Cement

K H Patel
● Cement is a binder, a substance used for construction
that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to
bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own,
but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together.
Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for
masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete.
● Cement is manufactured through a closely controlled
chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum,
iron and other ingredients. Common materials used to
manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and
chalk or marl combined with shale, clay, slate, blast
furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore.
Manufacturing of cement
Portland cement is manufactured by crushing, milling and
proportioning the following materials:

● Lime or calcium oxide, CaO: from limestone, chalk, shells,

shale or calcareous rock
● Silica, SiO2: from sand, old bottles, clay or argillaceous
rock
● Alumina, Al2O3: from bauxite, recycled aluminum, clay
● Iron, Fe2O3: from clay, iron ore, scrap iron and fly ash
● Gypsum, CaSO4.2H20: found together with limestone
The materials, without the gypsum, are proportioned to
produce a mixture with the desired chemical composition
and then ground and blended by one of two processes - dry
process or wet process. The materials are then fed through
a kiln at 2,600º F to produce grayish-black pellets known as
clinker. The alumina and iron act as fluxing agents which
lower the melting point of silica from 3,000 to 2600º F. After
this stage, the clinker is cooled, pulverized and gypsum
added to regulate setting time. It is then ground extremely
fine to produce cement.
Manufacturing Process of Cement
The manufacture procedures of Portland cement is
described below.

1. Mixing of raw material

2. Burning
3. Grinding
4. Storage and packaging
1. Mixing of raw material
The major raw materials used in the manufacture of cement
are Calcium, Silicon, Iron and Aluminum. These minerals are
used in different form as per the availability of the minerals.
Table shows the raw materials for Portland cement
manufacture

The mixing procedure of the manufacture of cement is done in

2 methods,

● Dry process
● Wet process
a) Dry Process

The both calcareous and argillaceous raw materials are firstly

crushed in the gyratory crushers to get 2-5cm size pieces
separately. The crushed materials are again grinded to get fine
particles into ball or tube mill. Each finely grinded material is
stored in hopper after screening. Now these powdered
minerals are mixed in required proportion to get dry raw mix
which is then stored in silos and kept ready to be sent into
rotary kiln. Now the raw materials are mixed in specific
proportions so that the average composition of the final
product is maintained properly.
b) Wet Process

The raw materials are firstly crushed and made into powdered
form and stored in silos. The clay is then washed in washing
mills to remove adhering organic matters found in clay. The
powdered limestone and water washed clay are sent to flow in
the channels and transfer to grinding mills where they are
completely mixed and the paste is formed, i.e., known as slurry.
The grinding process can be done in ball or tube mill or even
both. Then the slurry is led into collecting basin where
composition can be adjusted. The slurry contains around 38-40%
water that is stored in storage tanks and kept ready for the rotary
kiln.
2. Burning of Raw Materials

The burning process is carried out in the rotary kiln while

the raw materials are rotated at 1-2rpm at its longitudinal
axis. The rotary kiln is made up of steel tubes having the
diameter of 2.5-3.0 meter and the length differs from
90-120meter. The inner side of the kiln is lined with
refractory bricks. The kiln is supported on the columns
of masonry or concrete and rested on roller bearing in
slightly inclined position at the gradient of 1 in 25 to 1 in
30.
The raw mix of dry process or corrected slurry of wet process is
injected into the kiln from the upper end. The kiln is heated with
the help of powdered coal or oil or hot gases from the lower end
of the kiln so that the long hot flames is produced. As the kiln
position is inclined and it rotates slowly, the material charged
from upper end moves towards lower end at the speed of 15m/hr.
In the upper part, water or moisture in the material is evaporated
at 400°C temp, so this process is known as Drying Zone. The
central part i.e. calcination zone, the temperature is around 1000°
C, where decomposition of lime stone takes place. The remaining
material is in the form of small lumps known as nodules after the
CO2 is released.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2

The lower part (clinkering zone) have temperature in

between 1500-1700°C where lime and clay reacts to yield
calcium aluminates and calcium silicates. This aluminates
and silicates of calcium fuse together to form small and
hard stones known as clinkers. The size of the clinker
varies from 5-10mm.The clinker coming from the burning
zone are very hot. To bring down the temperature of
clinkers, air is admitted in counter current direction at the
base of the rotary kiln. The cooled clinkers are collected in
small trolleys.
2CaO + SiO2 = Ca2SiO4 (dicalcium silicate (C2S))

3CaO + SiO2 = Ca3SiO5 (tricalcium silicate (C3S))

3CaO + Al2O3 = Ca3Al2O6 (dicalcium aluminate (C2A))

4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 = Ca4Al2Fe2O10 (tetracalcium

aluminoferrite(C4AF))
3. Grinding of Clinkers

The cooled clinkers are received from the cooling pans

and sent into mills. The clinkers are grinded finely into
powder in ball mill or tube mill. Powdered gypsum is
added around 2-3% as retarding agent during final
grinding. The final obtained product is cement.
4. Storage and packaging

The grinded cement is stored in silos, from which it is

marketed either in container load or 50kg bags.
Field test on cement
There are four field tests may be carried out to as certain
roughly the quality of cement.There are four types of field
tests to access the colour, physical property, and strength
of the cement as described below.

