MODULE-3

Cutting temperature – causes, effects, assessment and control

Determine the value of cutting temperature.

•Analytical methods

•Experimental methods

Sources and causes of heat generation and development of temperature in machining

During machining heat is generated at the cutting point from three sources, as indicated in Fig.
3.1. Those sources and causes of development of cutting temperature are:

 Primary shear zone (1) where the major part of the energy is converted into heat
 Secondary deformation zone (2) at the chip – tool interface where further heat is
generated due to rubbing and / or shear
 At the worn out flanks (3) due to rubbing between the tool and the finished surfaces.

Fig. 3.1 Sources of heat generation in machining

The heat generated is shared by the chip, cutting tool and the blank. The apportionment of
sharing that heat depends upon the configuration, size and thermal conductivity of the tool –
work material and the cutting condition. Fig. 3.2 Visualizes that maximum amount of heat is
carried away by the flowing chip. From 10 to 20% of the total heat goes into the tool and some
heat is absorbed in the blank. With the increase in cutting velocity, the chip shares heat
increasingly.

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 Fig. 3.2 Apportionment of heat amongst chip, tool and blank.

(ii) Effects of the high cutting temperature on tool and job.

The effect of the cutting temperature, particularly when it is high, is mostly detrimental to both
the tool and the job. The major portion of the heat is taken away by the chips. But it does not
matter because chips are thrown out. So attempts should be made such that the chips take away
more and more amount of heat leaving small amount of heat to harm the tool and the job.

The possible detrimental effects of the high cutting temperature on cutting tool (edge) are

 rapid tool wear, which reduces tool life

 plastic deformation of the cutting edges if the tool material is not enough hot-hard
and hot-strong
 thermal flaking and fracturing of the cutting edges due to thermal shocks
 built-up-edge formation

The possible detrimental effects of cutting temperature on the machined job are:

 Dimensional inaccuracy of the job due to thermal distortion and expansion-

contraction during and after machining.
 Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning etc.
 Induction of tensile residual stresses and micro cracks at the surface / subsurface.

However, often the high cutting temperature helps in reducing the magnitude of the cutting
forces and cutting power consumption to some extent by softening or reducing the shear
strength, of the work material ahead the cutting edge. To attain or enhance such benefit the
work material ahead the cutting zone is often additionally heated externally. This technique is
known as Hot Machining and is beneficially applicable for the work materials which are very
hard and hardenable like high manganese steel, Hadfield steel, Nihard, Nimonic etc.

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Determination of cutting temperature

The magnitude of the cutting temperature need to be known or evaluated to facilitate

 Assessment of mach inability which is judged mainly by cutting forces and

temperature and tool life
 Design and selection of cutting tools
 evaluate the role of variation of the different machining parameters on cutting
temperature
 proper selection and application of cutting fluid
 Analysis of temperature distribution in the chip, tool and job.

The temperatures which are of major interests are:

: Average shear zone temperature

: Average (and maximum) temperature at the chip-tool interface

: Temperature at the work-tool interface (tool flanks)

: Average cutting temperature

Cutting temperature can be determined by two ways:

 Analytically – using mathematical models (equations) if available or can be

developed. This method is simple, quick and inexpensive but less accurate and
precise.
 Experimentally – this method is more accurate, precise and reliable.

Analytical estimation of cutting temperature,

Average shear zone temperature,

Equation(s) have to be developed for the purpose. One simple method is presented here.

The cutting energy per unit time, i.e., gets used to cause primary shear and to overcome
friction at the rake face as,

. = . + . (3.1)

Where, = slip velocity along the shear plane

And = average chip – velocity

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 So, . = . − .

Equating amount of heat received by the chip in one minute from the shear zone and the heat
contained by that chip, it appears,

. . .
= ( − ) (3.2)

Where, A = fraction (of shear energy that is converted into heat)

= fraction (of heat that goes to the chip from the shear zone)

J = mechanical equivalent of heat of the chip / work material

= volume specific heat of the chip

= ambient temperature

. = cross sectional area of uncut chip

=t

.
Therefore, = + (3.3)

( ⁄ )
Or, ≅ (3.4)

Generally A varies from 0.95 to 1.0 and q from 0.7 to 0.9 in machining like turning.

