME='DINGA';

ASSIGNMENT ON DML STATEMENTS :

1.WAQT update the salary of employee to double their salary if He is working

as a manager .

2.WAQT change the name of SMITH to SMIITH .

3.WAQT modify the job of KING to 'PRESIDENT' .

4.WAQT to change name of ALLEN to ALLEN MORGAN .

5.WAQT hike the salary of the employee to 10% . If employees earn less than
2000 as a salesman .

6.WAQ TO delete the employees who don’t earn commission .

7.WAQ to remove all the employees hired before 1987 in dept 20

8.Differentiate between TRUNCATE and DELETE statements .

3. TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE ( TCL )

"It is used to control the transactions done on the database ".
The DML Operations performed on the Database are known as Transactions such as Insertion ,
Updating and Deletion .
New Section 1 Page 99
Updating and Deletion .
We have 3 Statements :
1. COMMIT
2. ROLLBACK
3. SAVEPOINT

1.COMMIT : "This statement is used to SAVE the transactions into the DB ".
Syntax: COMMIT ;

EXAMPLE:

QUERY CONSOLE/SQL+ DATABASE

NAME SAL NAME SAL

CREATE T1

NAME SAL NAME SAL

AUTO COMMIT(DDL)
A 100 A 100

INERT INTO T1(V1,V2,V3)

COMMIT;

2.ROLLBACK :
This statement is used to Obtain only the saved data from the DB .
It will bring you to the point where you have committed for the last time .

SYNTAX: ROLLBACK ;

3. SAVEPOINT :
This statement is used to mark the positions or restoration points . (nothing related to DB ) .

SYNTAX: SAVEPOINT Savepoint_Name ;

EXAMPLE:

QUERY CONSOLE DATABASE(SAVEPOINT)

NAME SAL SAVEPOINT
INSERT INTO A 100 S1
(A,100) B 200
C 300 S2
INERT
(B,200)
(C,300)
New Section 1 Page 100
INERT
(B,200)
(C,300)

ROLLBACK TO S1;
ROLLBACK TO S1
ROLLBACK TO S2

SYNATX : ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME

4. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE :

"This statement is used to control the flow of data between the users ".

We have 2 statements :
1. GRANT
2. REVOKE
1.GRANT : THIS STATEMENT IS USED TO GIVE PERMISSION TO A USER .

SYNTAX: GRANT SQL_STATEMENT

ON TABLE_NAME
TO USER_NAME ;
2.REVOKE : THIS STATEMENT IS USED TO TAKE BACK THE PERMISSION FROM
THE USER .

SYNTAX: REVOKE SQL_STATEMENT

ON TABLE_NAME
FROM USER_NAME ;

EXAMPLE:

USER1: SCOTT USER 2: HR

SELECT *
EMP SAL FROM EMP;

GRANT SELECT SELECT *

ON EMP FROM SCOTT.EMP;
TO HR

New Section 1 Page 101

GRANT SELECT SELECT *
ON EMP FROM SCOTT.EMP;
TO HR

ERROR

REVOKE SELECT TABLE OR VIEW NOT EXIST

ON EMP
FROM HR32

SQL> SHOW USER ;

USER is "SCOTT" SQL> CONNECT
Enter user-name: HR
Enter password: *****
Connected.

SQL> SHOW USER ; USER is "HR"

Connected.
SQL> SHOW USER ; USER is "HR"
SQL> SELECT *
FROM SCOTT.EMP;

FROM SCOTT.EMP
*
ERROR at line 2:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist

SQL> CONNECT
Enter user-name: SCOTT Enter password: ***** Connected.
SQL> GRANT SELECT ON EMP TO HR;
Grant succeeded.

SQL> CONNECT
Enter user-name: HR
Enter password: *****

Connected.

