GENERAL PHYSICS mathematics, physics, and chemistry to understand

WHAT IS PHYSICS? everything outside of the Earth's atmosphere.

• Chemical Physics: The study of physics in chemical
It is the science that deals with the structure of matter systems. Chemical physics focuses on using physics to
and the interactions between the fundamental understand complex phenomena at a variety of scales
components of the observable universe. In the broadest from the molecule to a biological system. Topics
sense, physics (from the Greek physikos) is concerned include the study of nano-structures or chemical
with all aspects of nature on both the macroscopic and reaction dynamics
submicroscopic levels. Its scope of study encompasses Computational Physics: The application of numerical
not only the behaviour of objects under the action of methods to solve physical problems for which a
given forces but also the nature and origin of quantitative theory already exists.
gravitational, electromagnetic, and nuclear force fields.
Its ultimate objective is the formulation of a few • Electromagnetism: The study of electrical and
comprehensive principles that bring together and magnetic fields, which are two aspects of the same
explain all such disparate phenomena. phenomenon.
• Electronics: The study of the flow of electrons,
-Physics is sometimes broken into two broad generally in a circuit.
categories, based on the history of the science: • Fluid Dynamics / Fluid Mechanics: The study of
Classical Physics, which includes studies that arose the physical properties of "fluids," specifically defined
from the Renaissance to the beginning of the 20th in this case to be liquids and gases.
century • Geophysics: The study of the physical properties of
the Earth.
Modern Physics, which includes those studies which • Mathematical Physics: Applying mathematically
have been begun since that period. Part of the division rigorous methods to solving problems within physics.
might be considered scale: modern physics focuses on • Mechanics: The study of the motion of bodies in a
tinier particles, more precise measurements, and frame of reference.
broader laws that affect how we continue to study and • Meteorology / Weather Physics: The physics of the
understand the way the world works weather.
• Optics / Light Physics: The study of the physical
Another way to divide physics is applied or properties of light.
experimental physics (basically, the practical uses of • Statistical Mechanics: The study of large systems by
materials) versus theoretical physics (the building of statistically expanding the knowledge of smaller
overarching laws as to how the universe works) systems.
• Thermodynamics: The physics of heat.
CLASSICAL PHYSICS
Before the turn of the 19th century, physics MODERN PHYSICS
concentrated on the study of mechanics, light, sound Modern physics embraces the atom and its component
and wave motion, heat and thermodynamics, and parts, relativity and the interaction of high speeds,
electromagnetism. Classical physics fields that were cosmology and space exploration, and mesoscopic
studied before 1900 (and continue to develop and be physics, those pieces of the universe that fall in size
taught today) include: between nanometers and micrometers. Some of the
fields in modern physics are:
Acoustics: The study of sound and sound waves. In
this field, you study mechanical waves in gases, Astrophysics: The study of the physical properties of
liquids, and solids. Acoustics includes applications for objects in space. Today, astrophysics is often used
seismic waves, shock and vibration, noise, music, interchangeably with astronomy and many
communication, hearing, underwater sound, and astronomers have physics degrees.
atmospheric sound. In this way, it encompasses earth Atomic Physics: The study of atoms, specifically the
sciences, life sciences, engineering, and the arts. electron properties of the atom, as distinct from
• Astronomy: The study of space, including the nuclear physics which considers the nucleus alone. In
planets, stars, galaxies, deep space, and the universe. practice, research groups usually study atomic,
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences, using molecular, and optical physics
Biophysics: The study of physics in living systems at Quantum Electrodynamics: The study of how
all levels, from individual cells and microbes to electrons and photons interact at the quantum
animals, plants, and entire ecosystems. Biophysics mechanical level.
overlaps with biochemistry, nanotechnology, and bio-
engineering, such as the derivation of the structure of Quantum Mechanics / Quantum Physics: The study
DNA from X-ray crystallography. Topics can include of science where the smallest discrete values, or
bio-electronics, nanomedicine, quantum biology, quanta, of matter and energy become relevant.
structural biology, enzyme kinetics, electrical
conduction in neurons, radiology, and microscopy. Quantum Optics: The application of quantum physics
to light.
Chaos: The study of systems with a strong sensitivity
to initial conditions, so a slight change at the beginning Quantum Field Theory: The application of quantum
quickly become major changes in the system. Chaos physics to fields, including the fundamental forces of
theory is an element of quantum physics and useful in the universe.
celestial mechanics.
Quantum Gravity: The application of quantum
Cosmology: The study of the universe as a whole, physics to gravity and unification of gravity with the
including its origins and evolution, including the Big other fundamental particle interactions.
Bang and how the universe will continue to change.
Relativity: The study of systems displaying the
Cryophysics / Cryogenics /Low-Temperature properties of Einstein's theory of relativity, which
Physics: The study of physical properties in low- generally involves moving at speeds very close to the
temperature situations, far below the freezing point of speed of light.
water.
String Theory / Superstring Theory: The study of
Crystallography: The study of crystals and crystalline the theory that all fundamental particles are vibrations
structures. of one-dimensional strings of energy, in a higher-
dimensional universe
High Energy Physics: The study of physics in
extremely high energy systems, generally within MEASUREMENTS
particle physics. It is the process of associating numbers with
physical quantities and phenomena. Measurement is
High-Pressure Physics: The study of physics in fundamental to the sciences; to engineering,
extremely high-pressure systems, generally related to construction, and other technical fields; and to almost
fluid dynamics. all everyday activities. For that reason, the elements,
conditions, limitations, and theoretical foundations of
Laser Physics: The study of the physical properties of measurement have been much studied. See also
lasers. measurement system for a comparison of different
systems and the history of their development.
Molecular Physics: The study of the physical
properties of molecules. Measurements may be made by unaided human
senses, in which case they are often called estimates,
Nanotechnology: the science of building circuits and or, more commonly, by the use of instruments, which
machines from single molecules and atoms. may range in complexity from simple rules for
measuring lengths to highly sophisticated systems
Nuclear Physics: The study of the physical properties designed to detect and measure quantities entirely
of the atomic nucleus. beyond the capabilities of the senses, such as radio
waves from a distant star or the magnetic moment of a
Particle Physics: The study of fundamental particles subatomic particle.
and the forces of their interaction.