Average chip – tool interface temperature,

Using the two dimensionless parameters, and and their simple relation (Buckingham),

= . (3.5)

.
Where, = and =

= specific cutting energy

= volume specific heat

λ= thermal conductivity

= a constant

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 n = an index close to 0.25

Therefore, = ⁄ (3.6)

Using equation 3.6 one can estimate the approximate value of average from the known
other machining parameters.

Experimental methods of determination of cutting temperature

Among , , and , is obviously the highest one and its value is maximum almost at the
middle of the chip – tool contact length. Experimental methods generally provide the average
or maximum value of θi. Some techniques also enable get even distribution of temperature in
the chip, tool and job at the cutting zone.

The feasible experimental methods are:

 Calorimetric method – quite simple and low cost but inaccurate and gives only
grand average value
 Decolorizing agent – some paint or tape, which change in colour with variation
of temperature, is pasted on the tool or job near the cutting point; the as such
colour of the chip (steels) may also often indicate cutting temperature
 Tool-work thermocouple – simple and inexpensive but gives only average or
maximum value
 Moving thermocouple technique
 •Embedded thermocouple technique
 Using compound tool

Indirectly from Hardness and structural transformation

 Photo-cell technique
 Infra ray detection method

The aforesaid methods are all feasible but vary w.r.t. accuracy, preciseness and reliability as well
as complexity or difficulties and expensiveness. Some of the methods commonly used are briefly
presented here.

Tool work thermocouple technique

Fig. 3.3 shows the principle of this method.

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 Fig. 3.3 Tool-work thermocouple technique of measuring cutting temperature

In a thermocouple two dissimilar but electrically conductive metals are connected at two
junctions. Whenever one of the junctions is heated, the difference in temperature at the hot and
cold junctions produce a proportional current which is detected and measured by a milli-
voltmeter. In machining like turning, the tool and the job constitute the two dissimilar metals and
the cutting zone functions as the hot junction. Then the average cutting temperature is evaluated
from the mV after thorough calibration for establishing the exact relation between mV and the
cutting temperature.

Fig. 3.4 typically shows a method of calibration for measuring average cutting temperature,
, in turning steel rod by uncoated carbide tool.

Fig. 3.4 Calibration for tool – work thermocouple.

Moving thermocouple technique

This simple method, schematically shown in Fig. 3.5, enables measure the gradual variation in
the temperature of the flowing chip before, during and immediately after its formation. A bead of

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standard thermocouple like chromealumel is brazed on the side surface of the layer to be
removed from the work surface and the temperature is attained in terms of mV.

Fig. 3.5 Moving thermocouple technique

Embedded thermocouple technique

In operations like milling, grinding etc. where the previous methods are not applicable,
embedded thermocouple can serve the purpose. Fig. 3.6 shows the principle. The standard
thermocouple monitors the job temperature at a certain depth, ℎ from the cutting zone. The
temperature recorded in oscilloscope or strip chart recorder becomes maximum when the
thermocouple bead comes nearest (slightly offset) to the grinding zone. With the progress of
grinding the depth, ℎ gradually decreases after each grinding pass and the value of temperature,
also rises as has been indicated in Fig. 3.6 For getting the temperature exactly at the surface
i.e., grinding zone, hi has to be zero, which is not possible. So the vs ℎ curve has to be
extrapolated up to ℎ = 0 to get the actual grinding zone temperature. Log – log plot helps such
extrapolation more easily and accurately.