SQL> SELECT *
2 FROM SCOTT.EMP;

New Section 1 Page 102

DAY 24
14 July 2021 05:50 PM

ATTRIBUTES & FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCIES

ATTRIBUTES : Are the properties which defines the entity .

Key attribute / Candidate key : An attribute which is used to identify a

record uniquely from a table is known as key attribute .
Ex: Phone_No , mail_id , aadhar , pan , ration , passport , dl , bank a/c

Non key attribute : All the attributes other than key attributes .
Ex : Name , age , gender , dob

Prime key attribute : Among the key attributes an attribute is chosen to

be the main attribute to identify a record uniquely from the table is known
as prime key attribute .
Ex: Phone_No.

Non-prime key attribute : All the key attributes other than Prime key attributes
Ex : mail_id , Aadhar , pan , ration , passport , dl , bank a/c .

Composite key attribute : It is combination of two or more non key attributes

which is used to identify a record uniquely from the table .
○ Composite key is found whenever there is no key attribute .
Ex: ( name , age , dob , address )

Super key attribute : It is a set of all key attributes .

Ex: {Phone_No , mail_id , Aadhar , pan , ration , passport , dl , bank a/c }

Foreign key attribute : It is an attributes which behaves as an attribute of another entity to

represent the relationship .
Ex: deptno

example:
name, age, colour, dob, height, weight, job, nationality

New Section 1 Page 103

 example:
name, age, colour, dob, height, weight, job, nationality
Gender,

Entity/object ph_no,email, Aadhar, fb a/c, pubg acc,bank ac,passport,

voter id,ration etc
Human being

properties

FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY :

"THERE EXISTS A DEPENECY SUCH THAT AN ATTRIBUTE IN A

RELATION DETERMINES ANOTHER ATTRIBUTE ".

Example : EMP - ( EID , ENAME )

EID ----> ENAME : functional dependency .

TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCIES :

1. TOTAL FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

2. PARTIAL FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
3. TRANSITIVE FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

1. TOTAL FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY:

If an attribute in a relation determines all the other attributes it is known as TFD

OR
If all the attributes are dependent on a single attribute then it is known as TFD

EMP - ( EID , ENAME , SAL , DOB )

EID—KEY ATTRIBUTE
EID - > ENAME
EID - > SAL

New Section 1 Page 104

 EID - > DOB

:- EID ---> ( ENAME , SAL , DOB ) :- total functional dependency.

2. PARTIAL FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY:

There exists a dependency such that a part of composite key attributes determines
another attribute uniquely .

CUSTOMER - ( CNAME , ADDRESS , MAIL_ID , PHONE_NO )

Customer
CNAME ADDRESS MAIL_ID PHONE_NO
Smith Mysore [email protected]
Miller Bangalore 1001
Scott Mangalore [email protected]
Adams Mysore 2002
Scott Delhi [email protected] 3003

( PHONE_NO , MAIL_ID ) ---- Composite key attribute

PHONE_NO ---> CNAME , ADDRESS

MAIL_ID --- > CNAME , ADDRESS :- partial functional dep .

3. TRANSITIVE FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY

There exists a dependency such that an attribute is determined by a non-key attribute, which is
intern determined by a key attribute .

CUSTOMER - ( CID , CNAME , PINCODE , CITY)

Customer
CID CNAME PINCODE CITY
1 Smith 560019 Bangalore
2 Miller 560019 Bangalore
3 Scott 312121 Pune
New Section 1 Page 105
 3 Scott 312121 Pune
4 Adams 123456 Mumbai
5 Scott 123456 Mumbai

KEY ATTRIBUTE NON KEY ATTRIBUTE

CID - CNAME
◊ PINCODE
 CITY

Redundancy : The repetition of unwanted data is known as redundancy .

Anomaly : The side effects caused during DML operations is known as Anomaly.

New Section 1 Page 106

 DAY 25
10 July 2021 03:04 PM

What is Normalization ?

