CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Antennas serve as the primary interface between electronic devices, such as

smartphones, satellite communication terminals, and radio transceivers, and the invisible
waves of electromagnetic radiation that propagate through the air. Without antennas, our world
would be devoid of wireless connectivity, rendering many of our modern conveniences and
technologies outmoded. The fifth generation of wireless technology, or 5G, is the latest and
most advanced form of wireless communication. It promises to revolutionize the way we use
the internet, with faster speeds, lower latency, and greater capacity. One of the key components
of 5G technology is the antenna. Antennas are responsible for transmitting and receiving
signals, and they play a critical role in the performance of 5G networks.

Antennas lie at the heart of the transformative potential of 5G technology, serving as

the vital bridge between our connected devices and the blazing-fast world of fifth-generation
wireless communication. As we stand on the cusp of a new era in telecommunications, it is the
innovation and sophistication of these antennas that enable the remarkable promises of 5G to
become a reality. While the average smartphone user may not give much thought to antennas,
they are the unsung heroes behind the lightning-fast data speeds, ultra-low latency, and
exceptional connectivity that 5G technology brings to our daily lives. Unlike their
predecessors, 5G antennas are not merely passive receptors of signals; they are intelligent,
adaptable, and strategically placed components within the intricate web of the 5G network.

The Fifth generation or 5G is the next generation of wireless technology standards

planned to deploy around 2020. 5G is to facilitate wireless networks by delivering enhanced
bandwidth, high data transfer rates and lower latency to a billion number of electronic devices.
This is one of the most promoted issues in the world of technology which is promising to
facilitate the access to self-driving vehicles, virtual reality (VR), and the Internet of Things
(IoT). Telecommunication enterprises or regulation bodies for example 3GPP, WiMAX or
ITUR have not finalized any particular specification or official document for 5G yet. 5G
technology is supposed to be the perfection level of wireless communication systems in mobile
wireless technology. Wired communication has now come to be almost obsolete. At present,
cell phones are not only a serving as a communication tool but also being used for many other

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purposes. Earlier wireless technologies are facilitating the simplicity of telephone and data
sharing whereas fifth generation is bringing a new level and turning the life of human as a real
mobile life. Due to rapid increase of mobile user's, demands occur for mobile communication.
Mobile users need more features on their mobile phones such as high date rate, efficient
communication, reduced traffic, comfort to use various applications etc. Service providers are
in need to satisfy the needs of mobile users which can be done with help of 5G technology. 5G
technology provides very high bandwidth, reduced latency, better Quality of Service, and
optimum capacity. 5G is operated at mm wave band in that we can provide high frequency
range with large amount of bandwidth.

In this project report, we will discuss the design and development of 5G Microstrip Patch
Antennas. We will explore the different types of antennas used in 5G networks, the challenges
involved in designing and developing these antennas, and the latest developments in 5G
antenna technology. This report aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the design and
development of 5G antennas, and to highlight the importance of this technology in the future
of wireless communication.

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1.1 MOTIVATION

The development of 5G technology has the potential to transform the way we communicate,
interact, and access information. It offers faster data speeds, lower latency and higher capacity,
making it possible to support emergent technologies, such as Internet of Things (IOT), virtual
and augmented reality (VR/AR), and autonomous vehicle. However, the success of 5G
technology relies heavily on the performance of its antenna systems, which are responsible for
transmitting and receiving signals between devices. Therefore, the design and optimization of
efficient and reliable antenna systems for 5G applications have become critical for the
development and deployment of 5G networks. In this context, this project aims to contribute
to the advancement of 5G technology by designing and implementing a practical microstrip
patch antenna for 5G applications. The outcome of this project can provide insights into the
design and optimization of antenna systems for 5G networks, which can ultimately enhance
the performance and reliability of 5G communication systems.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

The main objective of this project are to design and simulate microstrip patch antenna with
coaxial feed and substrate materials, including rectangular patch for 5G applications. After
selecting the most suitable antenna design based on the simulation results, the antenna will be
optimized for performance in terms of gain, efficiency, and radiation pattern. The objective of
our project is to design and fabricate microstrip patch antenna operating at 5GHz. The
optimized antenna design will be fabricated and tested to evaluate its performance in a 5G
frequency band. Finally, the performance of the fabricated antenna design will be compared
with other existing antenna designs for 5G applications in terms of gain, efficiency, and
radiation pattern. This project aims to provide insights into the design and optimization of
microstrip patch antennas for 5G applications and contribute to the advancement of 5G
communication technology.

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1.3 LITERATURE SURVEY

The book "Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design" by Constantine A. Balanis covers a
wide range of topics related to antennas and electromagnetic theory such as Fundamental
Principles of Antenna, Antenna Parameters and Arrays, Broadband Antennas, Aperture
Antennas, Microstrip Antennas, Wire Antennas and topics like smart antennas, metamaterial
antennas, and multi-band antennas, reflecting the evolution of antenna technology. The book
explains the design and analysis of microstrip patch antennas using different feeding
mechanisms, such as co-axial feed, microstrip line feed, and aperture coupled feed.
Additionally, the book discusses the optimization of microstrip patch antenna for different
performance criteria, such as bandwidth, gain, efficiency, VSWR, return loss and radiation
pattern. The book also provides numerous examples and case studies that demonstrate the
application of antenna theory to practical problems in communication system.

A Small Microstrip Patch Antenna for Future 5G Applications [2] paper by Shivangi
Verma, Leena Mahajan, Rajesh Kumar, Hardeep Singh Saini, Naveen Kumar. In this study, a
low profile microstrip patch antenna for 5G devices of the future is presented. The suggested
patch antenna is appropriate for usage in handheld devices because of its small construction,
which measures 20mm × 20mm × 1.6mm when the ground plane is included. The antenna's 5G
frequency band resonance is at 10.15 GHz. The proposed design has an omnidirectional
radiation pattern and a gain of 4.46dBi. This document presents and discusses the antenna's
geometry as well as a number of metrics, including the return loss plot, gain plot, radiation
pattern plot, and VSWR plot. Additionally, measured data are shown, and they closely match
the results of simulations. A compact microstrip patch antenna for the 5G wireless standard has
been suggested in this paper.

A High Gain Microstrip Patch Antenna with Slotted Ground Plane for Sub-6 GHz 5G
Communications [3] by Taiwo O. Olawoye and Pradeep Kumar. In this paper, the design of a
slotted ground plane microstrip patch antenna for fifth generation (5G) wireless
communications operating at sub-6 GHz is presented. A T slot on a rectangular microstrip
patch with a defective ground structure (DGS) makes up the design. The modified C-shaped
slot is the ground plane of the suggested antenna. To further improve the antenna performance,
the modified C slot has specific lacerations on the top and bottom of the modified C shape. The
primary lobe of the radiated signal is strengthened by concentrating the side lobes, increasing

4
the gain of the proposed antenna. This is accomplished by incorporating a reflecting plate into
the design. The suggested antenna uses the inset feeding technique and is built on a FR-4 epoxy
base. Use of the CST Studio Suite is required for both design and simulation. The antenna is
28.03 x 23.45 x 5.35 mm in dimension, with maximum gains of 5.49 dB and 7.12 dB for
directivity and correspondingly. The proposed antenna operates in the 4.8 GHz - 5 GHz
spectrum of the sub-6 GHz 5G communications, with a bandwidth of 4.775 GHz to 5.049 GHz.

Compact Square patch antenna for 5G Communication [4] by S.Murugan The topic of
this study is the design of a small microstrip antenna (MSA) for 5G communication,
specifically for the 3.4–3.6GHz range. The RT duroid substrate is printed with a square
microstrip patch antenna and a shorting pin in this study. Coaxial feeding is used to feed it. For
higher bandwidth, a square slot is etched out of the patch and the substrate's thickness is raised.
For analysis, variables like return loss (dB), gain (dB), and radiation pattern are taken. The
suggested antenna is assumed to function at the target band. As a result, the proposed antenna
addressed in this work, which consists of a square patch loaded with shorted pins and a square
slot, functions in the intended frequency range between 3.4 GHz and 3.6 GHz. The antenna has
a superior gain of 6dB and a good far field symmetrical radiation pattern. The suggested
antenna has a 98% radiation efficiency, which is quite high for an antenna of this size. As a
result, the proposed antenna addressed in this work, which consists of a square patch loaded
with shorted pins and a square slot, functions in the intended frequency range between 3.4 GHz
and 3.6 GHz. The antenna has a superior gain of 6dB and a good far field symmetrical radiation
pattern. The suggested antenna has a 98% radiation efficiency, which is quite high for an
antenna of this size.

Dual-band Microstrip Antenna Fed by Coaxial Probe [5] by Bao-shan Yan, Lu Wang,
Zhi-quan Luo, Dong-min Deng, Li-ying Feng and Hong-xing Zheng. A dual-band microstrip
antenna supplied by a 50 coaxial probe is constructed utilizing the slot loading approach and
the short-sheet loading technique to concurrently satisfy the requirements of wireless local area
network applications and global interoperability for microwave access applications. The size
of the radiation patch is optimized considering the simulated antenna performance. The antenna
was built using the optimal size specifications, and its performance was evaluated. Results from
simulations and measurements demonstrate that the antenna is appropriate for wireless
applications. A dual-band microstrip antenna with good performance is shown in this study
using the slot loading and short-sheet loading techniques. As previously indicated, this design

5
can make the microstrip antenna smaller while maintaining an outstanding radiation pattern.
Additionally, the structure is straightforward and quick to produce, and the back radiation is
much decreased. As a result, this sort of antenna can be used in the design of high gain array
antennas as well as in a few unique defense applications.

Design of Dual Band Circular Microstrip Patch Antenna for ISM and WLAN by Sayali
J. Pawar and Mandar P. Joshi. Coaxial feed dual band circular microstrip patch antenna
(CMPA) for WLAN (5.150-5.350GHz) and ISM (2.4-2.5GHz) application is proposed in this
work. A circular slot is inserted into the circular radiator to create dual frequency bands, and
the ground plane is changed to increase bandwidth. To replicate CMPA, a FR-4 substrate with
a dielectric constant of 4.4 and a thickness of 1.6 mm is utilized, and the overall size of CMPA
is 40 x 40 x 1.6 mm. Utilizing CAD FEKO simulation software, the intended antenna was
simulated. A >-10dB gain is achieved by the suggested antenna. For the ISM spectrum and
WLAN band, the maximum observed bandwidths are 78 MHz and 190 MHz, respectively.
This paper involves the design, simulation, and comparison of the suggested dual band CMPA
with and without DGS. According to analysis and comparison findings, loading circular DGS
structures increases bandwidth. The collected results demonstrate that the suggested microstrip
patch antenna can be a promising candidate for wireless applications in the ISM and WLAN
bands.

6
CHAPTER 2

ANTENNA

An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts electric current into

electromagnetic (EM) waves or vice versa. Antennas are used to transmit and receive
nonionizing EM fields, which include radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation (IR) and
visible light. At their core, antennas are devices that facilitate the conversion of electrical
signals into electromagnetic waves for transmission or the reverse process for reception. This
transformation is made possible through the principles of electromagnetic wave propagation.
Webster’s Dictionary defines an antenna as “a usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) for
radiating or receiving radio waves.” The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas
(IEEE Std 145–1983) defines the antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating or receiving radio
waves.” In other words, the antenna is the transitional structure between free space and a
guiding device, as shown in Figure 1.1. The guiding device or transmission line may take the
form of a coaxial cable or a hollow pipe (waveguide), and it is used to transport electromagnetic
energy from the transmitting source to the antenna, or from the antenna to the receiver. In the
former case, we have a transmitting antenna, and in the latter a receiving antenna. In a
transmitting antenna, an antenna receives electrical signals from a transmission line & changes
them into radio waves. In receiving antenna is quite opposite because it allows radio signals
from the space & changes them into electrical signals & provides them to a transmission line.
In general, antennas are devices that interact with radio waves travelling through space from
one point to another.

