Difference between List, Tuples and dictionary: List Tuples Dictionary Alist is mutable A tuple is immutable Adictionary is mutable Lists are dynamic Tuples are fixed size in nature In values can be of any data type and can repeat, keys must be of immutable type List = [10, 12, 15] Words = ("spam’, "egss”) Or List are enclosed in | Tuples are enclosed in parenthesis () | Tuples are enclosed in brackets ] and their | and cannot be updated curly braces {} and elements and size consist of key:value can be changed Homogenous Heterogeneous Homogenous Example: Example: Example: Dict = {"ram": 26, "abi": 24} Words = “spam”, “eggs” Access: Access: print(words[0}) print(dict{"ram"]) Can contain duplicate Can contain duplicate elements. Cant contain duplicate doesnt need random access. * List is used when data can be modified frequently “ Atuple is used in combination with a dictionary Lea tuple might represent a key. elements Faster compared to lists keys, but can contain duplicate values Slicing canbe done _| Slicing can be done Slicing can’t be done Usage: "4 Usage: + Listisusedifa | ¢ Tuplecan be used when data * Dictionary is used collection of data that | cannot be changed. when a logical association between key:value pair. + When in need of fast lookup for data, based ona custom key. + Dictionary is used when data is being constantly modified.a TH KINGSTON Unit -5 FILES File is a named location on disk to store related information. It is used to permanently store data in a non-volatile memory (e.g. hard disk). Since, random access memory (RAM) is volatile which loses its data when computer is turned off, we use files for future use of the data. When we want to read from or write to a file we need to open it first. When we are done, it needs to be closed, so that resources that are tied with the file are freed. Hence, in Python, a file operation takes place in the following order. 1. Open afile 2. Read or write (perform operation) 3. Close the file Opening a file Python has a built-in function open() to open a file. This function returns a file object, also called a handle, as it is used to read or modify the file accordingly. >>> f = open("test.txt") # open file in current directory >>> f = open("C:/Python33/README. txt") # specifying full path We can specify the mode while opening a file. In mode, we specify whether we want to read 'r', write 'w' or append ‘a’ to the file. We also specify if we want to open the file in text mode or binary mode. The default is reading in text mode. In this mode, we get strings when reading from the file. On the other hand, binary mode returns bytes and this is the mode to be used when dealing with non-text files like image or exe files. Python File ModesMode : Description ‘t's Open a file for reading. (default) ‘w': Open a file for writing. Creates a new file if it does not exist or truncates the file if it exists, 'x' : Open a file for exclusive creation. If the file already exists, the operation fails. ‘a! : Open for appending at the end of the file without truncating it. Creates a new file if it does not exist. ‘t's Open in text mode. (default) ‘b': Open in binary mode. ‘+! Open a file for updating (reading and w {= open("test.txt") # equivalent to 'r' or ‘rt’ f= open(“test.txt", 'w') # write in text mode f= open("img.bmp",'r+b') # read and write in binary mode Hence, when working with files in text mode, it is highly recommended to specify the encoding type. f= open(“test.txt",mode = 'r',encoding = ‘utf-8') Closing a File When we are done with operations to the file, we need to properly close it. Closing a file will free up the resources that were tied with the file and is done using the close() method. Python has a garbage collector to clean up unreferenced objects but, we must not rely on it to close the file. f= open\"test.txt" encoding = ‘utf-8') # perform file operations ficlose()ait KanastoN This method is not entirely safe. If an exception occurs when we are performing some operation with the file, the code exits without closing the file. A safer way is to use a try...finally block. try: fr open("test.txt",encoding = ‘utf-8') # perform file operations finally: ficlose() Reading and writing A text file is a sequence of characters stored on a permanent medium like a hard drive, flash memory, or CD-ROM. To write a file, you have to open it with mode ‘w' as a second parameter: >>> fout = openf‘output. txt’, 'w') >>> print fout If the file already exists, opening it in write mode clears out the old data and starts fresh, so be carefull If the file doesn’t exist, a new one is created. The write method puts data into the file. >>> line1 = "This here's the wattle,\n” >>>fout.write(line1) Again, the file object keeps track of where it is, so if you call write again, it adds the new data to the end. >>> line2 = "the emblem of our land.