Training Material – 8051 Microcontroller

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VECTOR'S 8051 DOCUMENTATION FOR AT89s52

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Chapter 1
Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 2
Microcontrollers ..................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Microprocessor .................................................................................................................................. 5
Microcontroller .................................................................................................................................. 6
Microcontrollers and Microprocessors .............................................................................................. 7
Block Diagram of Microcontroller .................................................................................................... 8
Central Processing Unit (CPU) ...................................................................................................... 8
I/O (Input/output) devices .............................................................................................................. 8
Memory .......................................................................................................................................... 8
Example ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Bus Unit ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Address bus .................................................................................................................................. 10
Data bus ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Control bus ................................................................................................................................... 10
Registers ........................................................................................................................................... 11
ALU (arithmetic/logic unit) ............................................................................................................. 11
Program counter ............................................................................................................................... 11
Instruction decoder........................................................................................................................... 12
Comparing Microprocessors and Microcontrollers ......................................................................... 12
Types of Microcontrollers................................................................................................................ 13
The 8-Bit Microcontroller ............................................................................................................ 13
The 16-Bit Microcontroller .......................................................................................................... 13
The 32-Bit Microcontroller .......................................................................................................... 13
Microcontroller Architectural Features............................................................................................ 14
Von-Neuman Architecture ........................................................................................................... 14
Harvard Architecture ................................................................................................................... 15
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Architecture ............................................................ 15
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Architecture............................................................. 16
Commercial Microcontroller Devices.............................................................................................. 17
Micro-coded processor..................................................................................................................... 17
Hardwired processor ........................................................................................................................ 17
8051 Microcontroller ........................................................................................................................... 18
Features ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Block Diagram of 8051 .................................................................................................................... 19
8051 Pin Diagram ............................................................................................................................ 20
PIN Description of 8051 .................................................................................................................. 21
Crystal Circuit .............................................................................................................................. 22
RESET (RST) .............................................................................................................................. 22

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8051 Memory Organization ............................................................................................................. 24

Data Memory Address Space Memory Organization Of 8051 .................................................... 24
Register Banks in the 8051 .......................................................................................................... 26
Special Function Registers (SFRS) Memory Organization Of 8051 ........................................... 27
Program Memory Address Space (ROM) Of 8051 ..................................................................... 30
Assembly Language ............................................................................................................................. 31
Addressing Modes ........................................................................................................................... 33
Immediate Addressing Mode ....................................................................................................... 34
Direct Addressing mode .............................................................................................................. 35
Register Addressing Mode ........................................................................................................... 35
Indirect Addressing Mode............................................................................................................ 36
Indirect (External RAM) .............................................................................................................. 36
Indexed Addressing Mode ........................................................................................................... 37
Instruction Set .................................................................................................................................. 37
Data Transfer Instruction Set ....................................................................................................... 37
Arithmetic Instruction Set ............................................................................................................ 40
Logical Instruction set.................................................................................................................. 44
Branch Instruction Set.................................................................................................................. 47
Assembler Directive (or) pseudo–instructions................................................................................. 51
MACRO ........................................................................................................................................... 54
Tools & Development ...................................................................................................................... 55
IDE (Integrated Development Environment)............................................................................... 55
Flow Chart for KEIL IDE for 8051 ................................................................................................. 55
File Extensions ................................................................................................................................. 56
Machine cycle .................................................................................................................................. 56
8051 Machine Cycle .................................................................................................................... 57
Assembly Language Programming .................................................................................................. 58
Delay ............................................................................................................................................ 58
I/O Programming for I/O Port Pins .................................................................................................. 61
LED: ............................................................................................................................................. 66
Switch .......................................................................................................................................... 69
7 Seven Segment Display ............................................................................................................ 71
Embedded C ......................................................................................................................................... 75
Memory Areas ................................................................................................................................. 76
Memory Models ............................................................................................................................... 77
Memory Type Description ............................................................................................................... 78
Special Function Registers ............................................................................................................... 79
Embedded C Programming .............................................................................................................. 83
Time delay ................................................................................................................................... 83
LED .............................................................................................................................................. 86
SWITCH ...................................................................................................................................... 88
7-SEGMENT ............................................................................................................................... 89
Key Board .................................................................................................................................... 91
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) ..................................................................................................... 95

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Timers ............................................................................................................................................ 104

SERIAL COMMUNICATION ...................................................................................................... 114
Serial Communication Programming ........................................................................................ 122
Interrupts ........................................................................................................................................ 126
Interrupts in 8051 ....................................................................................................................... 128
Snap Shots for Keil uvision2 ............................................................................................................. 139
SCHEMATICS .................................................................................................................................. 180
ASSIGNMENTS................................................................................................................................ 192

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Microcontrollers
Introduction
Microcontrollers have only been with us for a few decades but their impact (direct or indirect) on our
lives is profound. Usually these are supposed to be just data processors are performing exhaustive
numeric operations but their presence is unnoticed at most of the places like
 At supermarkets in Cash Registers, Weighing Scales, etc.
 At home in Ovens, Washing Machines, Alarm Clocks, etc…
 At play in Toys, VCRs, Stereo Equipment, etc.
 At office in Typewriters, Photocopiers, Elevators, etc…
 In industry in Industrial Automation, safety systems, etc…
 On roads in Cars, Traffic Signals, etc.
Simply an embedded controller is a controller that is embedded in a greater system. One can define
an embedded controller as a controller (or computer) that is embedded into some device for some
purpose other than to provide general purpose computing. Some devices like 68000, 32032, x86,
Z80, and so on that are used as embedded controllers but they are not microcontrollers.

