Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior or behavior potential, produced by

experience.

Learning can occur in diverse ways; however, it has three basic forms:

1. Classical conditioning
2. Instrumental conditioning
3. Observational conditioning

Classical conditioning:

 Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with
an unconditioned stimulus (US) that elicits an unconditioned response (UR). After repeated
pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned
response (CR), which is similar to the UR.
The most famous example of classical conditioning is Pavlov's dogs. Pavlov was a Russian
physiologist who was studying the digestive system of dogs. He noticed that his dogs would
salivate (UR) whenever they saw food (US). Pavlov then began to ring a bell (CS) just before
giving the dogs food. After repeated pairings, the dogs would salivate (CR) whenever they
heard the bell, even if no food was present.

Classical conditioning is a powerful type of learning that can have a significant impact on our
behavior. It is important to understand how classical conditioning works so that we can be
more aware of how our environment is affecting us.
 Operant Conditioning / Instrumental Conditioning:
Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, is a type of learning in which
a behavior is modified by its consequences. If a behavior is followed by a positive
consequence, it is more likely to be repeated. If a behavior is followed by a negative
consequence, it is less likely to be repeated.
There are two types of consequences in instrumental conditioning:
o Reinforcement: A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative.
o Punishment: A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment can also be either positive or negative.
Here are some examples of instrumental conditioning in the workplace:
o A salesperson is rewarded with a commission every time they close a deal. This
makes them more likely to try to close deals.
o A customer service representative is praised by their manager for providing excellent
customer service. This makes them more likely to continue providing excellent
customer service.
o A software engineer is given a promotion after developing a new product that is
successful. This makes them more likely to continue developing new products.

Thorndike’s Principle:

Thorndike's principle of connectionism, also known as the law of effect, is a theory of

learning that states that behaviors that are followed by positive consequences are more
likely to be repeated, while behaviors that are followed by negative consequences are less
likely to be repeated.

This principle is based on the idea that learning occurs through trial and error. A cat is placed
in a puzzle box with a piece of food inside. The cat tries a variety of different behaviors to
escape the box and get to the food. Eventually, the cat learns to press a lever that opens the
door of the box. Each time the cat presses the lever, it is rewarded with the food. As a result,
the cat becomes more likely to press the lever when placed in the puzzle box in the future.

Consequential operations in operant conditioning are the events that follow a behavior and
can influence the likelihood of that behavior occurring again. These events can be either
reinforcing or punishing, and they can be either positive or negative.

o Reinforcement is a consequential operation that increases the likelihood of a

behavior occurring again. It can be either positive or negative.
o Punishment is a consequential operation that decreases the likelihood of a behavior
occurring again. It can also be either positive or negative.
 Premack’s Principle

The Premack Principle, also known as the relativity theory of reinforcement, states that more
probable behaviors can be used to reinforce fewer probable behaviors.

In other words, people are more likely to do something they don't want to do if they know
they will get to do something they do want to do afterwards.

o Eg: A parent tells their child that they can only watch TV after they have finished
their dinner.
o A teacher tells their students that they can have free play after they have completed
their math worksheets.
o A manager tells their employees that they can take a break after they have finished
their current project.
o A person decides to go for a run before they eat lunch, because they know that they
will be more likely to eat healthy if they have exercised first.
 Observational Learning
Observational learning, also known as social learning, is a type of learning that occurs by
observing and imitating the behavior of others. It is a powerful form of learning that can be
used to learn new skills, knowledge, and behaviors.
0bservational learning is based on the social learning theory, which was developed by
psychologist Albert Bandura.
There are four key steps to observational learning:
o Attention: The learner must be paying attention to the model's behavior to learn it.
o Retention: The learner must be able to remember the model's behavior.
o Reproduction: The learner must be able to reproduce the model's behavior.
o Motivation: The learner must be motivated to learn and perform the model's
behavior.

Social learning uses three types of reinforcement:

 External reinforcement is reinforcement that comes from an external source, such

as another person or the environment.
For example, a child might receive a sticker from their teacher for good behavior, or
an employee might receive a bonus for meeting their sales goals.
 Vicarious reinforcement is reinforcement that comes from observing someone else
being reinforced for a behavior.
 For example, a child might learn to be polite by watching their parents be polite to
others, or an employee might learn to be a good leader by observing their manager
being a good leader.
 Self-produced reinforcement is reinforcement that comes from within the
individual. For example, a person might feel a sense of satisfaction after completing a
difficult task, or a student might feel proud of themselves for getting a good grade on
a test.

The Bobo-doll experiment

The Bobo doll experiment, also known as the Bandura doll experiment, was a series of
experiments conducted by psychologist Albert Bandura in the early 1960s. The experiments
were designed to test the social learning theory, which states that people can learn new
behaviors and attitudes by observing the behavior of others.

In the Bobo doll experiment, children observed an adult model behaving aggressively
towards a Bobo doll. The children were then given the opportunity to play with the Bobo
doll. The results of the experiment showed that the children who had observed the adult
model behaving aggressively were more likely to behave aggressively towards the Bobo doll
themselves.

 Insight Learning
Insight learning is a type of learning that occurs when an individual suddenly understands a
problem or situation and can solve it without trial and error. It is a type of learning that is not
based on direct experience but rather on a sudden realization or understanding.

Eg, One of the most famous examples of

insight learning is the Köhler apes experiment.
In this experiment, Wolfgang Köhler placed a
chimpanzee in a cage with a banana that was
hung from the ceiling. The chimpanzee could
not reach the banana by itself. However, there
were some boxes in the cage that the
chimpanzee could use to stack on top of each
other.

The chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by

stacking the boxes on top of each other.
 However, it was not able to do this successfully. After a while, the chimpanzee suddenly had
an insight and realized that it could use the boxes to climb up to the banana. The chimpanzee
then stacked the boxes on top of each other and climbed up to the banana.

 Latent Learning
Latent learning is a type of learning that occurs without any obvious reinforcement or
motivation. It is a type of learning that is not immediately expressed in behavior, but rather it
is stored in memory and can be accessed later when needed.
Eg: In one of Tolman's experiments, he placed a rat in a maze and allowed it to explore the
maze without any food reward. After a few days, Tolman placed the rat in the maze again and
this time he rewarded the rat with food at the end of the maze. The rat was able to find the
food quickly and easily, even though it had never been rewarded for exploring the maze
before.