" It is the process of reducing a large table into smaller tables in order to remove
redundancies and anomalies by identifying their functional dependencies is
known as Normalization . "

Or

"The process of decomposing a large table into smaller table is known as Normalization ."

Or

"Reducing a table to its Normal Form is known as Normalization . "

Example

Table

Table1 Table 2 Table3

What is Normal Form ?

A table without redundancies and anomalies are said to be in Normal Form .

Levels of Normal From .

1. First Normal Form ( 1NF )

2. Second Normal Form ( 2NF )
3. Third Normal Form ( 3NF )
4. Boyce - Codd Normal Form ( BCNF 3.5NF)
5. Fifth normal form (5F)
6. Sixth normal form (6F)

Note : If any Table / entity is reduced to 3NF , then the table is said to be normalized.

New Section 1 Page 107

1. First Normal Form ( 1NF ) :
The table is said to be first normal form if it is satisfied following conditions
- No duplicates/repeated records .
- Multivalued data should not be present .

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1. Second Normal Form ( 2NF )

The table is said to be second normal form if it is satisfied following conditions
• Table should be in 1NF
- Table should not have Partial Functional Dependency .

EMPLOYEE - ( EID , ENAME , SAL , DEPTNO , DNAME ,LOC )

EID ENAME SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC

1 A 100 10 D1 L1
2 B 120 20 D2 L2
3 C 320 10 D1 L1
4 D 251 10 D1 L1

EID- ename, sal

DEPTNO – dname, loc

(Eid, deptno)→(ename, sal, dname, loc) composite key attribute

Results in PFD
R1 – (eid, ename,sal)
New Section 1 Page 108
 R1 – (eid, ename,sal)
R2 – (deptno, dname, loc)

Eid ename sal DNO

1 A 100 10
2 B 120 20
3 C 320 10
4 D 251 10
Deptno dname Loc
10 D1 L1
20 D2 L2

1. Third Normal Form ( 3NF )

The table is said to be third normal form if it is satisfied following conditions

• Table should be in 2NF .

- Table should not have Transitive Functional Dependency .

Employee - ( EID , Ename , Sal , comm , Pincode , state , country )

EID -> ENAME

SAL
COMM
PINCODE -> STATE
COUNTRY

R1 – (eid, ename, comm)

R2 – (pincode, state, country)

Note

New Section 1 Page 109

EXTRA (DAY1)
24 July 2021 08:52 PM

VIEW

"In SQL view is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL statement"

SYNTAX

CREATE VIEW VIEW_NAME

AS
SELECT COLUMN _NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME
WHERE <CONDTION>

SYNATX 2

DROP VIEW VIEW_NAME;

NOTE:
To give permission to create view !!

LOGIN AS SYSTEM

CONNECT ;

USER : SYSTEM
PWD: Oracle1234

GRANT CREATE VIEW TO SCOTT; (GIVING THE PERMISSION)

REVOKE CREATE VIEW FROM SCOTT; (TAKE BACK PERMISSON)

EXAMPLE :

EMPNO ENAME SAL JOB

1 A 2000 MANAGER
2 B 1000 CLERK
3 C 5000 MANGER
4 D 1000 SLAESMAN

New Section 1 Page 110

DAY 2
24 July 2021 08:52 PM

COMMENTS

Comments are used to explain the sections of SQL statements.

It has 2 comments

1) SINGLE LINE COMMENTS

2) MULTI LINE COMMENTS

1)SINGLE LINE COMMENTS: SELECT *

FROM EMP; __ IT DISPLAYS ALL THE DETAILS

comments starts and end within single line are called as single line comments (individual line
comments).