Plasma Physics: The study of matter in the plasma

phase.
 Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be
defined in terms of other quantities.

Table shows five base quantities and their respective

SI units.

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
• Physical quantities are quantities that can be
measured.

• Usually, a specific scientific instrument is used to

measure a particular physical quantity. Other quantities, called derived quantities, are defined
in terms of the seven base quantities via a system of
• To describe a physical quantity, we first define the quantity equations. The SI derived units for these
unit in which the measurement is made. There are derived quantities are obtained from these equations
many systems of units but the most common system of and the seven SI base units.
units used by scientists is based on the metric system.

• The modernized version of the metric system is

called International System of Units, officially
abbreviated as SI.

SI UNITS
For many years, scientists recorded measurements in
Prefixes are used to simplify the description of
metric units, which are related decimally, that is, by
physical quantities that are either very big or very
powers of 10. In 1960, however, the General
small in SI units. Table lists some commonly used SI
Conference of Weights and Measures, the international
prefixes and their multiplication factors
authority on units, proposed a revised metric system
called the International System of Units (abbreviated
SI, from the French Système Internationale d’Unites).

We can represent a physical quantity by the symbol of

the quantity, the numerical value of the magnitude of
the quantity and the unit of measurement of the
quantity. For example, Figure shows a footballer
scoring a goal. The ball was kicked a distance of 8 m.

