Euler angles

The Euler angles are t hree angles int roduced by Leonhard Euler t o describe t he orient at ion
of a rigid body wit h respect t o a fixed coordinat e syst em.[1]

Classic Euler angles geometrical definition.

Fixed coordinate system (x, y, z )
Rotated coordinate system (X, Y, Z)
Line of nodes (N)
They can also represent t he orient at ion of a mobile frame of reference in physics or t he
orient at ion of a general basis in 3-dimensional linear algebra. Alt ernat ive forms were lat er
int roduced by Pet er Gut hrie Tait and George H. Bryan int ended for use in aeronaut ics and
engineering.

Chained rotations equivalence

Any target orientation can be reached, starting from a known reference orientation, using a specific sequence of
intrinsic rotations, whose magnitudes are the Euler angles of the target orientation. This example uses the z-x′-z″
sequence.

Euler angles can be defined by element al geomet ry or by composit ion of rot at ions. The
geomet rical definit ion demonst rat es t hat t hree composed elemental rotations (rot at ions
about t he axes of a coordinat e syst em) are always sufficient t o reach any t arget frame.

The t hree element al rot at ions may be ext rinsic (rot at ions about t he axes xyz of t he original
coordinat e syst em, which is assumed t o remain mot ionless), or int rinsic (rot at ions about t he
axes of t he rot at ing coordinat e syst em XYZ, solidary wit h t he moving body, which changes it s
orient at ion wit h respect t o t he ext rinsic frame aft er each element al rot at ion).

Euler angles are t ypically denot ed as α, β, γ, or ψ, θ, φ. Different aut hors may use different
set s of rot at ion axes t o define Euler angles, or different names for t he same angles.
Therefore, any discussion employing Euler angles should always be preceded by t heir
definit ion.

Wit hout considering t he possibilit y of using t wo different convent ions for t he definit ion of
t he rot at ion axes (int rinsic or ext rinsic), t here exist t welve possible sequences of rot at ion
axes, divided in t wo groups:

Proper Euler angles (z-x-z, x-y-x, y-z-y, z-y-z, x-z-x, y-x-y)

 Tait–Bryan angles (x-y-z, y-z-x, z-x-y, x-z-y, z-y-x, y-x-z).

Tait –Bryan angles are also called Cardan angles ; nautical angles ; heading, elevation, and
bank ; or yaw, pitch, and roll. Somet imes, bot h kinds of sequences are called "Euler angles". In
t hat case, t he sequences of t he first group are called proper or classic Euler angles.

Proper Euler angles

Left: A gimbal set, showing a z-x-z rotation sequence. External frame shown in the base. Internal axes in red color.
Right: A simple diagram showing similar Euler angles in a diagram.

Geometrical definition

The axes of t he original frame are denot ed as x, y, z and t he axes of t he rot at ed frame as X, Y,
Z. The geometrical definition (somet imes referred t o as st at ic) begins by defining t he line
of nodes (N) as t he int ersect ion of t he planes xy and XY (it can also be defined as t he
common perpendicular t o t he axes z and Z and t hen writ t en as t he vect or product N = z Z).
Using it , t he t hree Euler angles can be defined as follows:

(or ) is t he signed angle bet ween t he x axis and t he N axis (x-convent ion – it could also
be defined bet ween y and N, called y-convent ion).

(or ) is t he angle bet ween t he z axis and t he Z axis.

(or ) is t he signed angle bet ween t he N axis and t he X axis (x-convent ion).

Euler angles bet ween t wo reference frames are defined only if bot h frames have t he same
handedness.

Conventions by intrinsic rotations

Int rinsic rot at ions are element al rot at ions t hat occur about t he axes of a coordinat e syst em
XYZ at t ached t o a moving body. Therefore, t hey change t heir orient at ion aft er each
element al rot at ion. The XYZ syst em rot at es, while xyz is fixed. St art ing wit h XYZ overlapping
xyz, a composit ion of t hree int rinsic rot at ions can be used t o reach any t arget orient at ion for
XYZ.

