Module 3

Digital Data
Communications
Techniques
 Asynchronous and Synchronous
Transmission
• Timing problems require a mechanism to
synchronize the transmitter and receiver
• Two solutions
– Asynchronous
– Synchronous
 Asynchronous
➢Data transmitted on character at a time
➢5 to 8 bits
➢Timing only needs maintaining within each
character
➢Resynchronize with each character
Asynchronous (diagram)
 Asynchronous - Behavior
➢ In a steady stream, interval between characters is
uniform (length of stop element)
➢ In idle state, receiver looks for transition 1 to 0
➢ Then samples next seven intervals (char length)
➢ Then looks for next 1 to 0 for next char

➢ Simple
➢ Cheap
➢ Overhead of 2 or 3 bits per char (~20%)
➢ Good for data with large gaps (keyboard)
 Synchronous - Bit Level
➢Block of data transmitted without start or stop
bits
➢Clocks must be synchronized
➢Can use separate clock line
➢Good over short distances
➢Subject to impairments
➢Embed clock signal in data
➢Manchester encoding
➢Carrier frequency (analog)
 Synchronous - Block Level
➢Need to indicate start and end of block
➢Use preamble and postamble
➢e.g. series of SYN (hex 16) characters
➢e.g. block of 11111111 patterns ending in
11111110

➢More efficient (lower overhead) than async

Synchronous (diagram)
 Types of Error
➢ An error occurs when a bit is altered between transmission
and reception
➢ Single bit errors
➢ One bit altered
➢ Adjacent bits not affected
➢ Burst errors
➢ Length B
➢ Contiguous sequence of B bits in which first last and any
number of intermediate bits in error
➢ Impulse noise
➢ Fading in wireless
➢ Effect greater at higher data rates
Error Detection Process
 Error Detection
➢Additional bits added by transmitter for error
detection code
➢Parity
➢Value of parity bit is such that character has even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity) number of ones
➢Even number of bit errors goes undetected
 Cyclic Redundancy Check
➢For a block of k bits transmitter generates n
bit sequence
➢Transmit k-n bits which is exactly divisible by
some number
➢Receive divides frame by that number
➢If no remainder, assume no error
 Error Correction
➢ Correction of detected errors usually requires
data block to be retransmitted
➢ Not appropriate for wireless applications
➢Bit error rate is high
➢Larger number of retransmissions
➢Propagation delay can be long compared with frame
transmission time
➢Would result in retransmission of frame in error plus many
subsequent frames
➢ Need to correct errors on basis of bits received
Error Correction Process Diagram
 Error Correction Process
• Each k bit block mapped to an n bit block (n>k)
– Codeword
– Forward error correction (FEC) encoder
• Codeword sent
• Received bit string similar to transmitted but may contain
errors
• Received code word passed to FEC decoder
– If no errors, original data block output
– Some error patterns can be detected and corrected
– Some error patterns can be detected but not corrected
– Some (rare) error patterns are not detected
• Results in incorrect data output from FEC
 Working of Error Correction
• Add redundancy to transmitted message
• Can deduce original in face of certain level of
error rate
• E.g. block error correction code
– In general, add (n – k ) bits to end of block
• Gives n bit block (codeword)
• All of original k bits included in codeword
– Some FEC map k bit input onto n bit codeword
such that original k bits do not appear
 Line Configuration
➢ Topology
➢ Physical arrangement of stations on medium
➢ Point to point
➢ Multi point
➢ Computer and terminals, local area network
➢ Half duplex
➢ Only one station may transmit at a time
➢ Requires one data path
➢ Full duplex
➢ Simultaneous transmission and reception between two stations
➢ Requires two data paths (or echo canceling)
Traditional Configurations
 Module 3
Chapter 7