● Colour

The colour of cement should be uniform. It should be

typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light
greenish shade.
 ● Lumps
The presence of lumps in cement indicates that it has
absorbed moisture. So, you should reject cement bags that
contain small and hard lumps. The lumps suggest that the
cement setting took place
● Smoothness
When a cement is rubbed in between fingers, it should provide
a smooth feeling. Rough feeling is a sign of cement
adulteration with sand.
● Cool feeling
Immerse your hand into a bag of cement; you should get a
cool feeling, not a warm one. The cool feeling shows that
cement hydration has not taken place in that bag of cement.
● Float test

When you through a small amount of cement on water, the

cement particle should remain on the water surface for a while
and then settle. Floating cement for a longer time indicates
adulteration with ash.

● Setting

Take a certain quantity of cement and mix it with water. Then,

put the mix on a piece of glass plate and submerge it in water
for twenty-four hours. The cement paste should set, not crack.
Types of cement
There are various types of cement used in concrete
construction. Each type of cement has its properties,
uses, and advantages based on composition materials
used during its manufacture.
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of
cement, which is suitable for all general concrete
construction. It is the most commonly produced and
used type of cement around the world, with annual global
production of around 3.8 million cubic meters per year.
This cement is suitable for all kinds of concrete
construction.
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic
clinker with Portland cement. It is also produced by adding
pozzolana with the addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by
intimately and uniformly blending Portland cement and fine
pozzolana.

This cement has a high resistance to various chemical attacks on

concrete compared with ordinary portland cement, and thus, it is
widely used. It is used in marine structures, sewage works, and
for laying concrete underwater, such as bridges, piers, dams, and
mass concrete works, etc.
3. Rapid Hardening Cement
Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in the
early days; it is used in concrete where formworks are
removed at an early stage and are similar to ordinary
portland cement (OPC). This cement has increased lime
content and contains higher C3S content and finer
grinding, which gives higher strength development than
OPC at an early stage.
The strength of rapid hardening cement at the three days
is similar to 7 days strength of OPC with the same
water-cement ratio. Thus, the advantage of this cement is
that formwork can be removed earlier, which increases
the rate of construction and decreases the cost of
construction by saving formwork cost.

Rapid hardening cement is used in prefabricated

concrete construction, road works, etc.
4. Quick setting cement
The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid
hardening cement is that quick-setting cement sets earlier.
At the same time, the rate of gain of strength is similar to
Ordinary Portland Cement, while rapid hardening cement
gains strength quickly. Formworks in both cases can be
removed earlier.

Quick setting cement is used where works is to be

completed in very short period and for concreting in static
or running water.
5. Low Heat Cement
Low heat cement is produced by maintaining the percentage
of tricalcium aluminate below 6% by increasing the proportion
of C2S. A small quantity of tricalcium aluminate makes the
concrete to produce low heat of hydration. Low heat cement
suitable for mass concrete construction like gravity dams, as
the low heat of hydration, prevents the cracking of concrete
due to heat.

This cement has increased power against sulphates and is

less reactive and initial setting time is greater than OPC.
6. Sulphate Resisting Cement
Sulphate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of
sulphate attack on concrete and thus is used in the
construction of foundations where the soil has high
sulphate content. This cement has reduced the contents of
C3A and C4AF.

Sulphate resisting cement is used in construction exposed

to severe sulphate action by water and soil in places like
canals linings, culverts, retaining walls, siphons, etc.
7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the
clinkers with about 60% slag and resembles more or less
in properties of Portland cement. It can be used for
works where economic considerations are predominant.
8. High Alumina Cement
High alumina cement is obtained by melting a mixture of
bauxite and lime and grinding with the clinker. It is a
rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time
of about 3.5 and 5 hours, respectively.

The compressive strength of this cement is very high

and more workable than ordinary portland cement and is
used in works where concrete is subjected to high
temperatures, frost, and acidic action.
9. White Cement
It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and
is a type of ordinary portland cement, which is white. It is
costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as
precast curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo surface,
etc. and for interior and exterior decorative work like
external renderings of buildings, facing slabs, floorings,
ornamental concrete products, paths of gardens,
swimming pools, etc.
10. Colored cement
It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with
ordinary cement. They are widely used for decorative
works on floors.
11. Air Entraining Cement
Air entraining cement is produced by adding
indigenous air-entraining agents such as resins, glues,
sodium salts of sulphates, etc. during the grinding of
clinker.

This type of cement is especially suited to improve the

workability with a smaller water-cement ratio and to
improve frost resistance of concrete.
12. Expansive Cement
Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does
not shrink during and after the time of hardening. This
cement is mainly used for grouting anchor bolts and
prestressed concrete ducts.
13. Hydrographic cement
Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing
water-repelling chemicals and has high workability and
strength. It has the property of repelling water and is
unaffected during monsoon or rains.

Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction

of water structures such as dams, water tanks, spillways,
water retaining structures, etc.