Single line comments start with -- and [ends with :] __WAQTD ALL THE DETAILS OF THE EMP

SELECT *
syntax FROM EMP;

-- single line comment

select column name/ expression
from table name

Example:
--select all the details of the employees :
SELECT * FROM EMP;

2) MULTI LINES COMMETS:

Comments starts with first line but ends with different line are called multi lines comments

Multi line comments starts with /* and ends with */

syntax

/*multi
line
comments */
select column name/ expression
from table name

Example:
/*select all the
details of the
employees : */
SELECT * FROM EMP;

New Section 1 Page 111

DAY 3
24 July 2021 08:52 PM

SET OPERATOR

1. UNION
2. UNION ALL
3. INTERSECT
4. MINUS

UNION

The union operator could to be used to find the result set or combination of
two/more table without returning any duplicate rows

Note :

1. The columns must have same datatypes.

2. The columns in each table must be in the same order (but they need not have to
in the same length).
3. Each table used within union must have the same number of columns.
4. It provides the unique values by default.

Syntax:
SELECT COL_NAME
FROM TABLE _NAME1
[WHERE<FILTER CODITION>]

UNION

SELECT COL_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME2
[WHERE<FILTER CODITION>];

Order of execution

1. From
2. [Where] (if used) [ROW BY ROW]
3. Select

New Section 1 Page 112

UNION ALL

The union all operator could to be used to find the result set or combination of
two/more table including returning any duplicate rows

Note :

1. The columns must have same datatypes.

2. The columns in each table must be in the same order (but they need not have to
in the same length).
3. Each table used within union must have the same number of columns.

Syntax:
SELECT COL_NAME
FROM TABLE _NAME1
[WHERE<FILTER CODITION>]

UNION ALL

SELECT COL_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME2
[WHERE<FILTER CODITION>]

Order of execution

1. From
2. [Where] (if used) [ROW BY ROW]
3. Select

New Section 1 Page 113

DAY 3
22 August 2021 11:43 AM

INTERSECT

Intersect operator is used to combine two select statements ,it returns only common value [equal
value] present in the table[column_name].

SYNTAX:
SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME
[WHERE <CONDITION>]

INTERSECT

SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME
[WHERE <CONDITION>];

ORDER OF EXECUTION:
1)FROM
2)[WHERE]
3)SELECT

Note :

1. The columns must have same datatypes.

2. The columns in each table must be in the same order (but they need not have to in the same
length).
3. Each table used within intersect must have the same number of columns.

MINUS

MINUS operator is used to compare to select statements, it returns only the row that are present in the
first statement , but are not in second statement ,[distinct value]. MINUS elements the duplicate rows.

SYNTAX:
SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME1
[WHERE <CONDITION>]

MINUS

SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME2
[WHERE <CONDITION>];

ORDER OF EXECUTION:
1)FROM
2)[WHERE]
New Section 1 Page 114
 2)[WHERE]
3)SELECT

Note :

1. The columns must have same datatypes.

2. The columns in each table must be in the same order (but they need not have to in the same
length).
3. Each table used within minus must have the same number of columns.

New Section 1 Page 115

DAY 4
22 August 2021 11:23 AM

Escape character
Escape character is used to remove the special behavior of the special character and treated as normal
character (character).

Note:
1)Escape character must be defined.
2)Escape character must be written before the special character which has to be treated as normal
character.
3)The recommended character for the escape character

'!, $, /, \' etc.

Syntax;

COLUMN_NAME/EXPRESSION LIKE 'PATTERN' ESCAPE 'ESCAPE_CHAR' ;

EXAMPLE:
1)WAQTD names of the employee if the names starts with an underscore.

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME LIKE '%!_%' ESCAPE '!';

2)WAQTD name of the employee having % as the first character and underscore has the 4th character.

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME LIKE '% ! %_ _ _%' ESCAPE '!' ;

3)WAQTD names of the emp if the emp name ends with % or _ .

SELECT ENAME
FROM EMP
WHERE ENAME LIKE '% ! %' OR ENAME LIKE '% ! _' ESCAPE '!' ;

New Section 1 Page 116

DAY 5
12 September 2021 11:24 AM

PSEUDO COLUMN

Pseudo columns are the false column that are present in each and every table and must be called
explicitly.