Euler angles can be defined by int rinsic rot at ions. The rot at ed frame XYZ may be imagined t o
be init ially aligned wit h xyz, before undergoing t he t hree element al rot at ions represent ed by
Euler angles. It s successive orient at ions may be denot ed as follows:

x- y- z, or x0- y0- z0 (init ial)

x′- y′- z′, or x1- y1- z1 (aft er first rot at ion)

x″- y″- z″, or x2- y2- z2 (aft er second rot at ion)

X- Y- Z, or x3- y3- z3 (final)

For t he above-list ed sequence of rot at ions, t he line of nodes N can be simply defined as t he
orient at ion of X aft er t he first element al rot at ion. Hence, N can be simply denot ed x′.
Moreover, since t he t hird element al rot at ion occurs about Z, it does not change t he
orient at ion of Z. Hence Z coincides wit h z″. This allows us t o simplify t he definit ion of t he
Euler angles as follows:

α (or ) represent s a rot at ion around t he z axis,

β (or ) represent s a rot at ion around t he x′ axis,

γ (or ) represent s a rot at ion around t he z″ axis.

Conventions by extrinsic rotations

Ext rinsic rot at ions are element al rot at ions t hat occur about t he axes of t he fixed coordinat e
syst em xyz. The XYZ syst em rot at es, while xyz is fixed. St art ing wit h XYZ overlapping xyz, a
composit ion of t hree ext rinsic rot at ions can be used t o reach any t arget orient at ion for XYZ.
The Euler or Tait –Bryan angles (α, β, γ) are t he amplit udes of t hese element al rot at ions. For
inst ance, t he t arget orient at ion can be reached as follows (not e t he reversed order of Euler
angle applicat ion):

The XYZ syst em rot at es about t he z axis by γ. The X axis is now at angle γ wit h respect t o
t he x axis.

The XYZ syst em rot at es again, but t his t ime about t he x axis by β. The Z axis is now at
angle β wit h respect t o t he z axis.

The XYZ syst em rot at es a t hird t ime, about t he z axis again, by angle α.
In sum, t he t hree element al rot at ions occur about z, x and z. Indeed, t his sequence is oft en
denot ed z- x- z (or 3-1-3). Set s of rot at ion axes associat ed wit h bot h proper Euler angles and
Tait –Bryan angles are commonly named using t his not at ion (see above for det ails).

Signs, ranges and conventions

Angles are commonly defined according t o t he right -hand rule. Namely, t hey have posit ive
values when t hey represent a rot at ion t hat appears clockwise when looking in t he posit ive
direct ion of t he axis, and negat ive values when t he rot at ion appears count er-clockwise. The
opposit e convent ion (left hand rule) is less frequent ly adopt ed.

About t he ranges (using int erval not at ion):

for α and γ, t he range is defined modulo 2π radians. For inst ance, a valid range could be
[−π, π].

for β, t he range covers π radians (but can't be said t o be modulo π). For example, it could be
[0, π] or [−π/2, π/2].

The angles α, β and γ are uniquely det ermined except for t he singular case t hat t he xy and t he
XY planes are ident ical, i.e. when t he z axis and t he Z axis have t he same or opposit e
direct ions. Indeed, if t he z axis and t he Z axis are t he same, β = 0 and only (α + γ) is uniquely
defined (not t he individual values), and, similarly, if t he z axis and t he Z axis are opposit e, β = π
and only (α − γ) is uniquely defined (not t he individual values). These ambiguit ies are known as
gimbal lock in applicat ions.

There are six possibilit ies of choosing t he rot at ion axes for proper Euler angles. In all of t hem,
t he first and t hird rot at ion axes are t he same. The six possible sequences are:

1. z1- x′- z2″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or z2- x- z1 (ext rinsic rot at ions)

2. x1- y′- x2″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or x2- y- x1 (ext rinsic rot at ions)

3. y1- z′- y2″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or y2- z- y1 (ext rinsic rot at ions)

4. z1- y′- z2″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or z2- y- z1 (ext rinsic rot at ions)

5. x1- z′- x2″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or x2- z- x1 (ext rinsic rot at ions)

6. y1- x′- y2″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or y2- x- y1 (ext rinsic rot at ions)