\n" >>> fout.write(line2) When you are done writing, you have to close the file. >>> fout.close()zeit KINGSTON Format operator The argument of write has to be a string, so if we want to put other values in a file, we have to convert them to strings. The easiest way to do that is with str: >>> x=52 >>> fout.write(str(x)) An alternative is to use the format operator, %. When applied to integers, % is the modulus operator. But when the first operand is a string, % is the format operator. The first operand is the format string, which contains one or more format sequences, which specify how the second operand is formatted. The result is a string. For example, the format sequence '%d' means that the second operand should be formatted as an integer (d stands for “decimal”): >>> camels = 42 >>> '%d' % camels 42" EXCEPTION Python (interpreter) raises exceptions when it encounters errors. Error caused by not following the proper structure (syntax) of the language is called syntax error or parsing error. >>> ffa<3 File "", tine 1 ifa<3 SyntaxError: invalid syntaxKINGSTON Errors can also occur at runtime and these are called exceptions. They occur, for example, when a file we try to open does not exist (FileNotFoundError), dividing a number by zero (ZeroDivisionError), module we try to import is not found (ImportError) ete. Whenever these type of runtime error occur, Python creates an exception object. If not handled properly, it prints a traceback to that error along with some details about why that error occurred. >>> 1/0 Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 301, in runcode File "", line 1, in ZeroDivisionError: division by zero >>> open("imaginary.txt") Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 301, in runcode File "", line 1, in FileNotFoundError: [Errno 2] No such file or directory ‘imaginary.tx Python Exception Handling Python has many built-in exceptions which forces your program to output an error when something in it goes wrong. When these exceptions occur, it causes the current process to stop and passes it to the calling process until it is handled. If not handled, our program will crash. For example, if function A calls function B which in turn calls function C and an exception occurs in function C. If it is not handled in C, the exception passes to B and then to A. If never handled, an error message is spit out and our program come to a sudden, unexpected halt.atir KINGsTON In Python, exceptions can be handled using a try statement. A critical operation which can raise exception is placed inside the try clause and the code that handles exception is written in except clause. It is up to us, what operations we perform once we have caught the exception. Here is a simple example. MODULES Any file that contains Python code can be imported as a module. For example, suppose you have a file named we.py with the following code: def linecount(filename): 0 for line in open(filename): count count += 1 return count print linecount(‘wepy') If you run this program, it reads itself and prints the number of lines in the file, which is 7. You can also import it like this: >>> import we 7aftr KINGSTON Now you have a module object we: >>> print we >>> welinecount( wepy') 7 So that’s how you write modules in Python. The only problem with this example is that when you import the module it executes the test code at the bottom. Normally when you import a module, it defines new functions but it doesn’t execute them. Programs that will be imported as modules often use the following idios _name__ == '_main__': print linecount{'we.py') __name__ is a built-in variable that is set when the program starts. If the program is running as a script, —_name__ has the value __main__; in that case, the test code is executed. Otherwise, if the module is being imported, the test code is skipped. Eg: #import module import calendar 2017 mn = 8 #To ask month and year from the user # #mun = int(input("Enter month: ")) = int(input("Enter year: ")) display the calendar print(calendar.month(yy, mm))atic KINGsTON PACKAGE A package is a collection of modules. A Python packages and modules. ackage can have A directory must contain a file named _i consider it as a pa initial \_-py in order for Python to kage. This file can be left empty but we generally place the zation code for that package in this file. Here is an example. Suppose we are developing a game, one possible organization of packages and modules could be as shown in the figure below. [cane (Come) [Coy] [iano a a 4 plover ‘ctongepy] [ tay | Frawesr | | conmpy | | ovray Importing module from a package We can import modules from packages using the dot (.) operator. For example, if want to import the start module in the above example, it is done as follows. import Game.level.start Now if this module contains a function named select_difficulty(), we must use the full name to reference it. Game.Level.start.select_difficulty(2) If this construct seems lengthy, we can import the module without the package prefix as follows. from Gome.tevel import start ki ft We can now call the function simply as follows. start.select_difficulty(2)