Figure 2.1. Antenna Figure 2.2. Antenna Schematic symbol

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 Antennas are available in different sizes as well as shapes. The small size antennas can
be found on the roofs to watch television whereas big ones are used to capturing signals using
satellites. The antennas that SCaN (Space Communications and Navigation) mainly includes a
particular antenna with bowl-shaped that focuses signals at a particular end known as a
parabolic antenna. This kind of antenna allows both transmitting and capturing electromagnetic
signals which can move vertically and horizontally to transmit and capture the signal.

2.1 HISTORY OF ANTENNA

The first antenna was devised by the German physicist Heinrich Hertz. During the late
1880s, he carried out a landmark experiment to test the theory of the British mathematician-
physicist James Clerk Maxwell that visible light is only one example of a larger class of
electromagnetic effects that could pass through air (or empty space) as a succession of waves.
Hertz built a transmitter for such waves consisting of two flat, square metallic plates, each
attached to a rod, with the rods in turn connected to metal spheres spaced close together. An
induction coil connected to the spheres caused a spark to jump across the gap, producing
oscillating currents in the rods. The reception of waves at a distant point was indicated by a
spark jumping across a gap in a loop of wire.

The Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi, the principal inventor of wireless telegraphy,
constructed various antennas for both sending and receiving, and he also discovered the
importance of tall antenna structures in transmitting low-frequency signals. In the early
antennas built by Marconi and others, operating frequencies were generally determined by
antenna size and shape. In later antennas frequency was regulated by an oscillator, which
generated the transmitted signal.

More powerful antennas were constructed during the 1920s by combining several
elements in a systematic array. Metal horn antennas were devised during the subsequent decade
following the development of waveguides that could direct the propagation of very high-
frequency radio signals.

Over the years, many types of antennas have been developed for different purposes. An
antenna may be designed specifically to transmit or to receive, although these functions may
be performed by the same antenna. A transmitting antenna, in general, must be able to handle
much more electrical energy than a receiving antenna. An antenna also may be designed to

8
transmit at specific frequencies. In the United States, amplitude modulation (AM) radio
broadcasting, for instance, is done at frequencies between 535 and 1,605 kilohertz (kHz); at
these frequencies, a wavelength is hundreds of meters or yards long, and the size of the antenna
is therefore not critical. Frequency modulation (FM) broadcasting, on the other hand, is carried
out at a range from 88 to 108 megahertz (MHz). At these frequencies, a typical wavelength is
about 3 meters (10 feet) long, and the antenna must be adjusted more precisely to the
electromagnetic wave, both in transmitting and in receiving. Antennas may consist of single
lengths of wire or rods in various shapes (dipole, loop, and helical antennas), or of more
elaborate arrangements of elements (linear, planar, or electronically steerable arrays).
Reflectors and lens antennas use a parabolic dish to collect and focus the energy of radio waves,
in much the same way that a parabolic mirror in a reflecting telescope collects light rays.
Directional antennas are designed to be aimed directly at the signal source and are used in
direction-finding.

2.2 ANTENNA – WORKING PRINCIPLE

Antennas play a crucial role in modern communication systems, including radio and
television broadcasting, cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and many other wireless technologies. The
basic principle behind how antennas work involves the interaction of electric currents and
electromagnetic fields. Here's a simplified explanation:

▪ Electric Current: When an alternating current (AC) flows through a conductor, it

generates an oscillating electric field around the conductor. In the context of an antenna,
this current is typically generated by an electronic circuit connected to the antenna.
▪ Electromagnetic Fields: An oscillating electric current creates an oscillating electric
field (E-field) that radiates outward from the conductor. Simultaneously, it generates
an oscillating magnetic field (H-field) perpendicular to the E-field. Together, these
fields form an electromagnetic wave, which carries energy and information.
▪ Radiation Pattern: The specific shape and orientation of an antenna determine its
radiation pattern, which describes how the electromagnetic waves are emitted or
received in different directions. Antennas are designed to shape these patterns to suit
their intended applications. For example, some antennas focus their radiation in a
specific direction, while others are designed for omni-directional coverage.

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 ▪ Frequency and Wavelength: The size and shape of an antenna are closely related to
the frequency of the electromagnetic waves it is designed to transmit or receive.
Antennas must be sized appropriately to match the wavelength of the signals they
handle. In general, shorter antennas are used for higher-frequency signals, and longer
antennas are used for lower-frequency signals.
▪ Transmission and Reception: Antennas can be used for either transmission or
reception of electromagnetic waves. When used for transmission, the electrical signal
from a transmitter is applied to the antenna, which converts it into an electromagnetic
wave for broadcasting. When used for reception, the incoming electromagnetic wave
induces an electrical current in the antenna, which is then sent to a receiver for
processing.

2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTENNA

There are certain fundamental properties all antennas possess which enable them to function
effectively. These key properties of antennas are listed below:

▪ Radiation Intensity
▪ Beamwidth
▪ Radiation pattern
▪ Input impedance
▪ Effective length
▪ Effective aperture
▪ Bandwidth
▪ Polarization
▪ Gain and Directivity
▪ Radiation Efficiency
▪ Wavelength
▪ VSWR and Reflected Power

◼ Radiation Intensity

The radiation intensity is defined as the amount of energy emitted per unit solid angle
by per unit area of the radiating surface. The radiation intensity is denoted by symbol U and
represented using the equation,

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 𝐸
𝑈= 𝐴𝜔

Where, E is emissive power and ω is the solid angle.

A solid angle is the conical portion of a sphere with the vertex of the cone coinciding
with the centre of the sphere and is calculated by the ratio of surface area covered by the cone
to the square of the radius of the sphere.

𝐴
𝜔= 2
𝑟𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

◼ Beamwidth

Beamwidth is the angle from which most of the antenna's power, as illustrated on
the radiation pattern’s main lobe, radiates. It may be measured in the horizontal or vertical
planes and is the distance between two points where the power is less than half of the maximum.
Beamwidth varies with the physical and electronic characteristics of an antenna such as type,
design, orientation, and frequency. It may be horizontal (azimuth) or vertical (elevation) or in
the case of omnidirectional around 360 degrees horizontally. Directional antennas focus the
RF energy in a specific direction, with the bandwidth inversely proportional to the
level gain or directivity of the antenna. Beam width categorized into two types and are
expressed using the unit radians or degrees.

Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) is the angular separation, in which the magnitude of the
radiation pattern decreases by 50% (or -3dB) from the peak of the main beam. It is the angle
in which relative power is more than 50% of the peak power, in the effective radiated field of
the antenna. This is the part of the antenna output that has maximum consistency and utility
and is closely related to the gain of the antenna. If planning an antenna array, the HPBW will
be the point where neighbouring sectors cross over.

When a line is drawn between radiation pattern’s origin and the half power points on
the major lobe, on both the sides, the angle between those two vectors is termed as HPBW, half
power beam width. This can be well understood with the help of the above diagram.

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The mathematical expression for half power beam width is −

70𝛌
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ =
𝐷

Where, λ is wavelength.

D is diameter.

Figure 2.3. Beamwidth of an antenna

First Null Beam Width (FNBW) is he angular span between the first pattern nulls adjacent to
the main lobe. It is angular width which is measured between first nulls or first side lobes on
antenna radiation pattern. It is found between the null points of the main lobe of the antenna's
radiation pattern. This measurement can assist in the assessment of antenna interference.

FNBW can be indicated by drawing tangents on both sides starting from the origin of
the radiation pattern, tangential to the main beam. The angle between those two tangents is
known as First Null Beam Width (FNBW).

This can be better understood with the help of the following Fig. 2.4

The mathematical expression of First Null Beam Width is,

𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 = 2𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊

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 70𝛌 140𝜆
𝐹𝑁𝐵𝑊 2 ( )=
𝐷 𝐷

Where, λ is wavelength.

D is Diameter.

Figure 2.4. Antenna parameter illustrated over a typical directional antenna radiation pattern.

◼ Radiation Pattern

A radiation pattern is the variation of the field intensity of an antenna as an angular

function with respect to the axis. Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical representations of the
distribution of radiated energy into space, as a function of direction. Graphically, radiation can
be plotted as a function of angular position and radial distance from the antenna. Note that
the radiation pattern is independent of the radius of the sphere where r >> λ. This is a
mathematical function of radiation properties of the antenna represented as a function of
spherical co-ordinates, E (θ, Ø) and H (θ, Ø).

The Fig. 2.5 shows radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The energy being radiated is
represented by the patterns drawn in a particular direction. The arrows represent directions of
radiation.

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 Figure 2.5. Radiation pattern of a dipole antenna

The radiation patterns can be field patterns or power patterns.

• The antenna radiation when defined in terms of field strength is known as Field
Strength Pattern. They are plotted on logarithmic scale.
• The power patterns are plotted as a function of square of the magnitude of electric and
magnetic fields. They are plotted on logarithmic or commonly on dB scale.

The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure and represented in spherical coordinates (r,
θ, Φ) assuming its origin at the centre of spherical coordinate system. Two-dimensional pattern
can be obtained from three-dimensional pattern by dividing it into horizontal and vertical
planes forming Horizontal pattern and Vertical pattern respectively.

Figure 2.6. Omnidirectional radiation pattern in Horizontal and Vertical planes

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LOBE FORMATION

A radiation pattern is usually represented graphically for the far-field conditions along
the electrical field and the magnetic field vectors, along the direction of maximum radiation
or E-plane and H-plane. The E-plane and H-plane are reference planes for linearly polarized
antennas.

E-Plane:

For a linearly polarized antenna, this is the plane containing the electric field vector and
the direction of maximum radiation. The electric field or "E" plane determines the polarization
or orientation of the radio wave. For a vertically polarized antenna, the E-plane usually
coincides with the vertical/elevation plane. For a horizontally polarized antenna, the E-Plane
usually coincided with the horizontal/azimuth plane.

H-plane:

In the case of the same linearly polarized antenna, this is the plane containing the
magnetic field vector and the direction of maximum radiation. The magnetic field or "H" plane
lies at a right angle to the "E" plane. For a vertically polarized antenna, the H-plane usually
coincides with the horizontal/azimuth plane. For a horizontally polarized antenna, the H-plane
usually coincides with the vertical/elevation plane.

Figure 2.7. Radiation pattern of a directional antenna

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 As the radiation pattern corresponds to the field distribution in space thus it has various
parts known as lobes. These are classified as main lobe and side lobe. The main lobe is also
called as major lobe while the side lobe includes minor lobe and back lobe.

▪ A major part of the radiated field which covers a larger area and where maximum
radiated energy exists is the main lobe or major lobe. The direction of this lobe
indicates the directivity of the antenna.
▪ Side lobes or minor lobes are the parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed
side wards. These are the areas where the power is wasted.
▪ The other lobe which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe is known as back
lobe which is responsible for A considerable amount of energy is wasted even here.

ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS

Omnidirectional Radiation Pattern: An omnidirectional antenna radiates or receives

electromagnetic energy equally in all directions around a central point. It is often used when
the goal is to provide coverage in all directions, such as in Wi-Fi routers, mobile phone base
stations, and AM/FM radio antennas. The radiation pattern resembles a donut shape when
viewed in three dimensions, with maximum radiation in the horizontal plane and minimal
radiation in the vertical plane.

Directional Radiation Pattern: A directional antenna concentrates its radiation or reception

in one or more specific directions while minimizing radiation in other directions. Directional
antennas are used when you want to focus the signal in a particular direction to increase range
or target a specific area. Examples include Yagi-Uda antennas for television reception and
parabolic dish antennas for satellite communication. The radiation pattern typically resembles
a narrow beam in the desired direction(s), with reduced radiation in other directions.

Sectorial Radiation Pattern: A sectorial antenna is a variation of a directional antenna with a

broader beamwidth, often covering a specific sector or angle. They are commonly used in
wireless communication systems to provide coverage to a particular area without requiring a
full 360-degree omnidirectional pattern. The radiation pattern appears as a sector or wedge-
shaped beam, with maximum radiation within the sector and reduced radiation outside it.

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Hemispherical Radiation Pattern: A hemispherical antenna radiates or receives energy in a
half-sphere pattern, covering all directions above a horizontal plane. These antennas are often
used in applications where coverage is needed in all directions above a certain point, such as
marine VHF antennas. The radiation pattern resembles a half-sphere with maximum radiation
in the upper hemisphere and minimal radiation in the lower hemisphere.

Biconical Radiation Pattern: A biconical antenna consists of two conical elements sharing a
common vertex and axis. It radiates energy in a 3D pattern, resembling two cones joined at
their tips. Biconical antennas are often used for broadband applications and in measuring
antenna characteristics. The radiation pattern forms a double-cone shape with maximum
radiation along the axis and reduced radiation as you move away from the axis.

Isotropic Radiation Pattern: The isotropic antenna is a theoretical concept representing an

idealized point source that radiates energy uniformly in all directions. It serves as a reference
point for comparing the radiation patterns of real antennas. In practice, no antenna can achieve
isotropic radiation, but it is a useful reference for calculating antenna gain.

◼ Input Impedance

The input impedance of antenna is basically the impedance offered by the antenna at
its terminals. It is defined as the ratio of voltage to the current across the two input terminals
of the antenna and generally given as,

𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴

Where, 𝑅𝐴 is the summation of radiation resistance (𝑅𝑟 ) and loss resistance (𝑅𝐿 ) of antenna.

𝑋𝐴 is the reactance of the antenna.

Impedance of an antenna is a function of frequency. The characteristic impedance gives the

ratio of voltage to current along the line, and it provides information on the ability of the
transmission line to store energy in the electric and magnetic field. Typical values for the
impedance of transmission lines used for communications are 50Ω or 75Ω, but each antenna
has its own characteristic impedance. To efficiently transmit a signal between transmitting or
receiving circuitry and an antenna, the impedance between the antenna and transmission line

17
should be matched. In this case, where the characteristic impedance of the line and antenna are
equal, energy flows along the transmission line between the circuitry and the antenna.
However, if there is an impedance mismatch between the antenna and the transmission line,
reflections will be set up at the transmission line antenna interface.

◼ Effective Length

The effective length of an antenna, whether it be a linear or an aperture antenna, is a

quantity that is used to determine the voltage induced on the open-circuit terminals of the
antenna when a wave impinges upon it. The vector effective length 𝓵e for an antenna is
usually a complex vector quantity represented by

𝓵𝒆 (𝜽, 𝝋) = 𝒂
̂𝜽 𝒍𝜽 (𝜽, 𝝋) + 𝒂
̂𝜽𝝋 𝒍𝝋 (𝜽, 𝝋)

It’s also known as Effective Height.

◼ Effective Aperture

Effective aperture quantifies an antenna's ability to capture and transmit

electromagnetic radiation. It is a measure of the antenna's "aperture," or the area over which it
effectively captures or emits energy. The effective aperture (𝐴𝑒 ) of an antenna can be calculated
using the following equation:

𝑃𝑇 |𝐼𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑇
𝐴𝑒 = =
𝑊𝑖 2𝑊𝑖

Where, 𝑊𝑖 is the power density of incident wave.

𝑃𝑇 is the power delivered to load.

Under conjugate matching / maximum power transfer conditions, only half of the
captured power is delivered to the load; the other half is scattered and dissipated as heat. Hence,
in addition to the effective area, the scattering, loss and capture equivalent areas which can give
as follows,

▪ Scattering Area: It’s the equivalent area when multiplied by the incident power density
is equal to scattered power.

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 |𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑟
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝑠 = [ ]
8𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑟 )2

▪ Loss Area: It is defined as the equivalent area when multiplied by the incident power
density leads to power dissipated as heat through 𝑅𝐿 .

|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝐿
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝐿 = [ ]
8𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑟 )2

▪ Capture Area: It is defined as the equivalent area which when multiplied by incident
power density leads to total power captured by antenna.

|𝑉𝑇 |2 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝐴𝐿 = [ ]
8𝑊𝑖 (𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑟 )2

Capture Area = Effective Area + Scattering Area + Loss Area

◼ Bandwidth

Bandwidth describes the range of frequencies over which the antenna can properly
radiate or receive energy. It is typically measured in hertz (Hz). The bandwidth of an antenna
is determined by several factors, including its physical dimensions, design, and the materials
used. A broader bandwidth allows the antenna to work over a wider range of frequencies, which
can be advantageous in various applications.

There are different types of antennas with varying bandwidth characteristics:

▪ Narrowband Antennas: These antennas have a relatively small bandwidth and are
designed to operate within a specific frequency range. Examples include dipole
antennas and Yagi-Uda antennas.
▪ Wideband Antennas: These antennas have a broader bandwidth and can cover a wider
range of frequencies. Examples include log-periodic antennas and biconical antennas.
▪ Ultra-Wideband (UWB) Antennas: UWB antennas have an extremely wide
bandwidth, often covering several gigahertz (GHz) of frequency range. They are
commonly used in applications such as radar and short-range communications.

19
 ◼ Polarization

The polarization of an antenna is loosely defined as the direction of the electromagnetic

fields produced by the antenna as energy radiates away from it. These directional fields
determine the direction in which the energy moves away from or is received by an antenna. It
describes the direction in which the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave oscillates
as it propagates through space. Antennas are designed to either transmit or receive
electromagnetic waves with a specific polarization.

Linear Polarization: In linear polarization, the electric field vector of the electromagnetic
wave oscillates in a straight line, either vertically, horizontally, or at some angle in between.
Linear polarization is the most common type and is used in many everyday applications, such
as TV and radio broadcasting. They are further classified as:

▪ Vertical polarization refers to the oscillation of an antenna’s electrical field on the

vertical plane.
▪ Horizontal polarization refers to the oscillation of electric field on the horizontal plane.
▪ Slant polarization refers to an electrical field that oscillates at a 45-degree angle to a
reference plane.

Circular Polarization: Here, the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave rotates in a
circular motion as it propagates through space. Circular polarization is often used in satellite
communication, GPS systems, and some types of wireless communication, as it can help
mitigate signal fading and interference. They can be further categorized as follows:

▪ Right-Hand Circular Polarization (RHCP): The electric field vector rotates in a

right-handed (clockwise) direction when viewed in the direction of wave propagation.
▪ Left-Hand Circular Polarization (LHCP): The electric field vector rotates in a left-
handed (counterclockwise) direction when viewed in the direction of wave propagation.

Elliptical Polarization: The third common type of polarization is the generalization of circular
polarization, known as elliptical polarization. It occurs when the electric field’s two linear
perpendicular components are 90 degrees out of phase and have unequal magnitude.

20
 ◼ Gain and Directivity

Directivity is the measure of the concentration of an antenna’s radiation pattern in a

particular direction. Directivity is expressed in dB. The higher the directivity, the more
concentrated or focussed is the beam radiated by an antenna. It is a measure of how 'directional'
an antenna's radiation pattern is. An antenna that radiates equally in all directions would have
effectively zero directionality, and the directivity of this type of antenna would be 1 (or 0 dB).
Mathematically, directivity can be described as,

𝑈 4𝜋𝑈
𝐷= =
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

When direction isn’t specified, the maximum directivity can be given as,

𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑

Gain of an antenna is a measure of its ability to direct or concentrate radio frequency

(RF) energy in a specific direction compared to an isotropic radiator, which radiates energy
equally in all directions. Antenna gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) and is a key parameter
in antenna design and performance evaluation. Generally, it is mathematically expressed as,

𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑)

𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 4𝜋 = 4𝜋
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Higher gain antennas can transmit or receiving signals more effectively in a specific
direction, which can be advantageous in various applications. A transmitting antenna with a
gain of 3 dB means that the power received far from the antenna will be 3 dB higher (twice as
much) than what would be received from a lossless isotropic antenna with the same input
power. Note that a lossless antenna would be an antenna with an antenna efficiency of 0 dB (or
100%). Similarly, a receive antenna with a gain of 3 dB in a particular direction would receive
3 dB more power than a lossless isotropic antenna.

◼ Radiation Efficiency

The radiation efficiency of an antenna is a measure of how effectively it converts the

electrical power fed to it into electromagnetic radiation. It quantifies the efficiency of the

21
antenna in radiating energy as electromagnetic waves compared to the power lost as heat or
through other means. The efficiency of an antenna is a ratio of the power delivered to the
antenna relative to the power radiated from the antenna. It can be expressed as,

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝜂=
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

In general, overall efficiency of an antenna is realized using the given expression,

𝑒0 = 𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑐 𝑒𝑑

Where, 𝑒𝑟 → reflection / mismatch efficiency = (1 − |Γ|2 )

𝑒𝑐 → conduction efficiency

𝑒𝑑 → dielectric efficiency

Γ → voltage reflection coefficient at the input terminals of the antenna

◼ Wavelength

Wavelength is the distance a radio wave travels during one cycle. The formula for
wavelength is given by,

𝑐
λ= 𝑓

Where: λ is the wavelength

c is the speed of light (3*108 m/s)

f is the frequency

◼ VSWR and Reflected Power

VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio) and reflected power are important parameters
used to characterize the performance of antennas and transmission lines in RF (Radio

22
Frequency) and microwave systems. They are indicators of how well an antenna is matched to
the transmission line and the source or load it's connected to. VSWR is a measure that
numerically describes how well the antenna is impedance matched to the radio or transmission
line it is connected to. VSWR is a function of the reflection coefficient, which describes the
power reflected from the antenna. If the reflection coefficient is given by Γ or reflection
coefficient or return loss, then the VSWR is defined by the following formula:

1 + |Γ|
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 =
1 − |Γ|

As VSWR increases, it indicates an impedance mismatch between the transmission line

and the load (antenna). Higher VSWR values result in more power being reflected back towards
the source, which can lead to power loss and potential damage to the equipment.

Reflected power is a measure of the power that is not effectively transferred to the
antenna and is instead reflected towards the source. The formula to calculate reflected power
is as follows:

𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 − 1
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑉𝑆𝑊𝑅 + 1

A lower percentage of reflected power is desirable because it indicates a better match between
the transmission line and the antenna. A well-matched antenna will have a lower VSWR and,
consequently, lower reflected power.