Precession, nutation and intrinsic rotation

Euler basic motions of the Earth. Intrinsic (green), Precession (blue) and Nutation (red)

Precession, nut at ion, and int rinsic rot at ion (spin) are defined as t he movement s obt ained by
changing one of t he Euler angles while leaving t he ot her t wo const ant . These mot ions are not
expressed in t erms of t he ext ernal frame, or in t erms of t he co-moving rot at ed body frame,
but in a mixt ure. They const it ut e a mixed axes of rotation syst em, where t he first angle
moves t he line of nodes around t he ext ernal axis z, t he second rot at es around t he line of
nodes N and t he t hird one is an int rinsic rot at ion around Z, an axis fixed in t he body t hat moves.

The st at ic definit ion implies t hat :

α (precession) represent s a rot at ion around t he z axis,

β (nut at ion) represent s a rot at ion around t he N or x′ axis,

γ (int rinsic rot at ion) represent s a rot at ion around t he Z or z″ axis.

If β is zero, t here is no rot at ion about N. As a consequence, Z coincides wit h z, α and γ

represent rot at ions about t he same axis (z), and t he final orient at ion can be obt ained wit h a
single rot at ion about z, by an angle equal t o α + γ.

As an example, consider a t op. The t op spins around it s own axis of symmet ry; t his
corresponds t o it s int rinsic rot at ion. It also rot at es around it s pivot al axis, wit h it s cent er of
mass orbit ing t he pivot al axis; t his rot at ion is a precession. Finally, t he t op can wobble up and
down; t he inclinat ion angle is t he nut at ion angle. The same example can be seen wit h t he
movement s of t he eart h.

Though all t hree movement s can be represent ed by a rot at ion operat or wit h const ant
coefficient s in some frame, t hey cannot be represent ed by t hese operat ors all at t he same
t ime. Given a reference frame, at most one of t hem will be coefficient -free. Only precession
can be expressed in general as a mat rix in t he basis of t he space wit hout dependencies of
t he ot her angles.
These movement s also behave as a gimbal set . If we suppose a set of frames, able t o move
each wit h respect t o t he former according t o just one angle, like a gimbal, t here will exist an
ext ernal fixed frame, one final frame and t wo frames in t he middle, which are called
"int ermediat e frames". The t wo in t he middle work as t wo gimbal rings t hat allow t he last
frame t o reach any orient at ion in space.

Tait–Bryan angles

Tait–Bryan angles. z-y′-x″ sequence (intrinsic rotations; N coincides with y'). The angle rotation sequence is ψ, θ, φ.
Note that in this case ψ > 90° and θ is a negative angle.

The second t ype of formalism is called Tait–Bryan angles , aft er Pet er Gut hrie Tait and
George H. Bryan. It is t he convent ion normally used for aerospace applicat ions, so t hat zero
degrees elevat ion represent s t he horizont al at t it ude. Tait –Bryan angles represent t he
orient at ion of t he aircraft wit h respect t o t he world frame. When dealing wit h ot her vehicles,
different axes convent ions are possible.

Definitions
Tait–Bryan angles. z-x′-y″ sequence (intrinsic rotations; N coincides with x′)

The definit ions and not at ions used for Tait –Bryan angles are similar t o t hose described above
for proper Euler angles (geomet rical definit ion, int rinsic rot at ion definit ion, ext rinsic rot at ion
definit ion). The only difference is t hat Tait –Bryan angles represent rot at ions about t hree
dist inct axes (e.g. x- y- z, or x- y′- z″), while proper Euler angles use t he same axis for bot h t he
first and t hird element al rot at ions (e.g., z- x- z, or z- x′- z″).

This implies a different definit ion for t he line of nodes in t he geomet rical const ruct ion. In t he
proper Euler angles case it was defined as t he int ersect ion bet ween t wo homologous
Cart esian planes (parallel when Euler angles are zero; e.g. xy and XY). In t he Tait –Bryan angles
case, it is defined as t he int ersect ion of t wo non-homologous planes (perpendicular when
Euler angles are zero; e.g. xy and YZ).