UNIT CONVERSION AND CONVERSION

FACTORS

A unit conversion expresses the same property

as a different unit of measurement. For instance, time
can be expressed in minutes instead of hours, while
distance can be converted from miles to kilometers, or
feet, or any other measure of length. Often
measurements are given in one set of units, such as
feet, but are needed in different units, such as chains.
There are two types of physical quantities, that is, base
quantities and derived quantities.
 A conversion factor is a numeric expression that both examples. Remember that Step 3, identifying the
enables feet to be changed to chains as an equal conversion factor, is often the most challenging step. If
exchange. A conversion factor is a number used to an incorrect (or approximate) conversion factor is
change one set of units to another, by multiplying or used, a correct solution will not be achieved.
dividing. When a conversion is necessary, the
appropriate conversion factor to an equal value must
be used. For example, to convert inches to feet, the
appropriate conversion value is 12 inches equal 1 foot.
To convert minutes to hours, the appropriate
conversion value is 60 minutes equal 1 hour.

This process uses the fact that any number or

expression can be multiplied by "one" without
changing its value. This allows the conversion of units
by multiplying the initial measurement by one (or
more) forms of the number 1. While the multiplication
by 1 does not change the value of the measurement, it
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
does change the measurement units. It’s very easy to
The terms precision and accuracy are often used in
systematically apply unit conversion process to solve
discussing the uncertainties of measured values.
conversions within or between measurement systems.
It may be necessary to multiply by more than one
Precision is a measure of how closely individual
conversion ratio in more complex conversions. Use
measurements agree with one another.
these steps to construct a unit conversion problem so
one (or more) of the units cancel until only the desired
Accuracy refers to how closely individual
unit remains:
measurements agree with the correct, or “true,” value.
Step 1. Identify the unit you have. These are the
Starting Units.
Step 2. Identify the unit you want. These are the
Desired Units.
Step 3. Identify appropriate unit conversion factor(s).
These are the Linking (or Ratio) Unit(s). Use EXACT
conversion factors whenever available.
Step 4. Cancel units and perform the math calculations
(e.g., multiply, divide). Repeat the calculation (double Errors in Measurements
check). Systematic Error: occurs as a result of a flaw in the
Step 5. Evaluate the result. Does the answer make experimental design or apparatus
sense Random Error: caused by unpredictable changes in
the experiment
Best Practices
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
•Multiply the numerators (across) and denominators
Except when all the numbers involved are integers (for
(across) to calculate an intermediate answer, then
example, in counting the number of students in a
divide. Documenting the calculation steps can be
class), it is often impossible to obtain the exact value
especially helpful when problem-solving errors.
of the quantity under investigation. For this reason, it
is important to indicate the margin of error in a
•Do not round any quantities used within the
measurement by clearly indicating the number of
calculation.
significant figures, which are the meaningful digits in a
•Only round the final calculated quantity. Many unit measured or calculated quantity. When significant
conversion problems will require only a single unit figures are used, the last digit is understood to be
conversion factor. However, multiple factors may be uncertain
required to solve a problem. These figures illustrate
Rules for Determining If a Number Is Significant LESSON 2: VECTORS
or Not
• All non-zero digits are considered significant. For REPRESENTING VECTORS
example, 91 has two significant figures (9 and 1),
while 123.45 has five significant figures (1, 2, 3, 4, and Vector quantities are often represented by scaled
5). vector diagrams. Vector diagrams depict a vector by
• Zeros appearing between two non-zero digits use of an arrow drawn to scale in a specific direction.
(trapped zeros) are significant. Example: 101.12 has Vector diagrams were introduced and used in earlier
five significant figures: 1, 0, 1, 1, and 2. units to depict the forces acting upon an object. Such
diagrams are commonly called as free-body diagrams.
• Leading zeros (zeros before non-zero numbers) are An example of a scaled vector diagram is shown in the
not significant. For example, 0.00052 has two diagram at the right. The vector diagram depicts a
significant figures: 5 and 2. displacement vector.