23
 Table 2.1. Tabulation of various attributes of Antenna

RETURN REFLECTION VSWR REFLECTIVE MISMATCH

LOSS COEFFICIENT POWER LOSS
(DB) (𝚪) (𝚪 𝟐 )
0 1 ∞ 1 44
1 0.8912 17.3908 0.7943 6.87
2 0.7943 8.7228 0.6309 4.33
3 0.7079 5.8469 0.5011 3.02
4 0.6309 4.4185 0.3980 2.20
5 0.5623 3.5693 0.3161 1.65
6 0.5011 3.0088 0.2511 1.26
7 0.4466 2.6140 0.1994 0.97
8 0.3981 2.3228 0.1584 0.75
9 0.3548 2.0998 0.1258 0.58
10 0.3162 1.9248 0.0999 0.46
11 0.2818 1.7847 0.0794 0.36
12 0.2511 1.6705 0.0630 0.28
13 0.2238 1.5766 0.0500 0.22
14 0.1999 1.4996 0.0399 0.18
15 0.1778 1.4324 0.0316 0.14
16 0.1584 1.3764 0.0251 0.11
17 0.1412 1.3288 0.0199 0.09
18 0.1258 1.2878 0.0158 0.07
19 0.1122 1.2527 0.0125 0.06
20 0.1 1.2222 0.01 0.04

24
2.4 TYPES OF ANTENNAS

Antennas come in various forms and shapes, each designed to serve specific purposes
and applications. These different types of antennas are engineered to maximize their efficiency
and performance in transmitting or receiving electromagnetic waves. Here is an overview of
some common types of antennas:

1. Dipole Antennas

Dipole antennas are one of the simplest and most widely used types of antennas. They
consist of two conductive elements, typically rods or wires, aligned in a straight line. A dipole
antenna is typically fed at its centre, and it radiates electromagnetic waves in all directions
perpendicular to its axis. Dipole antennas are commonly used in applications such as radio
broadcasting and television reception.

Figure 2.8. Typical Dipole Antenna

The metal wires’ length is half of the highest wavelength that is λ/2 within free space
at the frequency of operation. The conductive element in the antenna is split in the middle into
two sections through an insulator which is called an antenna section. These sections are simply
connected to a coaxial cable or feeder at the middle of the antenna. Once the RF voltage source
is applied to the centre of the two sections in the antenna then the flow of voltage & current
throughout the two conductive elements can generate an electromagnetic or radio wave signal
to be radiated outside of the antenna. At the centre of this antenna, the voltage is minimum,
and the current is maximum. In opposition, the current is minimum & the voltage is maximum
at the antenna’s ends. This is the current distribution of dipole antenna.

25
 Figure 2.9. Schematic diagram of Dipole antenna

2. Yagi-Uda Antennas

The Yagi-Uda antenna, often referred to as a Yagi antenna or beam antenna, is a

directional antenna that provides high gain in one direction while suppressing signals from
other directions. It consists of a driven element, one or more directors (shorter elements in front
of the driven element), and one or more reflectors (longer elements behind the driven element).
Yagi-Uda antennas are frequently used in television reception and amateur radio.

Figure 2.10. Simple Yagi Uda Antenna for Television Broadcast

A Yagi-Uda antenna has 3 main elements namely dipole, reflector and director that
combinedly form its structure. The structure contains one driven element and a reflector while
directors can be more than one. Basically, the arrangement is said to be an array of active and
parasitic elements. The dipole generally a metallic rod acts as the active element as external
feeding is provided to it using transmission lines. While reflector and directors are the parasitic
elements of the structure.

26
 Figure 2.11. Structure of Yagi Uda Antenna

When external excitation is directly provided to the active element of the arrangement
i.e., the dipole. The flow of current through the active element induces a voltage in the parasitic
elements that cause current to flow through it. The element having a length greater than λ/2
i.e., the reflector, shows inductive characteristic, therefore, the current in the reflector lags the
induced voltage. Whereas the one shorter than the half-wave dipole i.e., the director is
capacitive. So, the current flowing through it leads the voltage.

3. Patch Antennas

Patch antennas, also known as microstrip antennas, are flat, planar antennas that are
compact and easy to manufacture. They are commonly used in high-frequency applications,
including wireless communication systems such as Wi-Fi routers and GPS devices. Patch
antennas are characterized by their low profile and directional radiation patterns.

A patch antenna is usually fabricated by mounting a shaped metal sheet on an insulating

dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a continuous metal layer bonded to the
opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane. Some patch antennas do not use a
dielectric substrate and instead made of a metal patch mounted above a ground plane using
dielectric spacers. The resulting structure is less rugged but has a wider bandwidth.

27
 Figure 2.12. Microstrip patch antenna Figure 2.13. Structure of Microstrip patch antenna

4. Horn Antennas

Horn antennas are named for their distinctive horn-shaped structure. They are widely
used in microwave and radar systems due to their ability to provide high gain and excellent
directivity. Horn antennas are particularly useful for applications that require precise control
of the electromagnetic radiation pattern.

Figure 2.14. Horn Antenna

In horn antenna, the fraction of incident energy can be radiated from the entry of the
waveguide and the rest of the energy will be reflected from the same entry because of the open
entry, the poor impedance matching will exist in between the space & waveguide. Also, at the
edges of the waveguide, diffraction affects the poor radiating capacity of the waveguide. So to
overcome the drawbacks of the waveguide, its end is opened in an electromagnetic horn form.
So that a smooth transition can be allowed in between the space & waveguide thus offering
better directivity toward the radio wave.

28
5. Parabolic Reflector Antennas

Parabolic reflector antennas, also known as dish antennas, use a curved parabolic
reflector to focus incoming or outgoing electromagnetic waves onto a single point. These
antennas are often used for satellite communication, high-gain point-to-point links, and radio
astronomy. The crucial function of the parabolic reflector is to change the spherical wave into
a plane wave. So, at the focus when a feed antenna is placed which is nothing but an isotropic
source then the waves are emitted from the source. the waves emitted from the source, incident
on the surface of the reflector and are further reflected back as a plane wave of circular cross-
section. all the waves after reflection are collimated and the plane waves travel in the direction
parallel to the axis providing very high radiation in the direction of the propagation axis

Figure 2.15. Parabolic Antenna Figure 2.16. Reflection in Parabolic Antenna

6. Log-Periodic Antennas

A Log-periodic antenna is that whose impedance is a logarithmically periodic function

of frequency. Not only this all the electrical properties undergo similar periodic variation,
particularly radiation pattern, directive gain, side lobe level, beam width and beam direction.
Log-periodic antennas are designed to operate over a wide range of frequencies. They have a
tapered structure with varying elements that allow them to provide consistent performance
across a broad frequency spectrum. Log-periodic antennas are commonly used in applications
where the frequency of operation may vary, such as broadband communication and spectrum
monitoring.

29
 Figure 2.17. Log Periodic Antenna

The structural geometry of the log periodic antenna is designed in a way that the
electrical properties of the antenna must show periodic repetition with the logarithm of the
frequency. In log periodic dipole array, there is a gradual increase in the length of the elements
from point of feed to the other end, keeping the angle α constant. The increase in the length of
the elements along with the spacing between them in wavelength should be so adjusted that
there must be certain ratio in the dimensions of the adjacent dipoles. The parameter that defines
here the relation between the length of the antenna elements and spacing between adjacent
elements is called design ratio or scale factor. This is denoted by τ. It is sometimes referred as
periodicity factor, having a value less than 1.

Figure 2.18. Structural Geometry of Log Periodic Antenna

30
7. Helical Antennas

Helical antennas consist of one or more helical-shaped elements. They are known for
their circular polarization and are commonly used in applications like satellite communication,
GPS, and space exploration.

Figure 2.19. Helical Antenna Figure 2.20. Design of Helical Antenna

This antenna can be designed with a conducting wire-like thick copper wire wounded
in helical form & it is connected to the ground plate through a feeder line. Once a conductive
wire in an antenna is excited through a coaxial cable otherwise two-wire transmission line then-
current supplies throughout the conducting wire causes the field lines generation & emission
of radiations. In radiation of normal mode, the field of radiation is normal to the helix axis so,
radiated signals are polarized circularly. This mode has low efficiency & narrow bandwidth.
In axial mode, both the pitch and diameter of the helix antenna are similar to the wavelength,
so it works like a directional antenna. This mode is frequently used through earth-based stations
within satellite communications systems.

8. Phased Array Antennas

Phased array antennas use multiple antenna elements and phase-shifting techniques to
steer the direction of the transmitted or received beam electronically. They are employed in
radar systems, satellite communication, and modern wireless communication systems like 5G
for their ability to rapidly adjust their beam direction.

31
 Figure 2.21. Arrangement of antenna elements

Figure 2.22. Phased array antenna

The signal from the transmitter is sent to the antennas via a phase shifter, which is
controlled by a computer system (phase controller), that changes the phase electronically thus
controlling the direction of the radiation pattern of the antenna array. Phased Array Antennas
consist of multiple smaller antennas whose number can range anywhere from a few antennas
to somewhere in the hundreds or thousands.

9. Monopole Antennas

Monopole antennas are simple, vertically oriented antennas that use a single radiating
element and a ground plane. They are commonly used in portable devices, such as walkie-
talkies and mobile phones. When the power is fed to a monopole then it is radiated similarly in
all directions vertical to the antenna’s length above the ground plane on which it is mounted.
The radiation pattern of this antenna is omnidirectional, so it radiates with equivalent power
within all directions at right angles to the antenna. The radiated power from the antenna changes
with elevation angle through the radiation dropping off to zero at the peak on the axis of the
antenna.

32
 Figure 2.23. Monopole Antenna Figure 2.24. Structure of Monopole Antenna

10. Loop Antennas

A type of antenna which is formed by bending of a coil or uniform wire in the form of
loop is known as a loop antenna. They come in various shapes, including circular and
rectangular loops. They are known for their compact size and are used loop antennas are
majorly used for the purpose of receiving the signal. Applications include AM radio reception
and magnetic field sensing, Aircraft direction finders and in RFID devices to determine
position of the transmitter.

Figure 2.25. Loop Antenna

33
Figure 2.26. Schematic diagram of Loop Antenna

34
CHAPTER 3

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

Microstrip antennas received considerable attention starting in the 1970s, although the
idea of microstrip antenna can be traced to 1953 and a patent in 1955. One of the major benefits
of microstrip antennae is that they are very comfortable on planar and non-planar surfaces. This
was the main reason that the microstrip antenna acquired serious attention from the researchers
in the early 1970s when high-performance applications such as aircraft, spacecraft, missile, and
satellite communication put the motivation for researchers to investigate on usefulness of
conformal microstrip antennas. After about 2 years Howell introduced a basic rectangular
shape microstrip antenna that was fed using the microstrip transmission line. In those days
microstrip antenna was a major focus for investigators. Researchers introduced many various
designs. However, it was difficult to get better radiation efficiency that was limited up to 90%.
Narrow bandwidth was also a severe problem for microstrip antennae. 1.3.2 Microstrip
Antenna: In a most basic form, a microstrip antenna comprises two thin metallic layers (t ˂˂𝜆0,
where 𝜆0 is wavelength in free space) one as radiating patch and second as ground plane and a
dielectric substrate is placed between them. The conductor patch is placed on the dielectric
substrate and used as a radiating element. On the other side of the substrate, there is a
conductive layer used as the ground plane as represented in Fig.1.3. Copper and gold are used
normally as a metallic layer. Radiating patches can be of any shape, but simple shapes are used
to design a patch because patches' basic shapes are easy to analyse by the available theoretical
models and it is easy to predict the performance. Square, rectangular, dipole, triangular,
elliptical, and circular are some basic shapes. Circular, rectangular, and dipole are the most
often used shapes because of ease of analysis and fabrication. A variety of dielectric materials
are available for the substrate with dielectric constants 2.2≤ԑ𝑟 ≥ 12. The height of the substrate
plays an important role in antenna characteristics generally in the range 0.003𝜆0 ≤ h ≥ 0.05𝜆0.