Conventions

Heading, elevation and bank angles (Z-Y′-X″) for an aircraft using onboard ENU axes both onboard and for the ground
tracking station. The fixed reference frame x-y-z represents such a tracking station. Onboard axes Y and Z are not
shown. X shown in green color. This figure doesn't respect the RHS rules: the y-axis must be reversed to form a RHS
with positive angles indicated.

The t hree element al rot at ions may occur eit her about t he axes of t he original coordinat e
syst em, which remains mot ionless (ext rinsic rot at ions), or about t he axes of t he rot at ing
coordinat e syst em, which changes it s orient at ion aft er each element al rot at ion (int rinsic
rot at ions).

There are six possibilit ies of choosing t he rot at ion axes for Tait –Bryan angles. The six
possible sequences are:

x- y′- z″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or z- y- x (ext rinsic rot at ions)

 y- z′- x″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or x- z- y (ext rinsic rot at ions)

z- x′- y″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or y- x- z (ext rinsic rot at ions)

x- z′- y″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or y- z- x (ext rinsic rot at ions)

z- y′- x″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or x- y- z (ext rinsic rot at ions): t he int rinsic rot at ions are known as:
yaw, pit ch and roll

y- x′- z″ (int rinsic rot at ions) or z- x- y (ext rinsic rot at ions)

Signs and ranges

The principal axes of an aircraft according to the air norm DIN 9300. Notice that fixed and mobile frames must be
coincident with angles zero. Therefore, this norm would force also a compatible axes convention in the reference
system

Tait –Bryan convent ion is widely used in engineering wit h different purposes. There are several
axes convent ions in pract ice for choosing t he mobile and fixed axes, and t hese convent ions
det ermine t he signs of t he angles. Therefore, signs must be st udied in each case carefully.

The range for t he angles ψ and φ covers 2π radians. For θ t he range covers π radians.

Alternative names

These angles are normally t aken as one in t he ext ernal reference frame (heading, bearing), one
in t he int rinsic moving frame (bank) and one in a middle frame, represent ing an elevat ion or
inclinat ion wit h respect t o t he horizont al plane, which is equivalent t o t he line of nodes for
t his purpose.
Mnemonics to remember angle names

For an aircraft , t hey can be obt ained wit h t hree rot at ions around it s principal axes if done in
t he proper order. A yaw will obt ain t he bearing, a pit ch will yield t he elevat ion and a roll gives
t he bank angle. Therefore, in aerospace t hey are somet imes called yaw, pitch and roll. Not ice
t hat t his will not work if t he rot at ions are applied in any ot her order or if t he airplane axes
st art in any posit ion non-equivalent t o t he reference frame.

Tait –Bryan angles, following z- y′- x″ (int rinsic rot at ions) convent ion, are also known as nautical
angles , because t hey can be used t o describe t he orient at ion of a ship or aircraft , or Cardan
angles , aft er t he It alian mat hemat ician and physicist Gerolamo Cardano, who first described
in det ail t he Cardan suspension and t he Cardan joint .

Angles of a given frame

Projections of Z vector
Projections of Y vector

A common problem is t o find t he Euler angles of a given frame. The fast est way t o get t hem
is t o writ e t he t hree given vect ors as columns of a mat rix and compare it wit h t he expression
of t he t heoret ical mat rix (see lat er t able of mat rices). Hence t he t hree Euler Angles can be
calculat ed. Nevert heless, t he same result can be reached avoiding mat rix algebra and using
only element al geomet ry. Here we present t he result s for t he t wo most commonly used
convent ions: ZXZ for proper Euler angles and ZYX for Tait –Bryan. Not ice t hat any ot her
convent ion can be obt ained just changing t he name of t he axes.

Proper Euler angles

Assuming a frame wit h unit vect ors (X, Y, Z) given by t heir coordinat es as in t he main diagram,
it can be seen t hat :

And, since

for we have

As is t he double project ion of a unit ary vect or,

There is a similar const ruct ion for , project ing it first over t he plane defined by t he axis z
and t he line of nodes. As t he angle bet ween t he planes is and
, t his leads t o:

and finally, using t he inverse cosine funct ion,

Tait–Bryan angles

Projections of x-axis after three Tait–Bryan rotations. Notice that theta is a negative rotation around the axis y′.

