CS 225

Symbols and Formulas

Logic
Symbols: ≥ ≤ =
6 ¬ ∼ ∧ ∨ ⊕ ≡→↔ ∃∀
A conditional statement p → q can also
Identities: be read as:

∼ (∼ p) ≡ p Double Negation • If p then q

p∧T≡p p∨F≡p Identity
• p implies q
p∨T≡T p∧F≡F Universal Bound
p∧p≡p p∨p≡p Idempotent • If p, q
p∨∼p≡T p∧∼p≡F Negation • p only if q
p∨q ≡q∨p p∧q ≡q∧p Commutative
• q if p
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r) Associative
(p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r) Associative • q unless ∼ p
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r) Distributive • q when p
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r) Distributive
• q whenever p
∼ (p ∧ q) ≡ ∼ p ∨ ∼ q DeMorgan’s
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡ ∼ p ∧ ∼ q DeMorgan’s • q follows from p
p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p Absorption • p is a sufficient condition for q (p
p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p Absorption is sufficient for q)
p→q≡∼q→∼p Contrapositive
• q is a necessary condition for p (q
p⊕q ≡q⊕p Contrapositive is necessary for p)
p→q ≡ ∼p∨q Implication
p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p) Biconditional Equivalence
Proofs:
(p ∧ q) → r ≡ p → (q → r) Exportation
(p → q) ∧ (p → ∼ q) ≡ ∼ p Absurdity • Direct: Assume P and prove Q.
p∨q ≡ ∼p→q Alternate Implication • Contrapositive: Assume Not Q
p ∧ q ≡ ∼ (p → ∼ q) Alternate Implication and prove Not P .
∼ (p → q) ≡ p ∧ ∼ q Alternate Implication • Contradiction: Assume P and
 
∼ ∀ x P (x) ≡ ∃ x ∼ P (x) DeMorgan’s for Quantifiers Not Q and prove a contradiction.

• Induction: Prove base(s), assume

 
∼ ∃ x Q(x) ≡ ∀ x ∼ Q(x) DeMorgan’s for Quantifiers
P (m), prove P (m + 1).

1
 Sets
Symbols: ∈ 6∈ ⊆ ⊂ ⊇ ⊃ ∅ ∪ ∩ ×

Common Sets:
N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } natural numbers
Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } integers (Z for German Zahlen, meaning “numbers”)
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . . } positive integers
 
p
Q= p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, q 6= 0 rational numbers
q
U = {∗} universal set
∅ = {} empty set (the set with no elements)

Identities:

(Ac )c = A Double Complement

A∪∅=A A∩U=A Identity
A∪U=U A∩∅=∅ Universal Bound
A∪A=A A∩A=A Idempotent
c c
A∪A =U A∩A =∅ Complement
A∪B =B∪A A∩B =B∩A Commutative
(A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) Associative
(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) Associative
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) Distributive
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) Distributive
c c c
(A ∪ B) = A ∩ B DeMorgan’s
c c c
(A ∩ B) = A ∪ B DeMorgan’s
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A Absorption
A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A Absorption
c c
U =∅ ∅ =U Complement of U, ∅
c
A−B =A∩B Set difference law

2
 Series and Sums
P
Symbols: ·

Geometric Progression ak = a · r k
Arithmetic Progression ak = a + d · k

Sum Formulas:

Formula # Sum Closed Form

n arn+1 − a
ark
P
1 (r 6= 0) , r 6= 1
k=0 r−1
n arn+1 − ari
ark
P
2 (r 6= 0) , r 6= 1
k=i r−1
n
P
3 c c · (n − i + 1)
k=i

n
P n(n + 1)
4 k
k=1 2
n n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
k2
P
5
k=1 6
n n2 (n + 1)2
k3
P
6
k=1 4

3
 Counting
Symbols: λ

Equations:

• Sum Rule:
if S is the union of m disjoint sets S1 , S2 , . . . , Sm , then the number of elements in S
is:
S = |S1 | + |S2 | + · · · + |Sm |

• Product Rule:
for a sequence of m choices the total number of elements is:

P (m) = |P1 | · |P2 | · · · · · |Pm |

• Subset Exclusion:
if C = A − B is the difference of two sets, where B ⊆ A, then the number of elements
in C is:
|C| = |A| − |B|

• Inclusion/Exclusion:
when a set D to be counted is the union of non-disjoint sets A and B, the number of
elements in D is:
|D| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|

Permutations and Combinations:

n!
• r-permutations: P (n, r) =
(n − r)!
• r-permutations with repetition allowed: nr

• The number of different permutations of n objects, where there are n1 indistin-

guishable objects of type 1, and n2 indistinguishable objects of type 2, . . . and nk
n!
indistinguishable objects of type k is
n1 !n2 ! . . . nk !
n!
• r-combinations C(n, r) =
r!(n − r)!
• r-combinations with repetition allowed:

(r + n − 1)! (r + n − 1)!
C( r + n − 1, r) = C( r + n − 1, n − 1) = =
r!(r + n − 1 − r)! r!(n − 1)!