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 Fig. 3.6 Embedded thermocouple technique

Measurement of chip-tool interface temperature by compound tool

In this method a conducting tool piece (carbide) is embedded in a non conducting tool (ceramic).
The conducting piece and the job form the tool work thermocouple as shown in Fig.3.7 which
detects temperature at the location ( ) of the carbide strip. Thus θican be measured along the
entire chip-tool contact length by gradually reducing by grinding the tool flank. Before that
calibration has to be done as usual.

Fig. 3.7 Compound rake used for measuring cutting temperature along rake surface

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Photo-cell technique

This unique technique enables accurate measurement of the temperature along the shear zone
and tool flank as can be seen in Fig. 3.8. The electrical resistance of the cell, like PbS cell,
changes when it is exposed to any heat radiation. The amount of change in the resistance
depends upon the temperature of the heat radiating source and is measured in terms of voltage,
which is calibrated with the source temperature. It is evident from Fig. 3.8 That the cell starts
receiving radiation through the small hole only when it enters the shear zone where the hole at
the upper end faces a hot surface. Receiving radiation and measurement of temperature continues
until the hole passes through the entire shear zone and then the tool flank.

Infra-red photographic technique

This modern and powerful method is based on taking infra-red photograph of the hot surfaces of
the tool, chip, and/or job and get temperature distribution at those surfaces. Proper calibration is
to be done before that. The fringe pattern readily changes with the change in any machining
parameter which affect cutting temperature.

Fig. 3.8 measuring temperature at shear plane and tool flank by photocell technique

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 Fig. 3.9 Temperature distribution at the tool tip detected by Infra ray technique

Role of variation of the various machining parameters on cutting temperature

The magnitude of cutting temperature is more or less governed or influenced by all the
machining parameters like:

• Work material: - specific energy requirement

- Ductility

- Thermal properties (λ, )

• Process parameters: - cutting velocity ( )

- feed ( )

- Depth of cut (t)

• cutting tool material: - thermal properties

- wear resistance

- Chemical stability

• Tool geometry: - rake angle (γ)

- Cutting edge angle (φ)

- Clearance angle (α)

- nose radius (r)

• cutting fluid : - thermal and lubricating properties
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 - Method of application

Many researchers studied, mainly experimentally, on the effects of the various parameters on
cutting temperature. A well established overall empirical equation is,

( ) . ( ) . ( ) .
= . (3.7)
( ) . ( ) .

Where, = a constant depending mainly on the work-tool materials Equation 3.7 clearly
indicates that among the process parameters affects most significantly and the role of t is
almost insignificant. Cutting temperature depends also upon the tool geometry. Equation 3.7
depicts that can be reduced by lowering the principal cutting edge angle, φ and increasing
nose radius, r. Besides that the tool rake angle, γ and hence inclination angle, λ also have
significant influence on the cutting temperature.

Increase in rake angle will reduce temperature by reducing the cutting forces but too much
increase in rake will raise the temperature again due to reduction in the wedge angle of the
cutting edge.

Proper selection and application of cutting fluid help reduce cutting temperature substantially
through cooling as well as lubrication.

Control of cutting temperature

It is already seen that high cutting temperature is mostly detrimental in several respects.
Therefore, it is necessary to control or reduce the cutting temperature as far as possible.

Cutting temperature can be controlled in varying extent by the following general methods:

 proper selection of material and geometry of the cutting tool(s)

 optimum selection of – combination without sacrificing MRR
 proper selection and application of cutting fluid
 Application of special technique, if required and feasible.

Basic methods of controlling cutting temperature

It is already realized that the cutting temperature, particularly when it is quite high, is very
detrimental for both cutting tools and the machined jobs and hence need to be controlled, i.e.,
reduced as far as possible without sacrificing productivity and product quality.

The methods generally employed for controlling machining temperature and its detrimental
effects are :

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  Proper selection of cutting tools; material and geometry
 Proper selection of cutting velocity and feed
 Proper selection and application of cutting fluid

Selection of material and geometry of cutting tool for reducing cutting temperature and
its effects

Cutting tool material may play significant role on reduction of cutting temperature depending
upon the work material.