Assuming a frame wit h unit vect ors (X, Y, Z) given by t heir coordinat es as in t his new diagram
(not ice t hat t he angle t het a is negat ive), it can be seen t hat :

As before,

for we have
in a way analogous t o t he former one:

Looking for similar expressions t o t he former ones:

Last remarks

Not e t hat t he inverse sine and cosine funct ions yield t wo possible values for t he argument . In
t his geomet rical descript ion, only one of t he solut ions is valid. When Euler angles are defined
as a sequence of rot at ions, all t he solut ions can be valid, but t here will be only one inside t he
angle ranges. This is because t he sequence of rot at ions t o reach t he t arget frame is not
unique if t he ranges are not previously defined.[2]

For comput at ional purposes, it may be useful t o represent t he angles using at an2(y, x). For
example, in t he case of proper Euler angles:

Conversion to other orientation representations

Euler angles are one way t o represent orient at ions. There are ot hers, and it is possible t o
change t o and from ot her convent ions. Three paramet ers are always required t o describe
orient at ions in a 3-dimensional Euclidean space. They can be given in several ways, Euler
angles being one of t hem; see chart s on SO(3) for ot hers.

The most used orient at ion represent at ion are t he rot at ion mat rices, t he axis-angle and t he
quat ernions, also known as Euler–Rodrigues paramet ers, which provide anot her mechanism for
represent ing 3D rot at ions. This is equivalent t o t he special unit ary group descript ion.

Expressing rot at ions in 3D as unit quat ernions inst ead of mat rices has some advant ages:

Concat enat ing rot at ions is comput at ionally fast er and numerically more st able.

Ext ract ing t he angle and axis of rot at ion is simpler.

 Int erpolat ion is more st raight forward. See for example slerp.

Quat ernions do not suffer from gimbal lock as Euler angles do.

Regardless, t he rot at ion mat rix calculat ion is t he first st ep for obt aining t he ot her t wo
represent at ions.

Rotation matrix

Any orient at ion can be achieved by composing t hree element al rot at ions, st art ing from a
known st andard orient at ion. Equivalent ly, any rot at ion mat rix R can be decomposed as a
product of t hree element al rot at ion mat rices. For inst ance:

is a rot at ion mat rix t hat may be used t o represent a composit ion of ext rinsic rot at ions about
axes z, y, x, (in t hat order), or a composit ion of int rinsic rot at ions about axes x- y′- z″ (in t hat
order). However, bot h t he definit ion of t he element al rot at ion mat rices X, Y, Z, and t heir
mult iplicat ion order depend on t he choices t aken by t he user about t he definit ion of bot h
rot at ion mat rices and Euler angles (see, for inst ance, Ambiguit ies in t he definit ion of rot at ion
mat rices). Unfort unat ely, different set s of convent ions are adopt ed by users in different
cont ext s. The following t able was built according t o t his set of convent ions:

1. Each mat rix is meant t o operat e by pre-mult iplying column vect ors (see

Ambiguit ies in t he definit ion of rot at ion mat rices)

2. Each mat rix is meant t o represent an act ive rot at ion (t he composing and composed
mat rices are supposed t o act on t he coordinat es of vect ors defined in t he init ial fixed
reference frame and give as a result t he coordinat es of a rot at ed vect or defined in t he
same reference frame).

3. Each mat rix is meant t o represent , primarily, a composit ion of int rinsic rot at ions (around
t he axes of t he rot at ing reference frame) and, secondarily, t he composit ion of t hree
ext rinsic rot at ions (which corresponds t o t he const ruct ive evaluat ion of t he R mat rix by
t he mult iplicat ion of t hree t ruly element al mat rices, in reverse order).

4. Right handed reference frames are adopt ed, and t he right hand rule is used t o det ermine
t he sign of t he angles α, β, γ.

For t he sake of simplicit y, t he following t able of mat rix product s uses t he following
nomenclat ure:
 1. 1, 2, 3 represent t he angles α, β and γ, i.e. t he angles corresponding t o t he first , second
and t hird element al rot at ions respect ively.