Pseudo columns cannot be seen without calling them.

We have 2 types:

1) ROWID
2) ROWNUM.

1) ROWID

ROWID IS AN 18 DIGIT ADDRESS IN WHICH THE RECORD IS PRESENT (OR)

THE RECORD IS STORED IN THE MEMORY (VIRTUAL MEMEORY).

Note:

1) ROWID is one of the way to access or delete the record

2) ROWID is unique.
3) ROWID is present for each and every record .
4) ROWID is generated at the time of insertion of records.
5) ROWID cannot be inserted, updated or deleted .
6) Empty table will not be having ROWID
7) ROWID is static in nature .
8) ROWID can be used to identify a record uniquely from the table when there is no key
attribute or primary key

SYNTAX:

TO FETCH TOP RECORD

SELECT */COLUMN_NAME/EXPRESSION
FROM EMP E1
WHERE ( SELECT COUNT([ DISTINCT] ROWID )
FROM EMP E2
WHERE E1.ROWID >= E2.ROWID) = N ;

TO FETCH BOTTOM RECORD

SELECT */COLUMN_NAME/EXPRESSION
FROM EMP E1
WHERE ( SELECT COUNT([ DISTINCT] ROWID )
FROM EMP E2
WHERE E1.ROWID< =E2.ROWID) = N ;

New Section 1 Page 117

 FROM EMP E2
WHERE E1.ROWID< =E2.ROWID) = N ;

EXAMPLE:

SELECT ROWID,EMP.*
FROM EMP;

ASSIGNMENT ON ROWID:

➢ WAQTD FETCH THE FIRST RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE

➢ WAQTD FETCH THE 2ND RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE
➢ WAQTD FETCH THE 4TH,5TH,8TH RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE
➢ WAQTD FETCH THE LAST RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE
➢ WAQTD FETCH THE SECOND LAST RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE

2) ROWNUM

ROWNUM acts as serial number to the result table

Note:

1) ROWNUM is used as record number that is assigned to the result table

2) ROWNUM is dynamic in nature.
3) ROWNUM is generated at the time of execution.
4) ROWNUM always starts with 1.
5) ROWNUM cannot be duplicated .
6) ROWNUM get incremented after it is assigned .

Example:
1) WAQTD ROWNUM ALONG WITH ALL THE DETAILS OF EMP.

SELECT ROWNUM, EMP.*

FROM EMP;

2) WAQTD FIRST 3 RECORDS.

EMP
ENAME SAL
A 2000
B 1000
C 3000
D 2500
E 4000

SELECT *
FROM EMP
New Section 1 Page 118
 FROM EMP
WHERE ROWNUM<4;

TO MAKE ROWNUM AS STATIC:

1) Take a table and assign ROWNUM to a given table

2) Change the ROWNUM to any other name by using ALIAS .
3) Use this as a subquery in form clause of outer query
4) In the outer query use the alias name in the condition

Example:

1) WAQTD THIRD 3 RECORD

EMP
ENAME SAL
A 2000
B 1000
C 3000
D 2500
E 4000

SELECT ROUNUM SLNO,EMP.*

FROM EMP;

SL NO ENAME SAL
1 A 2000
2 B 1000
3 C 3000
4 D 2500
5 E 4000

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT ROWNUM SLNO,EMP.*
FROM EMP)
WHERE SLNO=3;

EXAMPLE:

1) WAQTD THE FETCH FIRST RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE

2) WAQTD THE FETCH 2ND AND 3RD RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE
3) WAQTD THE FETCH 7TH RECORD FROM THE EMP TABLE
4) WAQTD THE FETCH FIRST FIVE RECORDS FROM THE EMP TABLE
5) WAQTD THE FETCH FIRST SEVEN RECORDS FROM THE EMP TABLE

New Section 1 Page 119