Example
For suppose if we want to control a device such as a microwave oven, car braking system or a cruise
missile. An embedded controller may also embed on the on-chip resources like a microcontroller.
Microcontrollers and microprocessors are widely used in embedded systems. However, we preferred
microcontrollers to microprocessors for embedded systems due to low power consumption.

If we want to know about microcontroller first of all we have to know General purpose
Microprocessor and Microcontroller.

Microprocessor
This is a normal CPU (Central Processing Unit) as you can find in a PC. Communication with
external devices is achieved via a data bus, hence the chip mainly features data and address pins as
well as a couple of control pins.

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All peripheral devices (memory, floppy controller, USB controller, timer . . .) are connected to the
bus. A microprocessor cannot be operated stand-alone; at the very least it requires some memory and
an output device to be useful.
Please note that a processor is no controller. Nevertheless, some manufacturers and vendors list their
controllers under the term “microprocessor”. In this text we use the term processor just for the
processor core (the CPU) of a microcontroller.
 Must add RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers externally to make them functional
 Make the system bulkier and much more expensive
 Have the advantage of versatility on the amount of RAM, ROM, and I/O ports

Microcontroller
A microcontroller already contains all components which allow it to operate standalone, and it has
been designed in particular for monitoring and/or control tasks. In consequence, in addition to the
processor it includes memory, various interface controllers, one or more timers, an interrupt
controller, and last but definitely not least general purpose I/O pins which allow it to directly
interface to its environment. Microcontrollers also include bit operations which allow you to change
one bit within a byte without touching the other bits.
 The fixed amount of on-chip ROM, RAM, and number of I/O ports makes them ideal for
many applications in which cost and space are critical
 In many applications, the space it takes, the power it consumes, and the price per unit are
much more critical considerations than the computing power
 An embedded product uses a microprocessor (or microcontroller) to do one task and one task
only
 There is only one application software that is typically burned into ROM
 A PC, in contrast with the embedded system, can be used for any number of applications
 It has RAM memory and an operating system that loads a variety of applications into
RAM and lets the CPU run them
 A PC contains or is connected to various embedded products
 Each one peripheral has a microcontroller inside it that performs only one task
A digital computer having microprocessor as the CPU along with I/O devices and memory is known
as microcomputer.
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A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip, which includes on single chip, all or most of the parts
needed for a controller. The microcontroller typically includes: CPU (Central Processing Unit),
RAM (Random Access Memory), EPROM/PROM/ROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory), I/O (input/output) – serial and parallel, timers, interrupt controller. For example, Intel
8051 is 8-bit microcontroller and Intel 8096 is 16-bit microcontroller.

Microcontrollers and Microprocessors

A controller is used to control some process. At one time, controllers were built exclusively from
logic components, and were usually large, heavy boxes. Later on, microprocessors were used and the
entire controller could fit on a small circuit board. This is still common– one can find many
controllers powered by one of the many common microprocessors (including Zilog Z80, Intel 8088,
Motorola 6809, and others). As the process of miniaturization continued, all of the components
needed for a controller were built right onto one chip. A one chip on a computer, or microcontroller
was born.

By only including the features specific to the task (control), cost is relatively low. A typical
microcontroller has bit manipulation instructions, easy and direct access to I/O (input/output), and
quick and efficient interrupt processing. Figure 1.3 shows the block diagram of a typical
microcontroller.

A CPU built into a single VLSI chip is called microprocessor. It contains arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU), Instruction decodes and control unit, Instruction register, Program counter (PC), clock circuit
(internal or external), reset circuit (internal or external) and registers. For example, Intel 8085 is 8-bit
microprocessor and Intel 8086/8088 is 16-bit microprocessor. Microprocessor is general-purpose
digital computer central processing unit (CPU).The microprocessor is general- Microprocessor is
general-purpose digital computer central processing unit (CPU).

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Block Diagram of Microcontroller

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU is the brain of the computer system. It performs all operations on data. It continuously performs
two operations: fetching and executing the instructions. It understands and executes the instructions
based on a set of binary codes called the instruction set. The microprocessor is general-purpose
device and additional external circuitry is added to make it microcomputer.
Another simple definition for CPU is it Executes information stored in memory

I/O (Input/output) devices

 Provide a means of communicating with CPU

Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) - Temporary storage of programs that computer is running and
the data is lost when computer is off

ROM (Read Only Memory) – contains programs and information essential to operation of the
computer and the information cannot be changed by use, and is not lost when power is off
– It is called nonvolatile memory

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EEPROM (also written E2PROM and pronounced "e-e-prom," "double-e prom," "e-squared," or
simply "e-prom") stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory and is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic devices to
store small amounts of data that must be saved when power is removed,

Example

 Calibration tables
 Device configuration

When larger amounts of static data are to be stored (such as in USB flash drives) a specific type of
EEPROM such as flash memory is more economical than traditional EEPROM devices. EEPROMs
are realized as arrays of floating-gate transistors.