2. X, Y, Z are t he mat rices represent ing t he element al rot at ions about t he axes x, y, z of t he
fixed frame (e.g., X1 represent s a rot at ion about x by an angle α).

3. s and c represent sine and cosine (e.g., s 1 represent s t he sine of α).

Proper Euler angles Tait–Bryan angles

These t abular result s are available in numerous t ext books.[3] For each column t he last row
const it ut es t he most commonly used convent ion.

To change t he formulas for passive rot at ions (or find reverse act ive rot at ion), t ranspose t he
mat rices (t hen each mat rix t ransforms t he init ial coordinat es of a vect or remaining fixed t o
t he coordinat es of t he same vect or measured in t he rot at ed reference syst em; same
rot at ion axis, same angles, but now t he coordinat e syst em rot at es, rat her t han t he vect or).

The following t able cont ains formulas for angles α, β and γ from element s of a rot at ion
mat rix .[4]
Proper Euler angles Tait–Bryan angles
Properties

The Euler angles form a chart on all of SO(3), t he special ort hogonal group of rot at ions in 3D
space. The chart is smoot h except for a polar coordinat e st yle singularit y along β = 0. See
chart s on SO(3) for a more complet e t reat ment .

The space of rot at ions is called in general "The Hypersphere of rot at ions", t hough t his is a
misnomer: t he group Spin(3) is isomet ric t o t he hypersphere S 3, but t he rot at ion space SO(3)
is inst ead isomet ric t o t he real project ive space RP 3 which is a 2-fold quot ient space of t he
hypersphere. This 2-t o-1 ambiguit y is t he mat hemat ical origin of spin in physics.

A similar t hree angle decomposit ion applies t o SU(2), t he special unit ary group of rot at ions in
complex 2D space, wit h t he difference t hat β ranges from 0 t o 2π. These are also called
Euler angles.

The Haar measure for SO(3) in Euler angles is given by t he Hopf angle paramet risat ion of
SO(3), ,[5] where paramet rise , t he space of rot at ion
axes.

For example, t o generat e uniformly randomized orient at ions, let α and γ be uniform from 0 t o
2π, let z be uniform from −1 t o 1, and let β = arccos(z).

Geometric algebra
Ot her propert ies of Euler angles and rot at ions in general can be found from t he geomet ric
algebra, a higher level abst ract ion, in which t he quat ernions are an even subalgebra. The
principal t ool in geomet ric algebra is t he rot or where
angle of rot at ion, is t he rot at ion axis (unit ary vect or) and is t he pseudoscalar (t rivect or in
)

Higher dimensions

It is possible t o define paramet ers analogous t o t he Euler angles in dimensions higher t han
t hree.[6]

The number of degrees of freedom of a rot at ion mat rix is always less t han t he dimension of
t he mat rix squared. That is, t he element s of a rot at ion mat rix are not all complet ely
independent . For example, t he rot at ion mat rix in dimension 2 has only one degree of freedom,
since all four of it s element s depend on a single angle of rot at ion. A rot at ion mat rix in
dimension 3 (which has nine element s) has t hree degrees of freedom, corresponding t o each
independent rot at ion, for example by it s t hree Euler angles or a magnit ude one (unit )
quat ernion.

In SO(4) t he rot at ion mat rix is defined by t wo quat ernions, and is t herefore 6-paramet ric
(t hree degrees of freedom for every quat ernion). The 4 × 4 rot at ion mat rices have t herefore
6 independent component s out of 16.

Any set of 6 paramet ers t hat define t he rot at ion mat rix could be considered an ext ension of
Euler angles t o dimension 4.

In general, t he number of Euler angles in dimension D is quadrat ic in D; since any one rot at ion
consist s of choosing t wo dimensions t o rot at e bet ween, t he t ot al number of rot at ions

available in dimension is , which for yields

Applications

Vehicles and moving frames

Their main advant age over ot her orient at ion descript ions is t hat t hey are direct ly measurable
from a gimbal mount ed in a vehicle. As gyroscopes keep t heir rot at ion axis const ant , angles
measured in a gyro frame are equivalent t o angles measured in t he lab frame. Therefore, gyros
are used t o know t he act ual orient at ion of moving spacecraft , and Euler angles are direct ly
measurable. Int rinsic rot at ion angle cannot be read from a single gimbal, so t here has t o be
more t han one gimbal in a spacecraft . Normally t here are at least t hree for redundancy. There
is also a relat ion t o t he well-known gimbal lock problem of mechanical engineering[7] .