Microstrip antenna suffers from very Narrow frequency bandwidth. However, in some
applications where narrow bandwidth is essential such as government security systems,
microstrip antennas are useful. The bandwidth of the microstrip antenna is directly proportional

35
to the height of the substrate. There are two main techniques to improve the bandwidth: one
circuit theory and a second structural.

Figure 3.1 Basic Microstrip Antenna with Inset Feed

An antenna characteristic not only depends on the antenna element but also be
influenced by the TX-line and antenna combination. Generally, the input impedance of the
microstrip antenna is complex and the characteristic impedance of the TX-line is real (usually
50 ohm). This will result in impedance mismatching and cause a voltage standing wave pattern
on the transmission line resulting in low impedance bandwidth. One way to overcome this
problem is the use of impedance-matching networks between the antenna and transmission
line. There are several impedance matching techniques available, Circuit theory deals with the
impedance matching techniques.

Structural technique deals with the modification of substrate properties such as height
and dielectric constant. By increasing the height, we can increase the 8bandwidths. But it will
also introduce surface waves which increase loss of the power and lead to performance and
characteristics degradation. Various types of methods introduced by the researchers such as
stacking, defective ground plane, parasitic patches, and improvement of bandwidth of
microstrip antenna is still an interesting topic for investigation. By choosing a particular shape
one can easily design an antenna with the desired resonance frequency radiation pattern, and
polarization. It is easy to design a microstrip antenna with reconfigurable polarization,
resonance frequency, and radiation patterns just by adding loads like PIN diode, and Varactor
diodes.

3.2 CONFIGURATIONS:

Since the early development of microstrip antennae until now, a variety of

configurations have been produced and investigated to improve the performance of microstrip

36
antennae as shown in Fig. 1.3. Some of the common shapes are rectangles; triangle, and circular
are shown in the figure. Several shapes such as pentagon and ellipse are known to give circular
polarization.

Figure 3.2. Different Shapes of Microstrip Patch Antennas

3.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Microstrip antenna is a low-profile antenna that is lightweight and is very easy to install
due to which it is very popular in handheld wireless devices such as cell phones, pagers, and in
some high-performance communication systems such as satellites, missiles, spacecraft,
aircraft, etc. Some of the major advantages of microstrip antenna as discussed by Ramesh Garg
are given below:

▪ Inexpensive and easy to fabricate.

▪ Can be planted easily on any surface.
▪ Can easily get reconfigurable characteristics.
▪ Can easily design antenna with desired polarization.
▪ Mechanically robust, Resistant against vibration and shock.
▪ Suitable to microwave integrated circuits (MICs).
▪ For high gain and directivity Array of antennas can be easily formed.

37
 Conversely microstrip antennas also have a few disadvantages and limitations when
compared to other antennas. Some of the major disadvantages of microstrip antennas are
written below:

▪ High quality factor.

▪ Cross polarization.
▪ Poor polarization efficiency.
▪ Suffers from spurious feed radiation.
▪ Narrow impedance bandwidth (5% to 10% without any technique)

There are various methods to overcome these limitations, bandwidth of microstrip antenna
can be increase by using some special methods like defected ground plane strategy, stacked
patches, slotted patches, parasitic patch. Gain and the power handling ability of antenna can be
improved by making an antenna array. Use of Electromagnetic Band Gap (EBG) structure and
met material also results in the improvement of the antenna characteristics.

3.4 FEEDING TECHNIQUES

Feeding methods can be divided into two categories: contacting feeds and other one is
non-contacting feeds or electromagnetically coupled feeds. In contacting feeds the feed line is
directly connected to radiating element. The main drawback of contacting feeds is that it shows
inherent asymmetry which produces the higher order modes that lead to an increase in cross-
polarization level. To minimize these non-contracting feeds are used. Microstrip line feed and
coaxial probe feeding are two mainly used direct contact feedings and aperture coupled and
proximity coupling are 10 two non-contacting couplings which are described in brief below:

Microstrip line feed:

In this type of feeding the radiating patch is directly fed by the microstrip feed line and
has a narrow width as compared to the patch as shown in Fig. 1.3.5.1. It is the simple and most
used feeding method. Because the microstrip line can be treated as an extended part of the
radiating patch and fabricated on the same substrate on the board. This feeding is simple to
fabricate, and its easy impedance-matching techniques are very compatible with this type of
feed. But this feed also has some drawbacks, suffers from spurious feed radiation and surface
wave losses, and has low bandwidth.

38
 Figure 3.3. Microstrip Patch Antenna with Inset line Feed

Coaxial probe feed:

One of the widely used feedings for microstrip antenna. In this type of feeding core of
the coaxial cable is directly connected to the patch using the soldering and the outer cable is
connected to the ground. The core conductor is inserted in the substrate via a hole.

Figure 3.4. Microstrip Patch Antenna with Coaxial Probe Feed

The main advantage of this feeding is that we can directly feed or connect the inner
conductor to the feed point where the input impedance is equal to the characteristic
impedance of the feed line as shown in figure 1.3.5.2.

Proximity coupled feed:

Two types of dielectric substrates are used in this type of feeding. The microstrip line
is not directly connected to the patch and left open-ended and is sandwiched between the

39
substrates. Energy from the feed line is coupled electromagnetically to the radiating patch. The
microstrip line can be extended as a stub to increase the bandwidth. Substrate dielectric
constants play a lead role and are selected to increase the bandwidth and decrease the spurious
feed radiations from the feed line. A structural view of this type of feeding is shown in Fig. 1.6.

Figure 3.5. Proximity Coupled Feed

Thick Material with a low dielectric constant is selected for Upper substrates because
the lower the dielectric constant more the fringing field and more the radiations from the patch
and thin substrate with a high dielectric constant is selected for the lower substrate. This type
of feeding has the largest bandwidth as compared to others. It is easy 12 to model and has low
spurious feed radiation however its fabrication is more difficult because the exact alignment of
the feed line is required. The length of the extended stub and the width-to-line ratio of the patch
can be optimized to control the antenna characteristics.

Aperture coupled feed:

The structural view of this type of feeding is shown in Fig. 1.7. As shown this feeding
also uses two types of substrate ground plane is placed between them and a microstrip line is
used generally to feed which is placed below the lower substrate.

Aperture coupling feeding the energy is electromagnetically coupled to the patch

through an aperture or slot made in the ground plane. Different types of aperture shapes are
used generally rectangular and circular shapes are widely used. Cross-shaped and annular ring
shape slots are used for exciting the circular polarization. The parameters of slots are used to
improve the antenna characteristics.

40
 Figure 3.6. Aperture Coupled Feed

As in proximity coupled feeding substrates dielectric constant is selected to get better

radiation and bandwidth. The thick substrate with a low dielectric constant is used for the upper
substrate to get good radiation and bandwidth. Thin and high dielectric constant material is
used for the upper substrate for efficient transfer of energy from the feed line to the patch. To
get the maximum coupling between the feed structure and the patch slot should be located at
the place where the magnetic field is maximum.

Figure 3.7. Equivalent Techniques for Feeding Techniques

We know that from the current and voltage distribution along the patch length, the
electric field is maximum at the ends and the magnetic field is maximum at the Centre of the
patch. The microstrip feed line is extended a length extra and is used as a stub. Stub works as
an open-circuited transmission line that has admittance is in parallel to that of the slot. By

41
optimizing the extended length of the feed line (stub) the reactive components of the slot can
be cancelled out to that of the stub which will result in better impedance matching.

The area of the slot is kept small to minimize the radiation below the ground plane. This
type of feeding has better polarization purity, low spurious feed radiation, and large bandwidth
as compared to microstrip and coaxial probe feeding. The equivalent circuit for each of them
is shown in Fig. 1.8 above.

3.5 SUBSTRATES AND ANTENNA DESIGNING

Substrate in a microstrip patch antenna is a dielectric material through which

electromagnetic waves propagate. It helps to control the electromagnetic fields within the
antenna and can affect the performance of the antenna. Additionally, the substrate can also
provide mechanical support for the antenna and can protect it from environmental factors such
as moisture and temperature changes.

Substrate material selection and its importance.

The first step in designing an antenna is to choose an appropriate substrate. The substrate
in micro strip antennas is principally needed for the mechanical support of the antenna. To
provide this support, the substrate should consist of a dielectric material, which may affect the
electrical performance of the antenna, circuits, and transmission line. A substrate must,
therefore, simultaneously satisfy the electrical and mechanical requirements, which is
sometimes difficult to meet. The following parameters should be considered while selecting
the substrate material in the design of antennas:

a) Surface wave excitation.

b) Dispersion of the dielectric constant and loss tangent of the substrate.
c) Copper loss.
d) Anisotropy of the substrate.
e) Effects of temperature, humidity, and aging.
f) Mechanical requirements: conformability, machinability, solderability, weight,
elasticity etc.
g) Cost

42
FR-4 SUBSTRATE

FR-4 substrate is a widely used substrate material for microstrip patch antennas due to
its unique properties and advantages. The “FR” in the name stands for flame retardant. FR-4 is
a glass-reinforced epoxy laminate material that is commonly used in printed circuit board
(PCB) applications. FR-4 substrate is a cost-effective material compared to other high-end
substrate materials making it an attractive choice for applications that require low-cost
fabrication. They are easy to manufacture and can be easily cut and drilled to the desired precise
dimensions. FR-4 substrate has good dielectric properties, with a low loss tangent and high
dielectric constant. They are reliable substrate material for outdoor and harsh environment
applications due to their high mechanical strength and ability to withstand high temperature
and humidity.

RT DUROID 5880

Rogers RT/Duroid high frequency circuit materials are filled with PTFE (Random
Glass or Ceramic) composite laminates for use in high reliability, Aerospace, and defense
applications. It is an ideal substrate material for designing high frequency antennas due to its
dielectric constant. The low loss tangent signifies that it has low signal loss, which is a
significant advantage for antennas resulting in better antenna efficiency and reduces the impact
of signal attenuation on antenna performance. RT Duroid has excellent thermal stability and
resistant to range of chemicals including solvents and acids, making it a ideal substrate for
consistent performance across range of temperatures and pH.