• Trailing zeros (zeros after non-zero numbers) in a Observe that there are several characteristics of this
number without a decimal are generally not significant diagram that make it an appropriately drawn vector
(see below for more details). For example, 400 has diagram.
only one significant figure (4). The trailing zeros do
not count as significant. a scale is clearly listed

• Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal • a vector arrow (with arrowhead) is drawn in a
point are significant. For example, 12.2300 has six specified direction. The vector arrow has a head and a
significant figures: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0, and 0. The number tail.
0.000122300 still has only six significant figures (the
zeros before the 1 are not significant). In addition, • the magnitude and direction of the vector is clearly
120.00 has five significant figures since it has three labelled.
trailing zeros. This convention clarifies the precision
of such numbers. For example, if a measurement that
is precise to four decimal places is given as 12.23, then
the measurement might be understood as having only
two decimal places of precision available. Stating the
result as 12.2300 makes it clear that the measurement
is precise to four decimal places (in this case, six REPRESENTING A MAGNITUDE OF A
significant figures). VECTOR

• The number 0 has one significant figure. The magnitude of a vector in a scaled vector
diagram is depicted by the length of the arrow. The
• Any numbers in scientific notation are considered arrow is drawn a precise length in accordance with a
significant. For example, 4.300 x 10- 4 has 4 chosen scale. For example, the diagram at the right
significant figures shows a vector with a magnitude of 20 miles. Since the
scale used for constructing the diagram is 1 cm = 5
Scientific notation or standard index notation is a miles, the vector arrow is drawn with a length of 4 cm.
way of writing any number between 1 and 10 That is, 4 cm x (5 miles/1 cm) = 20 miles.
multiplied by an appropriate power of 10 notations. It
is a shorthand method of writing numbers that are very
large or very small. Scientific notation involves
writing the number in the form M x 10n, where M is a
number between 1 and 10 but not 10, and n is an
integer.

NOTE: Integer is a positive and negative whole

number.
 • Speed
• Distance
Using the same scale (1 cm = 5 miles), a • Time
displacement vector that is 15 miles will be • Area
represented by a vector arrow that is 3 cm in length. • Volume
Similarly, a 25-mile displacement vector is represented • Density
by a 5-cm long vector arrow. And finally, an 18-mile • Temperature
displacement vector is represented by a 3.6-cm long WHAT IS VECTOR QUANTITY
arrow. See the examples shown below.
A vector quantity is defined as the physical quantity
that
has both direction as well as magnitude. A vector with
the value of magnitude equal to one and direction is
called unit vector represented by a lowercase alphabet
with a “hat” circumflex. That is “ û “.

EXAMPLE OF VECTOR QUANTITY

Vector quantity examples are many, some of them are
VECTOR VS. SCALAR given below:

VECTOR AND SCALAR QUANTITY • Linear momentum

• Acceleration
Mathematics and Science were invented by humans to • Displacement
understand and describe the world around us. A lot of • Momentum
mathematical quantities are used in Physics to explain • Angular velocity
the concepts clearly. A few examples of these include • Force
force, speed, velocity and work. These quantities are • Electric field
often described as being a scalar or a vector quantity.
Scalars and vectors are differentiated depending on
their definition.

WHAT IS A SCALAR QUANTITY?

Scalar quantity is defined as the physical quantity with

magnitude and no direction. Some physical quantities
can be described just by their numerical value (with
their respective units) without directions (they don’t
have any direction). The addition of these physical
ADDITION OF VECTORS
quantities follows the simple rules of the algebra.
Here, only their magnitudes are added.
1. Stand up.
2. Move 5 steps to your right.
3. Move 3 steps to your left.
4. How many steps did you do?
5. In the context of distance, how many movements
did you do?
EXAMPLES OF SCALAR QUANTITY 6. In the context of displacement, how many steps are
you from your initial position to your final position.
There are plenty of scalar quantity examples,
some of the common examples are: • Total steps 8.
• Distance 8 (steps); regardless of the direction.
• Mass
• Displacement 2 (steps) to the right; displacement is
the distance between initial and final positions.
•Displacement has direction unlike distance.
Displacement is vector; distance is scalar.