When st udying rigid bodies in general, one calls t he xyz syst em space coordinates , and t he
XYZ syst em body coordinates . The space coordinat es are t reat ed as unmoving, while t he
body coordinat es are considered embedded in t he moving body. Calculat ions involving
accelerat ion, angular accelerat ion, angular velocit y, angular moment um, and kinet ic energy are
oft en easiest in body coordinat es, because t hen t he moment of inert ia t ensor does not
change in t ime. If one also diagonalizes t he rigid body's moment of inert ia t ensor (wit h nine
component s, six of which are independent ), t hen one has a set of coordinat es (called t he
principal axes) in which t he moment of inert ia t ensor has only t hree component s.

The angular velocit y of a rigid body t akes a simple form using Euler angles in t he moving
frame. Also t he Euler's rigid body equat ions are simpler because t he inert ia t ensor is const ant
in t hat frame.

Crystallographic texture

Pole figures displaying crystallographic texture of gamma-TiAl in an alpha2-gamma alloy, as measured by high energy
X-rays. [8]

In mat erials science, cryst allographic t ext ure (or preferred orient at ion) can be described
using Euler angles. In t ext ure analysis, t he Euler angles provide a mat hemat ical depict ion of
t he orient at ion of individual cryst allit es wit hin a polycryst alline mat erial, allowing for t he
quant it at ive descript ion of t he macroscopic mat erial.[9] The most common definit ion of t he
angles is due t o Bunge and corresponds t o t he ZXZ convent ion. It is import ant t o not e,
however, t hat t he applicat ion generally involves axis t ransformat ions of t ensor quant it ies, i.e.
passive rot at ions. Thus t he mat rix t hat corresponds t o t he Bunge Euler angles is t he
t ranspose of t hat shown in t he t able above.[10]
Others

Industrial robot operating in a foundry

Euler angles, normally in t he Tait –Bryan convent ion, are also used in robot ics for speaking
about t he degrees of freedom of a wrist . They are also used in elect ronic st abilit y cont rol in a
similar way.

Gun fire cont rol syst ems require correct ions t o gun-order angles (bearing and elevat ion) t o
compensat e for deck t ilt (pit ch and roll). In t radit ional syst ems, a st abilizing gyroscope wit h a
vert ical spin axis correct s for deck t ilt , and st abilizes t he opt ical sight s and radar ant enna.
However, gun barrels point in a direct ion different from t he line of sight t o t he t arget , t o
ant icipat e t arget movement and fall of t he project ile due t o gravit y, among ot her fact ors. Gun
mount s roll and pit ch wit h t he deck plane, but also require st abilizat ion. Gun orders include
angles comput ed from t he vert ical gyro dat a, and t hose comput at ions involve Euler angles.

Euler angles are also used ext ensively in t he quant um mechanics of angular moment um. In
quant um mechanics, explicit descript ions of t he represent at ions of SO(3) are very import ant
for calculat ions, and almost all t he work has been done using Euler angles. In t he early hist ory
of quant um mechanics, when physicist s and chemist s had a sharply negat ive react ion t owards
abst ract group t heoret ic met hods (called t he Gruppenpest), reliance on Euler angles was also
essent ial for basic t heoret ical work.

Many mobile comput ing devices cont ain acceleromet ers which can det ermine t hese devices'
Euler angles wit h respect t o t he eart h's gravit at ional at t ract ion. These are used in
applicat ions such as games, bubble level simulat ions, and kaleidoscopes.
See also

3D project ion

Axis-angle represent at ion

Conversion bet ween quat ernions and Euler angles

Davenport chained rot at ions

Euler's rot at ion t heorem

Gimbal lock

Quat ernion

Quat ernions and spat ial rot at ion

Rot at ion formalisms in t hree dimensions

Spherical coordinat e syst em

References

Bibliography

External links

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