Figure 3.8. Rogers RT Duroid 5880 Laminate Figure 3.9. FR4 Laminate

43
 Table 2. Properties of FR4 and RT Duroid 5880 substrate materials

Features RT Duroid FR-4

Dielectric Constant 2.2 4.3
Loss Tangent 0.0009 – 0.003 0.015 -0.025
Frequency Range Up to 100GHz Up to 5GHz
Operating Temperature -550 C to +1500 C -550 C to +1400 C
Composition Ceramic-filled PTFE Woven fiberglass reinforced
epoxy resin
Thermal Coefficient 12 ppm/0C 18 ppm/0C
Tensile Strength 6000 – 12000 psi 40000 – 70000 psi
VSWR Low Higher than RT Duroid
Gain High Lower than RT Duroid
Moisture Absorption Low High
Cost Expensive Inexpensive
Machinability Difficult Easy
Efficiency at Higher High Low to Moderate
Frequencies
Efficiency at Lower Low to Moderate High
Frequencies
Return Loss at Higher High Low to Moderate
Frequencies
Return Loss at Lower Low to Moderate High
Frequencies

44
3.6 TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL

The transmission line model is a simplified representation of a microstrip patch antenna

that allows for easy analysis of its behaviour and performance. In this model, the interior region
of the patch antenna is approximated as a section of transmission line, with the characteristic
impedance 𝒁𝟎 and propagation constant 𝚪 determined by the physical dimensions and material
properties of the antenna. The transmission line model analysis of a microstrip patch antenna
involves the following steps:

◼ Geometry and dimensions: The patch antenna is characterized by its length, width,
and substrate thickness. The ground plane is assumed to be infinite in extent, while the
patch is a finite-sized conductor located above the substrate.
◼ Characteristic impedance: The characteristic impedance of the transmission line is
determined by the dimensions and material properties of the patch and the substrate. It
is given by the formula:

60 8ℎ 𝑊0 𝑊0
𝑍0 = 𝑙𝑛 [ + ] , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 ≤1
√𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑊0 4ℎ ℎ

120𝜋 𝑊0
𝑍0 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 >1
𝑊0 𝑊0 ℎ
√𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 [ ℎ + 1.393 + 0.667𝑙𝑛 ( ℎ + 1.444)]

◼ Propagation constant: The propagation constant of the transmission line is given by:

𝛾 = √𝑗𝜔𝜇(𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔𝜀)

Where, 𝝎 is the angular frequency.

𝝁 is the permeability of the substrate.

𝝈 is the conductivity of the substrate.

𝜺 is the permittivity of the substrate.

45
◼ Resonant frequency: The resonant frequency of the microstrip patch antenna is
determined by the length and width of the patch, as well as the dielectric constant of
the substrate. It can be calculated using the formula:

1 𝑐
𝑓𝑟 = =
2𝐿√𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 √𝜇0 𝜀0 2𝐿√𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓

Where, 𝒄 is the speed of light.

𝜺𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒇 the effective permittivity of the substrate.

L is the length of the patch.

◼ Input impedance: The input impedance of the microstrip patch antenna can be
calculated using the transmission line model. It is given by:

𝑍𝐿 + 𝑗𝑍0 𝑡𝑎𝑛(Γ𝐿)
𝑍𝑖𝑛 = 𝑍0
𝑍0 + 𝑗𝑍𝐿 𝑡𝑎𝑛(Γ𝐿)

Where, 𝒁𝑳 is the load Impedence.

𝚪 is the propagation constant.

Input Impedance can be represented in terms of Conductance(G) as given below,

1
𝑅𝑖𝑛 =
2(𝐺1 ± 𝐺12 )

Where, 𝑮𝟏 is the conductance of the single slot.

𝑮𝟏𝟐 is the mutual conductance between the slots.

◼ Radiation pattern: The radiation pattern of the microstrip patch antenna can be
determined by considering the current distribution on the patch. The current distribution
can be approximated as a sinusoidal function along the length of the patch, with a
current maximum at the centre and zero current at the edges. The transmission line
model provides a simple and efficient way to analyse the behaviour and performance
of microstrip patch antennas. It is widely used in the design and optimization of these

46
 antennas for various applications, including wireless communication systems, radar
systems, and satellite communication systems.

3.7 CAVITY MODEL

A cavity model analysis is a method used to study the performance characteristics of

microstrip patch antennas. In this approach, the region between the microstrip patch and the
ground plane is assumed to be a resonance cavity, allowing for a simplified analysis of the
antenna's behaviour. The cavity model can be used to study the effect of antenna dimensions,
such as length and width, on its performance. The general formulation of the cavity model
involves devising a physical model based on the electromagnetic field distribution in the
microstrip patch antenna as given in the figure below.

Figure 3.10. Fringing Fields in Microstrip Patch Antenna

Fringing fields refer to the electromagnetic fields that extend beyond the physical
structure of the antenna. These fields arise due to the distribution of charges or currents.
Fringing fields are part of the near-field region, which is divided into two zones: the reactive
near-field and the radiating near-field. The region closest to the antenna, known as the reactive
near field, contains fringing fields that do not propagate as electromagnetic waves but still carry
energy. The region farther away from the antenna, known as the radiating near-field, transitions
into the far-field, where the electromagnetic fields behave like propagating waves.

Figure 3.11. Charge Distribution and current density creation on Patch Antenna

47
 The current at the end of the patch is zero (open circuit), the current is maximum at the
center of the half-wave patch and ideally zero at the beginning of the patch. This low current
value at the feed explains in part why the impedance is high when fed at the leading edge. Note
that the smaller the dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟 of the substrate is, the fringing field is greater; that is,
the field “bows” away further from the patch. Therefore, using a smaller permittivity for the
microstrip yields more efficient radiation.

Under the condition that the substrate thickness t is much less than wavelength λ, there
will be no variation of the fields with z. Since 𝐸𝑡 = 0 on the perfectly conducting metal surfaces,

𝐸⃗ = 𝑧̂ 𝐸⃗𝑧

Consider the surface current density 𝐽𝑠 of the antenna whose radiation is along the
direction of z-axis,

⃗ |𝑧=0
𝐽𝑠 = −𝑧̂ × 𝐻

The homogeneous equation for cavity fields is given by,

(∇2 + 𝑘𝑑 2 )𝐸𝑍 = 0

Where, 𝑘𝑑 = 𝜔√𝜇0 𝜀

48
CHAPTER 4

DESIGN, SIMULATION AND RESULTS

Designing a microstrip patch antenna involves several key steps to achieve the desired
performance and characteristics. In this procedure there are three essential parameters for the
design. First, we have an effective dielectric constant for a given PCB substrate value, which
then determines the width and length of the patch for a given operating frequency and height
of the dielectric substrate. The design process goes as follows:

Step 1: Define the requirements and choose the Substrate Material.

Determine the specific requirements for the microstrip patch antenna, including
frequency of operation/ resonant frequency (𝑓0 ) and thickness of dielectric material. Select the
suitable substrate material. The dielectric constant (𝜀𝑟 ) will affect antenna’s size and
bandwidth.

Step 2: Calculating the width of the patch (Wp).

The width of patch in microstrip antenna depends on the operating frequency and its
dielectric constant. Variations in these values results in change of width dimension of the
antenna. Width of the patch is calculated using the following equation:

𝑐 2
𝑊= √
2𝑓0 (𝜀𝑟 + 1)

Where, c- velocity of light in free space

𝑓0 - resonant frequency in GHz
𝜀𝑟 - Dielectric constant of substrate

Step 3: Calculation of effective dielectric constant/effective permittivity (𝜺𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒇 )

The Effective Dielectric Constant is calculated based on the height, dielectric constant
of the dielectric and the calculated width of the patch antenna. The given equation is used to
determine the 𝜺𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒇,

49
 𝜀𝑟 + 1 𝜀𝑟 − 1 ℎ −1/2
𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + [1 + 12 ]
2 2 𝑊

Where, 𝜀𝑟 – dielectric constant of the substrate.

ℎ - height of substrate material

𝑊 – width of the patch of an antenna

Step 4: Calculation of effective length.

Effective length of an antenna refers to change in antenna’s length is due to its fringing
fields. Its determined using the given equation,

𝑐
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
2𝑓0 √𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓

Where, 𝑐 – velocity of light in vacuum

𝑓0 – resonant frequency

𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 – effective permittivity of substrate

Step 5: Calculation of length extension.

The length of the antenna is bit more than its physical value due to the presence of
fringing fields at time of radiation. The greater the permittivity, lesser the fringing effects.
Length extension (∆𝐿) can be determined using equation,

𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 0.3) (
+ 0.264)
Δ𝐿 = 0.412ℎ ℎ
𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 − 0.25) ( + 0.8)
ℎ

Where, 𝑊 – width of the patch

ℎ - height of the patch

𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 – effective permittivity of substrate

50
Step 6: Calculation of actual length of the patch

The actual length of the patch is devoid of the pseudo length extended due to fringing
effects and is given by the following equation,

𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 − 2Δ𝐿

Where, 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 – effective length of the patch

Δ𝐿 – length extension due to fringing fields

Step 7: Calculating the dimensions of ground plane.

Length and width of the ground plane should be at least 6 times the height of the
substrate than the length and width of the patch and can be determined using the following
equation:

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊 + 6ℎ

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿 + 6ℎ

Where, 𝑊 – width of the patch

𝐿 – length of the patch

ℎ - height of the substrate

Step 8: Calculation of the feed point.

Feeding point, in terms of antenna, refers to the location on an antenna where radio
frequency electrical power is applied. Generally, feed point in antenna is chosen in such way
that is matches the input impedance of coaxial probe. We can determine the feed point for a
particular input impedance using the given set of equations:

𝜋
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑦=𝑦0) = 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑦=0) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝑦0 )
𝐿

Where, 𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑦=0) input impedance of the antenna is given by,

51
 1
𝑅𝑖𝑛(𝑦=0) =
2(𝐺1 ± 𝐺12 )

(+ and – are chosen based on the symmetry of the voltage distribution

Where, 𝐺1 – conductance of the single slot

𝐺12 – conductance between the slots, and are given by the following equations:

𝑙1
𝐺1 =
120𝜋 2

𝑘 𝑊
0
2
𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 2𝜋
Where, 𝑙1 = ∫0 { } 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃. 𝑑𝜃 , 𝑘0 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜆0

2
𝑘𝑜 𝑊
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜋
𝐺12 = ∫ { } 𝐽0 (𝑘0 𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃. 𝑑𝜃
120𝜋 2 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Where, 𝐽0 – Bessel’s function of First Type and zeroth order

4.1 DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA WITH

COAXIAL FEED (FR4 SUBSTRATE)

Requirements:

▪ Permittivity of the Substrate (𝜀𝑟 ) = 4.3

▪ Height of the Substrate (h) = 1.6mm
▪ Resonant frequency (𝑓0 ) = 5GHz

Figure 4.1. Simulated Microstrip Patch Antenna with FR4 Substrate Material

52
STEP 1: Calculation of Width of Patch (W)

𝑐 2
𝑊= √
2𝑓0 (𝜀𝑟 + 1)

c = 3*108 m/s
𝑓0 = 5GHz
𝜀𝑟 = 4.3
After Calculation, W = 18.4288 mm

STEP 2: Calculation of Effective Dielectric Constant

𝜀𝑟 + 1 𝜀𝑟 − 1 ℎ −1/2
𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + [1 + 12 ]
2 2 𝑊

𝜀𝑟 = 4.3
h = 1.6 mm
W = 18.4288 mm
Therefore, 𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 3.8047

STEP 3: Calculation of effective length of patch (𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 ).