For simplicity in representing vectors, they are drawn

in
the cartesian coordinate staring from the origin. The
cartesian coordinate is our reference frame, to show
the direction of the vector.

A car accelerating at 2 m/s 2 30 ° N of E

Distance and displacement are two quantities that may
Scale: 1cm = 1m / s2
seem to mean the same thing yet have distinctly
different definitions and meanings. 2m / s2 = 2cm

• Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much

ground an object has covered" during its motion.

• Displacement is a vector quantity that refers to "how

far out of place an object is"; it is the object's overall
change in position.

• Scalar quantity is defined as physical quantity

described by a magnitude only. They can be described Displacement of 1500 km 40° W of S
just by the numerical value and their corresponding Scale: 1cm = 500km
units of measure without specific direction. 1500km = 3cm

• Vector quantity on the other hand, is a physical

quantity that is completely described by both
magnitude and direction.

• Scalar quantity can be added just like an ordinary

number. Five kilograms plus two kilograms will give
you seven kilograms. As simple as that, but not for
vectors.
Addition of vectors follow rules of vector algebra
different from rules of ordinary algebra.
• Vector quantities are important in the study of
physics. If scalar quantities follow ordinary rules,
Two or more vectors can be added resulting to a single
vector quantities do not.
vector known as resultant. Resultant vector is the
algebraic sum of two or more vectors.
Addition and subtraction of vectors follow rules of
vector algebra which differ from the rules of the
ordinary algebra. Vectors may be added either
graphically or analytically.

The graphical method is also known as the

geometrical method and requires no computation.
Addition of vectors is equivalent to composition of
vectors, and the sum of vectors is the resultant of the
vectors.

TRIANGLE LAW OF VECTOR ADDITION states

that when two vectors are represented as two sides of
the triangle with the order of magnitude and direction,
then the third side of the triangle represents the
magnitude and direction of the resultant vector. PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM
The Pythagorean theorem is a useful method for
determining the result of adding two (and only two)
vectors that make a right angle to each other. The
method is not applicable for adding more than two
vectors or for adding vectors that are not at 90-
degrees to each other. The Pythagorean theorem is a
mathematical equation that relates the length of the
sides of a right triangle to the length of the hypotenuse
of a right triangle.

Eric leaves the base camp and hikes 11 km, north and
then hikes 11 km east. Determine Eric's resulting
displacement.
Statement of Parallelogram Law of Vector
Addition: If two vectors can be represented by the two
This problem asks to determine the result of adding
adjacent sides (both in magnitude and direction) of a
two displacement vectors that are at right angles to
parallelogram drawn from a point, then their resultant
each other. The result (or resultant) of walking 11 km
sum vector is represented completely by the diagonal
north and 11 km east is a vector directed northeast as
of the parallelogram drawn from the same point.
shown in the diagram to the right. Since the northward
displacement and the eastward displacement are at
right angles to each other, the Pythagorean theorem
can be used to determine the resultant (i.e., the
hypotenuse of the right triangle).
 We define the vertical component as that part or a
component of a vector that lies perpendicular to a
horizontal or level plane.

ANALYTICAL METHOD OF VECTOR

ADDITION

RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

Resolution of a vector is the splitting of a single vector

into two or more vectors in different directions which
together produce a similar effect as is produced by a
single vector itself. The vectors formed after splitting
are called component vectors.

HORIZONTAL COMPONENT DEFINITION

In science, we define the horizontal component of a
force as the part of the force that moves directly in a
line parallel to the horizontal axis.

Let’s suppose that you kick a football, so now, the

force of the kick can be divided into a horizontal
component, which is moving the football parallel to
the ground, and a vertical component that moves the
football at a right angle to the surface/ground.

Vertical Component Definition