Data Link Control

Protocols
 Flow Control
➢Ensuring the sending entity does not
overwhelm the receiving entity
➢Preventing buffer overflow
➢Transmission time
➢Time taken to emit all bits into medium
➢Propagation time
➢Time for a bit to traverse the link
Model of Frame Transmission
 Stop and Wait
➢Source transmits frame
➢Destination receives frame and replies with
acknowledgement
➢Source waits for ACK before sending next
frame
➢Destination can stop flow by not send ACK
➢Works well for a few large frames
 Fragmentation
• Large block of data may be split into small frames
– Limited buffer size
– Errors detected sooner (when whole frame received)
– On error, retransmission of smaller frames is needed
– Prevents one station occupying medium for long
periods
• Stop and wait becomes inadequate
Stop and Wait Link Utilization
 Sliding Windows Flow Control
• Allow multiple frames to be in transit
• Receiver has buffer W long
• Transmitter can send up to W frames without
ACK
• Each frame is numbered
• ACK includes number of next frame expected
• Sequence number bounded by size of field (k)
– Frames are numbered modulo 2k
Sliding Window Diagram
Example Sliding Window
 Sliding Window Enhancements
• Receiver can acknowledge frames without
permitting further transmission (Receive Not
Ready)
• Must send a normal acknowledge to resume
• If duplex, use piggybacking
– If no data to send, use acknowledgement frame
– If data but no acknowledgement to send, send last
acknowledgement number again, or have ACK
valid flag (TCP)
 Error Detection
• Additional bits added by transmitter for error
detection code
• Parity
– Value of parity bit is such that character has even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity) number of ones
– Even number of bit errors goes undetected
 Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
• Stop and wait
• Go back N
• Selective reject (selective retransmission)
 Stop and Wait
• Source transmits single frame
• Wait for ACK
• If received frame damaged, discard it
– Transmitter has timeout
– If no ACK within timeout, retransmit
• If ACK damaged,transmitter will not recognize it
– Transmitter will retransmit
– Receive gets two copies of frame
– Use ACK0 and ACK1
Stop and Wait -
Diagram
 Go Back N
• Based on sliding window
• If no error, ACK as usual with next frame expected
• Use window to control number of outstanding
frames
• If error, reply with rejection
– Discard that frame and all future frames until error
frame received correctly
– Transmitter must go back and retransmit that frame
and all subsequent frames
 Go Back N - Damaged Frame
• Receiver detects error in frame i
• Receiver sends rejection-i
• Transmitter gets rejection-i
• Transmitter retransmits frame i and all
subsequent
Go Back N -
Diagram
 Selective Reject
• Also called selective retransmission
• Only rejected frames are retransmitted
• Subsequent frames are accepted by the
receiver and buffered
• Minimizes retransmission
• Receiver must maintain large enough buffer
• More complex login in transmitter
Selective Reject -
Diagram
 High Level Data Link Control
• HDLC
• ISO 33009, ISO 4335
 Frame Structure
• Synchronous transmission
• All transmissions in frames
• Single frame format for all data and control
exchanges
Frame Structure
 HDLC station types

• Primary station
• Secondary station
• Combined station
• Unbalanced configuration
• Balanced configuration
• Normal response mode (NRM)
• Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM)
• Asynchronous response mode (ARM)
 Flag Fields
• Delimit frame at both ends
• 01111110
• May close one frame and open another
• Receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize
• Bit stuffing used to avoid confusion with data containing
01111110
– 0 inserted after every sequence of five 1s
– If receiver detects five 1s it checks next bit
– If 0, it is deleted
– If 1 and seventh bit is 0, accept as flag
– If sixth and seventh bits 1, sender is indicating abort
Bit Stuffing
• Example with
possible errors
 Address Field
• Identifies secondary station that sent or will receive frame
• Usually 8 bits long
• May be extended to multiples of 7 bits
– LSB of each octet indicates that it is the last octet (1) or not (0)
• All ones (11111111) is broadcast
 Control Field
• Different for different frame type
– Information - data to be transmitted to user (next
layer up)
• Flow and error control piggybacked on information frames
– Supervisory - ARQ when piggyback not used
– Unnumbered - supplementary link control
• First one or two bits of control filed identify
frame type
• Remaining bits explained later
Control Field Diagram
 Poll/Final Bit
• Use depends on context
• Command frame
– P bit
– 1 to solicit (poll) response from peer
• Response frame
– F bit
– 1 indicates response to soliciting command
 Information Field
• Only in information and some unnumbered
frames
• Must contain integral number of octets
• Variable length
 Frame Check Sequence Field
• FCS
• Error detection
• 16 bit CRC
• Optional 32 bit CRC
 HDLC Operation
• Exchange of information, supervisory and
unnumbered frames
• Three phases
– Initialization
– Data transfer
– Disconnect
Examples of Operation
Examples of Operation
 Module 3