𝑐
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
2𝑓0 √𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓

Substituting the corresponding values, we get, 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 15.3801 mm

STEP 4: Calculation of 𝚫𝑳
𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 0.3) (+ 0.264)
Δ𝐿 = 0.412ℎ ℎ
𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 − 0.25) ( + 0.8)
ℎ

After calculations, Δ𝐿 = 0.7297 mm

STEP 5: Calculation of length of patch (L)

𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 − 2 Δ𝐿

53
Therefore, L = 13.9207 mm

STEP 6: Calculation of length and width of substrate and ground

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊 + 6h
𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿 + 6h
Substituting, we get, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑔 = 28.9492 mm

𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿𝑔 = 24.4411 mm

For fabrication purpose consider, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 = 40𝑚𝑚

Position of feed:
𝑋𝑓 = 0

𝑌𝑓 = -3.5 mm

Outer and Inner radius:

𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 0.65 mm
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2.18 mm

4.2 SIMULATION AND RESULTS OF RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA

WITH COAXIAL FEED (FR4 SUBSTRATE)

By using both CST and HFSS microwave software packages which are based on FIT
and FEM, respectively, the rectangular patch shape antennas with coaxial probe feed are
designed and simulated to fifth generation wireless applications which are resonating at 5 GHz
band frequency. After manipulating the transmission lines method, which coded in Matlab-
19a, it is found some basic parameters and enhancement are made to achieve the best
performance of the antenna. The following are the simulation results of the rectangular
microstrip patch antenna with FR4 substrate.

Return Loss: -29.2764 dB @5GHz.

Realized Gain: 3.61 dBi @5GHz.

54
 Figure 4.2. S11 Parameters

Figure 4.3. Realized Gain for 𝑓0 = 5𝐺𝐻𝑧 @𝜙 = 900

Figure 4.4. 3D Realized gain for resonating frequency 5GHz.

55
Figure 4.5. Realized Gain for 𝑓0 = 5𝐺𝐻𝑧 @𝜙 = 00

Figure 4.6. VSWR

56
4.3 DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA WITH
COAXIAL FEED (RT DUROID)

Requirements:

▪ Permittivity of the Substrate (𝜀𝑟 ) = 2.2

▪ Height of the Substrate (h) = 1.6 mm
▪ Resonant frequency (𝑓0 ) = 5GHz

Figure 4.7. Simulated Microstrip Patch antenna with Rogers RTDuroid 5880 Substrate

STEP 1: Calculation of Width of Patch (W)

𝑐 2
𝑊= √
2𝑓0 (𝜀𝑟 + 1)

c = 3*108 m/s
𝑓0 = 5GHz
𝜀𝑟 = 2.2
After Calculation, W= 23.7171 mm

STEP 2: Calculation of Effective Dielectric Constant

𝜀𝑟 + 1 𝜀𝑟 − 1 ℎ −1/2
𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + [1 + 12 ]
2 2 𝑊

57
𝜀𝑟 = 2.2
h = 1.6 mm
W = 23.7171 mm
Therefore, 𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2.0460

STEP 3: Calculation of effective length of patch (𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒇 )

𝑐
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
2𝑓0 √𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓

Substituting the corresponding values, we get, 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 20.9734 mm

STEP 4: Calculation of 𝚫𝑳

𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 0.3) ( + 0.264)
Δ𝐿 = 0.412ℎ ℎ
𝑊
(𝜀𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 − 0.25) ( + 0.8)
ℎ
After calculations, Δ𝐿 = 0.8352 mm

STEP 5: Calculation of length of patch (L)

𝐿 = 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 − 2 Δ𝐿

Therefore, 𝐿 = 19.3030 mm

STEP 6: Calculation of length and width of substrate and ground

𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊 + 6h
𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿 + 6h
Substituting, we get, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑊𝑔 = 38.4171 mm

𝐿𝑠 = 𝐿𝑔 = 34.0030 mm

For fabrication purpose consider, 𝑊𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 = 40𝑚𝑚

Position of feed:
𝑋𝑓 = 0

𝑌𝑓 = -3.5 mm

58
Outer and Inner radius:
𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 0.305 mm
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1.025 mm

4.4 SIMULATION AND RESULTS OF RECTANGULAR PATCH ANTENNA

WITH COAXIAL FEED (RT DUROID 5880 SUBSTRATE)

By using both CST and HFSS microwave software packages which are based on FIT and FEM,
respectively, the rectangular patch shape antennas with coaxial probe feed are designed and
simulated to fifth generation wireless applications which are resonating at 5 GHz band
frequency. After manipulating the transmission lines method, which coded in Matlab-19a, it is
found some basic parameters and enhancement are made to achieve the best performance of
the antenna. The following are the simulation results of the rectangular microstrip patch
antenna with Rogers RT Duroid 5880 substrate.

Return Loss: -36.202 @5.016GHz.

Realized Gain: 7.485 dBi @5GHz.

Figure 4.8. S11 Parameters

59
 Figure 4.9. Realized Gain for 𝑓0 = 5𝐺𝐻𝑧 @𝜙 = 900

Figure 4.10. 3D Realized Gain for Resonating frequency 5GHz.

Figure 4.11. Realized Gain for 𝑓0 = 5𝐺𝐻𝑧 @𝜙 = 00

60
 Figure 4.12. VSWR

Table 3. Comparison of Results between antennas of different substrates

Property FR4 RTDuroid 5880
Return Loss -29.2764 dB -36.202 dB
VSWR 1.0711 1.3070
Realized Gain 3.61 dBi 7.49 dBi

61
CHAPTER 5

GAIN MEASUREMENTS

Gain is a fundamental parameter of the antenna which corresponds to the ability of the
antenna to either direct the radiated power of the antenna in a specific direction or efficiently
receive the incoming power from a specific direction. It is defined as the ratio of maximum
radiation intensity of the test antenna to that of the reference antenna where the input power is
the same. The gain of antenna with respect to an isotropic source is given by,

𝐺0 = 𝜂𝐷

Where, 𝜂 – efficiency of the antenna

𝐷 – directivity of the antenna

The gain of an antenna is measured by free space ranges if it is operating above 1GHz. At
lower frequencies, the wavelength is longer so free space conditions will not be easily
achievable. Thus, between 0.1 to 1GHz, ground reflection ranges are used. Below 0.1GHz,
ground effects increase, and antennas will be very large. Gain is not measurable below 1MHz.
There are two standard methods used for gain measurements,

1. Absolute Gain Method

2. Gain Transfer Method

5.1 ABSOLUTE GAIN METHOD

This method of Gain measurement is used to calibrate antennas that can be used as
standards for gain measurements. Another identical antenna is used to measure the absolute
gain. There are many techniques based on Friss Transmission Equations to determine absolute
gain of the antenna, they are as follows:

◼ Two antenna Method

Two antennas separated by certain distance R are involved in this method of
gain measurement. Since antennas are identical the effective apertures of the
transmitting (𝐴𝑒𝑡 ) and receiving antenna (𝐴𝑒𝑟 ) would be same and given by below
equation,

62
 𝐺0 𝜆2
𝐴𝑒𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒𝑟 =
4𝜋

By Friss Transmission equation,

𝑃𝑟 𝜆 2
= ( ) 𝐺𝑜𝑡 𝐺𝑜𝑟
𝑃𝑡 4𝜋𝑅

Writing above equation in terms of dB, we get,

4𝜋𝑅 𝑃𝑟
(𝐺𝑜𝑡 )𝑑𝐵 + (𝐺𝑜𝑟 )𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝜆 𝑃𝑡

Where, 𝐺𝑜𝑡 – gain of transmitting antenna

𝐺𝑜𝑟 – gain of receiving antenna

𝑃𝑟 – received power

𝑃𝑡 – transmitted power

𝑅 – antenna separation

𝜆 – operating wavelength

Figure 5.1. Block diagram for Absolute Gain Detection Method Using Two Antennas

63
Since transmission and receiver antennas are identical, the above equation can be modified as

1 4𝜋𝑅 𝑃𝑟
(𝐺𝑜𝑡 )𝑑𝐵 = (𝐺𝑜𝑟 )𝑑𝐵 = [20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )]
2 𝜆 𝑃𝑡

◼ Three antenna Method

The Three-Antenna gain method is commonly used on far-field ranges to determine an

antenna’s absolute gain. This is especially true when no other calibrated antenna is available.
The gain of each antenna is determined by solving a set of three equations describing the direct
gain measurements of three antennas. For three antennas (a,b,c) whose combination are done
as (a,b), (b,c) and (a,c), transmission equations can be given as follows,

(a – b combination)

4𝜋𝑅 𝑃𝑟𝑏
(𝐺𝑎 )𝑑𝐵 + (𝐺𝑏 )𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝜆 𝑃𝑡𝑎

(b – c combination)

4𝜋𝑅 𝑃𝑟𝑐
(𝐺𝑏 )𝑑𝐵 + (𝐺𝑐 )𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝜆 𝑃𝑡𝑏

(a – c combination)

4𝜋𝑅 𝑃𝑟𝑐
(𝐺𝑎 )𝑑𝐵 + (𝐺𝑐 )𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝜆 𝑃𝑡𝑎

◼ Extrapolation Method

Extrapolation method is generally used along with three antenna methods of gain
measurement. This method was developed to overcome the errors due to proximity, multipath
and non-identical antennas. There are three cases of output that can be expected here. If no
antenna is circularly polarized, the method yields gains and polarizations of all the three
antennas. The gain and polarization of a particular antenna is yielded if one of the antennas are
circularly polarized. System is declared to have failed when two or more antennas are circularly
polarized.

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 ◼ Ground reflection range Method

The gain reflection range method involves comparing the received power at a certain
distance with the power received from a known isotropic radiator. This method of gain
measurement is used to measure the gain of moderately broad beam antennas. This method is
generally used when operating frequency is less than 1GHz and I s applicable to linear antennas
that couple only electric field. The given technique is applicable when height of the receiving
antenna ℎ𝑟 << 𝑅0 (Range). Hence, the gain equation of two antenna and three antenna method
takes the following form:

4𝜋𝑅𝐷 𝑃𝑟 𝑟𝑅𝐷
(𝐺𝑎 )𝑑𝐵 + (𝐺𝑏 )𝑑𝐵 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) − 20𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (√𝐷𝐴 𝐷𝐵 + )
𝜆 𝑃𝑡 𝑅𝑅

Where, 𝐷𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐵 are directivities along 𝑅𝐷

𝑟 is the function of radiation pattern

5.2 GAIN TRANSFER METHOD

The gain transfer method is a technique used to measure the gain of an antenna. This
method involves comparing the power received by two antennas in the exact same location, a
reference antenna and the unknown one. The antenna with a higher gain will receive more
power than the one with a lower gain. To carry out a direct comparison, you will need to
measure the power received by each antenna. The gain transfer method is the most time-
efficient gain measurement technique in the far field using a "known" gain standard. Gain
transfer method involves three steps to determine the gain of an antenna.

Step 1: Relative gain of test antenna is measured.

Step 2: The obtained value is compared with the known gain of standard antenna.

Step 3: Yielding the absolute value.

Two set measurement – Procedure

Set 1: Use the test antenna as receiving antenna and received power 𝑃𝑇 is recorded.

Set 2: Test antenna is replaced by standard gain antenna and received power 𝑃𝑆 is recorded.

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Both the set are determined at intact geometrical arrangement and input power. Hence, the
equation of two antenna and ground reflection methods are reduced to,

𝑃𝑇
(𝐺𝑇 )𝑑𝐵 = (𝐺𝑆 )𝑑𝐵 + 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑃𝑠

Where, 𝐺𝑇 – gain in (dB) of test gain antenna

𝐺𝑆 – gain in (dB) of standard gain antenna

Figure 5.2. Block Diagram for Gain Transfer Method of Gain Measurement

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CHAPTER 6

EXPERIMENTAL RESULT AND TESTING

This section presents the experimental results and testing procedures of a microstrip antenna
designed for 5G wireless communication applications. The antenna was designed, fabricated,
and tested to evaluate its performance in terms of bandwidth, gain, radiation pattern, and
impedance matching.