As for example,

 PVD or CVD coating of HSS and carbide tools enables reduce cutting
temperature by reducing friction at the chip-tool and work-tool interfaces.
 In high speed machining of steels lesser heat and cutting temperature develop if
machined by CBN tools which produce lesser cutting forces by retaining its
sharp geometry for its extreme hardness and high chemical stability.
 The cutting tool temperature of ceramic tools decrease further if the thermal
conductivity of such tools is enhanced (by adding thermally conductive materials
like metals, carbides, etc in Al2O3or Si3N4)
 Cutting temperature can be sizeably controlled also by proper selection of the
tool geometry in the following ways;
 large positive tool–rake helps in reducing heat and temperature generation by
reducing the cutting forces, but too much increase in rake mechanically and
thermally weakens the cutting edges
 compound rake, preferably with chip–breaker, also enables reduce heat and
temperature through reduction in cutting forces and friction
 even for same amount of heat generation, the cutting temperature decreases with
the decrease in the principal cutting edge angle, φ as
 [ . ( sin ) . ]
(3.8)
 Nose radius of single point tools not only improves surface finish but also
helps in reducing cutting temperature to some extent.

Selection of cutting velocity and feed

Cutting temperature can also be controlled to some extent, even without sacrificing MRR, by
proper or optimum selection of the cutting velocity and feed within their feasible ranges. The rate
of heat generation and hence cutting temperature are governed by the amount of cutting power
consumption, where;

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 = . = (3.9)

So apparently, increase in both so and raise heat generation proportionately. But increase
in , though further enhances heat generation by faster rubbing action, substantially reduces
cutting forces, hence heat generation by reducing and also the form factor f. The overall
relative effects of variation of and on cutting temperature will depend upon other
machining conditions. Hence, depending upon the situation, the cutting temperature can be
controlled significantly by optimum combination of and for a given MRR.

Control of cutting temperature by application of cutting fluid

Cutting fluid, if employed, reduces cutting temperature directly by taking away the heat from the
cutting zone and also indirectly by reducing generation of heat by reducing cutting forces.

Purposes of application of cutting fluid in machining and grinding.

The basic purposes of cutting fluid application are :

 Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting
temperature on the job and the tool
 Lubrication at the chip–tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting forces
and friction and thus the amount of heat generation.
 Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip – particles and debris
which, if present, spoils the finished surface and accelerates damage of the cutting
edges
 Protection of the nascent finished surface – a thin layer of the cutting fluid sticks
to the machined surface and thus prevents its harmful contamination by the gases
like SO2, O2, H2S, present in the atmosphere.

However, the main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through
reduction of cutting forces and temperature, improvement by surface integrity and enhancement
of tool life.

Essential properties of cutting fluids

To enable the cutting fluid fulfill its functional requirements without harming the Machine –
Fixture – Tool – Work (M-F-T-W) system and the operators, the cutting fluid should possess the
following properties:

 For cooling :
o high specific heat, thermal conductivity and film coefficient for heat transfer
o spreading and wetting ability

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  For lubrication :
o high lubricity without gumming and foaming
o wetting and spreading
o high film boiling point
o friction reduction at extreme pressure (EP) and temperature
 Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the M-F-T-W system
 less volatile and high flash point
 high resistance to bacterial growth
 odorless and also preferably colorless
 non toxic in both liquid and gaseous stage
 easily available and low cost.

Principles of cutting fluid action

The chip-tool contact zone is usually comprised of two parts; plastic or bulk contact zone and
elastic contact zone as indicated in Fig. 3.10

Fig. 3.10 Cutting fluid action in machining.

The cutting fluid cannot penetrate or reach the plastic contact zone but enters in the elastic
contact zone by capillary effect. With the increase in cutting velocity, the fraction of plastic
contact zone gradually increases and covers almost the entire chip-tool contact zone as indicated
in Fig. 3.12. Therefore, at high speed machining, the cutting fluid becomes unable to lubricate
and cools the tool and the job only by bulk external cooling.

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