Chapter-8
Multiplexing
Multiplexing
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
• FDM
• Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required
bandwidth of channel
• Each signal is modulated to a different carrier
frequency
• Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
• e.g. broadcast radio
• Channel allocated even if no data
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Diagram
FDM System
FDM of Three Voiceband Signals
 Analog Carrier Systems
• AT&T (USA)
• Hierarchy of FDM schemes
• Group
– 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz
– Range 60kHz to 108kHz
• Supergroup
– 60 channel
– FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and 612 kHz
• Mastergroup
– 10 supergroups
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
• Multiple beams of light at different frequency
• Carried by optical fiber
• A form of FDM
• Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate data channel
• 1997 Bell Labs
– 100 beams
– Each at 10 Gbps
– Giving 1 terabit per second (Tbps)
• Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now available
• Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39.8 Gbps each
– 10.1 Tbps
– Over 100km
 WDM Operation
• Same general architecture as other FDM
• Number of sources generating laser beams at different
frequencies
• Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over single
fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
– Typically tens of km apart
• Demux separates channels at the destination
• Mostly 1550nm wavelength range
• Was 200MHz per channel
• Now 50GHz
 Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
• DWDM
• No official or standard definition
• Implies more channels more closely spaced
that WDM
• 200GHz or less
 Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of
digital signal to be transmitted
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
• May be at bit level of blocks
• Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Time slots do not have to be evenly
distributed amongst sources
Time Division Multiplexing
TDM System
 TDM Link Control
• No headers and trailers
• Data link control protocols not needed
• Flow control
– Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
– If one channel receiver can not receive data, the
others must carry on
– The corresponding source must be quenched
– This leaves empty slots
• Error control
– Errors are detected and handled by individual channel
systems
Data Link Control on TDM
 Framing
• No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM
frames
• Must provide synchronizing mechanism
• Added digit framing
– One control bit added to each TDM frame
• Looks like another channel - “control channel”
– Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel
– e.g. alternating 01010101…unlikely on a data channel
– Can compare incoming bit patterns on each channel
with sync pattern
 Pulse Stuffing
• Problem - Synchronizing data sources
• Clocks in different sources drifting
• Data rates from different sources not related by
simple rational number
• Solution - Pulse Stuffing
– Outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher
than sum of incoming rates
– Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming
signal until it matches local clock
– Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and
removed at demultiplexer
TDM of Analog and Digital Sources
 Digital Carrier Systems
• Hierarchy of TDM
• USA/Canada/Japan use one system
• ITU-T use a similar (but different) system
• US system based on DS-1 format
• Multiplexes 24 channels
• Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one
framing bit
• 193 bits per frame
 Digital Carrier Systems
• For voice each channel contains one word of
digitized data (PCM, 8000 samples per sec)
– Data rate 8000x193 = 1.544Mbps
– Five out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples
– Sixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit
– Signaling bits form stream for each channel containing
control and routing info
• Same format for digital data
– 23 channels of data
• 7 bits per frame plus indicator bit for data or systems control
– 24th channel is sync
DS-1 Transmission Format
 SONET/SDH
• Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
• Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
• Compatible
• Signal Hierarchy
– Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or Optical
Carrier level 1 (OC-1)
– 51.84Mbps
– Carry DS-3 or group of lower rate signals (DS1 DS1C
DS2) plus ITU-T rates (e.g. 2.048Mbps)
– Multiple STS-1 combined into STS-N signal
– ITU-T lowest rate is 155.52Mbps (STM-1)
SONET Frame Format
SONET STS-1 Overhead Octets
 Statistical TDM
• In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
• Statistical TDM allocates time slots
dynamically based on demand
• Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data
until frame full
• Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of
input lines
Statistical TDM Frame Formats
 Performance
• Output data rate less than aggregate input
rates
• May cause problems during peak periods
– Buffer inputs
– Keep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay
Buffer Size
and Delay
 Cable Modem Outline
• Two channels from cable TV provider dedicated to data
transfer
– One in each direction
• Each channel shared by number of subscribers
– Scheme needed to allocate capacity
– Statistical TDM
 Cable Modem Operation
• Downstream
– Cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
– If more than one subscriber active, each gets fraction of downstream
capacity
• May get 500kbps to 1.5Mbps
– Also used to allocate upstream time slots to subscribers
• Upstream
– User requests timeslots on shared upstream channel
• Dedicated slots for this
– Headend scheduler sends back assignment of future tme slots to
subscriber
Cable Modem Scheme
 Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line
• ADSL
• Link between subscriber and network
– Local loop
• Uses currently installed twisted pair cable
– Can carry broader spectrum
– 1 MHz or more
 ADSL Design
• Asymmetric
– Greater capacity downstream than upstream
• Frequency division multiplexing
– Lowest 25kHz for voice
• Plain old telephone service (POTS)
– Use echo cancellation or FDM to give two bands
– Use FDM within bands
• Range 5.5km
ADSL Channel Configuration
 Discrete Multitone
• DMT
• Multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
• Some bits on each channel
• 4kHz subchannels
• Send test signal and use subchannels with better
signal to noise ratio
• 256 downstream subchannels at 4kHz (60kbps)
– 15.36MHz
– Impairments bring this down to 1.5Mbps to 9Mbps
DTM Bits Per Channel Allocation
DMT Transmitter
 xDSL
• High data rate DSL
• Single line DSL
• Very high data rate DSL