◼ ANTENNA DESIGN

The microstrip antenna was designed using a substrate material with dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟 =
4.4 and a thickness of h = 1.6 mm. The antenna was designed for a resonant frequency of 5
GHz, commonly used in Wi-Fi and 5G Mobile applications. The design parameters included
the length (L), width (W), and feed position on the microstrip patch.

◼ FABRICATION

The microstrip antenna was fabricated using standard printed circuit board (PCB) fabrication
techniques. A copper layer was etched onto the dielectric substrate to form the patch, and a
coaxial feed was connected to the patch. The fabrication process ensured precision in the
dimensions and maintained the substrate's dielectric properties.

Figure 6.1. Fabricated antenna with FR4 Substrate – Front View

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 Figure 6.2. Fabricated antenna with FR4 Substrate – Rear View

◼ EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 6.3. Block diagram representation of Experimental Setup for Antenna Gain Measurement

The experimental setup consisted of the following components:

▪ Signal Generator: A signal generator is an electronic device that produces electrical

signals with specific properties, such as amplitude, frequency, and waveform shape.
These signals can be either analog or digital and are used for various purposes,
including testing, troubleshooting, designing, and repairing electronic devices. The

68
 working principle of a signal generator involves the generation of a continuous or
discrete signal according to user specifications.

Figure 6.4. Signal Generator

▪ Vector Network Analyzer: A Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) is a test instrument

used to characterize and measure the performance of RF and microwave devices. It
works by measuring the transmitted and reflected waves as a signal pass through a
device under test, allowing for the analysis of various network parameters such as
impedance, gain, and phase.

Figure 6.5. Vector Network Analyzer

▪ Spectrum Analyzer: A spectrum analyzer is a device used to measure the strength of

an RF signal over a defined band of frequencies. It can measure the performance of an
antenna by sweeping a radio frequency signal across the antenna and measuring the
antenna's gain at each frequency. They also help in detecting faulty cables, connectors,
and other components that may be causing problems. The signal passes through a filter
that allows only a specific range of frequencies, and the resulting signal is then passed
through an amplifier and displayed on a screen.

69
 Figure 6.6. Spectrum Analyzer

Generally, anechoic chambers are used in antenna testing to provide a controlled environment
for accurate measurements of antenna performance. These chambers are designed to minimize
signal reflections, simulating a free space range like outer space.

Figure 6.7. Anechoic Chamber for Antenna testing

70
RESULT

The microstrip antenna with FR4 substrate material having dielectric constant 𝜀𝑟 = 4.4 and a
thickness of h = 1.6 mm was designed for a resonant frequency of 5 GHz, and the following
outputs were observed. The realized gain of 3.61dBi was obtained through the simulations
which will be theoretically verified, and process is shown below. The antenna's bandwidth was
determined by measuring the -10 dB return loss points. The results indicated a bandwidth of
approximately 200 MHz, centered around 5 GHz, which is suitable for Wi-Fi and Bluetooth
applications.

The gain of the antenna was theoretically calculated using the given equation below. Note that
the Antennas were placed 3 meters apart fulfilling the condition 2𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝜆. Effective Cable loss
was found to be -56dB. The gain of the antenna was found to be -50dB and since both
transmitter and receiver antennas were of similar type, the gain would be half of the difference
of cable loss and reading value. i.e., 3dB which is approximately equal to the value obtained
through simulations.

Figure 6.8. S11 Parameters of the fabricated antenna

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 Table 4. Comparison between Simulation and Fabrication results
Property Simulated Result Fabricated Result

Return Loss -29.2764 dB -50 dB

Gain 2.77 dB 3 dB
Bandwidth 264.6 MHz 319.2 MHz

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CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

In Conclusion, this project has focused on the design and implementation of microstrip patch
antennas for 5G applications. We have successfully designed and fabricated a rectangular
microstrip antenna with coaxial probe feeding at 5 GHz frequency for 5G wireless
communication applications. Different shapes of antennas, such as rectangular, square, and
circular patch antennas, have been simulated using various feeding mechanisms, including
inset feeding and coaxial probe feeding. The results have shown that the performance of the
microstrip patch antennas is highly dependent on the choice of substrate material, as well as
the shape and feeding mechanism. The simulation results have provided valuable insights into
the design considerations for microstrip patch antennas in 5G applications.

▪ New Applications: Microstrip patch antennas have already found applications in

various fields such as communication, radar, and sensing. However, there is still a lot
of scope for new applications in areas such as medical and biomedical, automotive, and
aerospace.
▪ Improved Performance: Researchers are working on improving the performance of
microstrip patch antennas by using new materials, such as metamaterials, and
optimizing the design parameters. The use of advanced fabrication techniques, such as
3D printing, can also improve the performance and reduce the cost of microstrip patch
antennas.
▪ Integration with Other Components: Microstrip patch antennas can be integrated
with other components such as sensors, actuators, and energy harvesters to develop
smart and autonomous systems for various applications. For example, microstrip patch
antennas can be used to power and communicate with wireless sensors in structural
health monitoring systems.
▪ Future of Communication: Microstrip patch antennas are expected to play a crucial
role in the future of communication, especially in the development of 5G and beyond
wireless networks. Researchers are working on developing new antenna designs that
can operate at higher frequencies and provide better performance.

73
In summary, the future of microstrip patch antennas lies in the development of new
applications, improved performance, integration with other components, and their role in the
future of communication.

74
REFERENCES

1. Constantine A Balanis, “Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design”, 2nd Edition Wiley
Publications.
2. Shivangi Verma, Leena Mahajan, Rajesh Kumar, Hardeep Singh Saini, Naveen Kumar, “A
Small Microstrip Patch Antenna for Future 5G Applications”, 5th International Conference on
Reliability, Infocom Technologies and Optimization (ICRITO) (Trends and Future Directions),
Sep. 7-9, 2016, AIIT, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India
3. John Colaco, Rajesh lohani, “Design and Implementation of Microstrip Circular Patch Antenna
for 5G Applications”, 2nd International Conference on Electrical, Communication and
Computer Engineering (ICECCE) 12-13 June 2020, Istanbul, Turkey
4. Sundeep Kumar and Arvind Kumar, “Design of circular patch antennas for 5G applications”,
IEEE, 2nd International Conference on Innovations in Electronics, Signal Processing and
Communication (IESC), Shillong, India,2019
5. Gurdeep Singh, Jaget Singh, “Comparative Analysis of Microstrip Patch Antenna With
Different Feeding Technique”, International Conference on Recent Advances and Future
Trends in Information Technology (iRAFIT2012) Proceedings published in International
Journal of Computer Applications® (IJCA)
6. S. S. Pattnaik, Gianluca Lazzi, and Om P. Gandhi. “Wide-Band High-Gain Microstrip Antenna
for Mobile Telephones”, IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 40, 1 (Feb. 1998), 88-90.
7. Hau Wah Lai; Hang Wong, "Substrate Integrated Magneto-Electric Dipole Antenna for 5G Wi-
Fi," in Antennas and Propagation, IEEE Transactions on, vol.63, no.2, pp.870-874, Feb. 2015.
8. https://www.pulseelectronics.com/products/antennas
9. https://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/patches/antenna.php#introduction
10. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_radiation_pattern.htm
11. https://www.antenna-theory.com/basics/gain.php
12. https://www.antenna-theory.com/basics/bandwidth.php
13. https://www.antenna-theory.com/basics/bandwidth.php
14. https://www.data-alliance.net/blog/antenna-beamwidth/
15. https://www.antenna-theory.com/definitions/vswr.php
16. https://www.antenna-theory.com/m/index.php

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ANNEXURE

MATLAB CODE FOR THE PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF FEED POINT LOCATION OF

THE ANTENNA

clc;
clear all;
close all;
syms x;
c=3e8;
f0=input("Enter the resonating Frequency: ");
lambda=c/f0;
disp(lambda);
w=input("Enter Width of the patch antenna: ");
L=input("Enter Length of the patch antenna: ");
k0=(2*pi)/lambda;
disp(k0);
cons=k0*w/2;
disp(cons)
l1=(sin(cons*cos(x))/cos(x))^2 *sin(x)^3 ;
l1_res = vpaintegral(l1,x,[0 pi]);
g1=l1_res/(120*(pi^2));
disp(g1);
l2=(sin(cons*cos(x))/cos(x))^2 * besselj(0,k0*L*sin(x))* (sin(x)^3);
l2_res=vpaintegral(l2,x ,[0 pi]);
g12=l2_res/(120*(pi^2));
disp(g12);
rin=1/(2*(g1+g12));
disp(rin);
riny0=50
y0 = (L/pi)*acos(sqrt(riny0/rin));
disp(y0);

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MATLAB CODE FOR THE PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS OF THE RECTANGULAR
PATCH ANTENNA

clc;
clear all;
close all;

f0 = 5e9; % Frequency in Hz (e.g., 2.4 GHz)

eps_r = 4.3; % Relative permittivity of the substrate
hs = 1.6e-3; % Thickness of the substrate
c = 3e8; % Speed of light in m/s
lambda = c / f0; % Wavelength
k0 = (2*pi) / lambda;
R_inner = 0.61e-3; % Radius of Inner Conductor
R_outer = 2.05e-3; % Radius of Outer Conductor
k = 0; % Bessel function order

disp(k0);

syms x;

% Microstrip patch antenna dimensions

W = c / ( 2*f0*(sqrt((eps_r + 1) / 2))); % Width of the patch
eps_r_eff = ((eps_r + 1)/2) + ((eps_r - 1)/2) * (1 + 12 * (hs/W)) .^ (-1/2);
% Effective Dielectric constant
L_eff = c/ ( 2 * f0 * sqrt(eps_r_eff)); %Effective length
dL = ((0.412*hs) * (eps_r_eff + 0.3) * ((W/hs) + 0.264)) / ((eps_r_eff - 0.258) *
((W/hs) + 0.8)); % Length Extension
L = L_eff - 2*dL; % Length of the patch

disp(W);
disp(eps_r_eff);
disp(L_eff);
disp(dL);
disp(L);

Z_in = 90 * ((eps_r^2) / (eps_r -1)) * (L/W).^2; % Microstrip line impedance

Zc = 50; % Coaxial Feed Impedance
Rin_y0 = Zc;

disp(Z_in);

q0 = sin(((k0*W)/2) * cos(x));
q1 = ((q0 / cos(x))^2);

l1_function = q1 * sin(x)^2 * sin(x);

l1 = int(l1_function, x, [0 pi]);
G1 = l1 / (120 * pi^2);
disp(G1);

r = linspace(R_inner, R_outer);
J0 = besselj(k,r); %Bessel Function
disp(J0);

s1 = sin(((k0*W)/2) * cos(x));
s2 = ((s1 / cos(x))^2);

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l2_function = s2 * (J0*k0*L*sin(x)) * sin(x)^2 * sin(x);
l2 = int(l2_function, x, [0 pi]);
G12 = l2 / (120 * pi^2);
disp(G12);

Rin_y = 1 / (2*(G1 + G12));

y0 = (L/pi) * acos(sqrt(Rin_y0 / Rin_y));

disp(Rin_y);
disp(Rin_y0);
disp(y0);

78