EEPROM is user-modifiable read-only memory (ROM) that can be erased and reprogrammed
(written to) repeatedly through the application of higher than normal electrical voltage generated
externally or internally in the case of modern EEPROMs

Bus Unit
The CPU is connected to memory and I/O through strips of wire called a bus
 Carries information from place to place
 Address bus
 Data bus
 Control bus
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Address bus
For a device (memory or I/O) to be recognized by the CPU, it must be assigned an address
 The address assigned to a given device must be unique
 The CPU puts the address on the address bus, and the decoding circuitry finds the device
 The address bus is unidirectional

Data bus
 The CPU either gets data from the device or sends data to it
 Data buses are bidirectional

Control bus
 Provides read or write signals to the device to indicate if the CPU is asking for information or
sending it information
 For the CPU to process information, the data must be stored in RAM or ROM, which are
referred to as primary memory
 ROM provides information that is fixed and permanent
 Tables or initialization program
 RAM stores information that is not permanent and can change with time
 Various versions of OS and application packages
 CPU gets information to be processed
o first form RAM (or ROM)
o if it is not there, then seeks it from a mass storage device, called secondary
memory, and transfers the information to RAM

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Registers
The CPU uses registers to store information temporarily
 Values to be processed
 Address of value to be fetched from memory
 Registers can be 8-, 16-, 32-, or 64-bit
 The disadvantage of more and bigger registers

ALU (arithmetic/logic unit)

Performs arithmetic functions such as add, subtract, multiply, and divide, and logic
Functions such as AND, OR, and NOT

Program counter
Points to the address of the next instruction is to be fetched
 As each instruction is executed, the program counter is incremented to point to the address of
the next instruction is to be fetched
One more important register in the 8051 is the PC (Program Counter). The program counter points to
the address of next instruction to be fetched. As the CPU fetches the opcode from program ROM, the
program counter is incremented by 1 to point to the next instruction. The PC in the 8051 is 16 bit
register. This means that the 8051 can access program addresses 0000 to FFFFH, a total of 64K bytes
of code.

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Instruction decoder
Interprets the instruction fetched into the CPU
 A CPU capable of understanding more instructions requires more transistors to design

Comparing Microprocessors and Microcontrollers

 Microprocessor is a single chip CPU, microcontroller contains, a CPU and much of the
remaining circuitry of a complete microcomputer system in a single chip.
 Microcontroller includes RAM, ROM, serial and parallel interface, timer, interrupt schedule
circuitry (in addition to CPU) in a single chip.
 RAM is smaller than that of even an ordinary microcomputer, but enough for its
applications.
 Interrupt system is an important feature, for example opening of microwave oven’s door
cause an interrupt to stop the operation. This example is used in real-time by using
microcontrollers
 Microprocessors are most commonly used as the CPU in microcomputer systems.
Microcontrollers are used in small, minimum component designs performing control-oriented
activities.
 Microprocessor instruction sets are _processing intensive_, implying powerful addressing
modes with instructions catering to large volumes of data. Their instructions operate on
nibbles, bytes, etc. Microcontrollers have instruction sets catering to the control of inputs and
outputs. Their instructions operate also on a single bit. E.g., a motor may be turned ON and
OFF by a 1-bit output port.

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Types of Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers can be classified on the basis of internal bus width, architecture, memory and
instruction set. Figure 1.4 shows the various types of microcontrollers.

The 8-Bit Microcontroller

When the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a byte (8-bits) at an instruction, the
microcontroller is an 8-bit microcontroller. The internal bus width of 8-bit microcontroller is of 8-bit.

Examples
The 8- Bit Microcontrollers are Intel 8051 family and Motorola MC68HC11 family.

The 16-Bit Microcontroller

When the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a word (16-bits) at an instruction, the
microcontroller is a 16-bit microcontroller. The internal bus width of 16-bit microcontroller is of 16-
bit.

Examples
The 16-bit microcontrollers are Intel 8096 family and Motorola MC68HC12 and MC68332 families.
The performance and computing capability of 16 bit microcontrollers are enhanced with greater
precision as compared to the 8-bit microcontrollers.

The 32-Bit Microcontroller

When the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations on a double word (32-bits) at an
instruction, the microcontroller is a 32-bit microcontroller. The internal bus width of 32-bit
microcontroller is of 32-bit.

Examples
The 32-bit microcontrollers are Intel 80960 family and Motorola M683xx and Intel/Atmel 251
family. The performance and computing capability of 32 bit microcontrollers are enhanced with
greater precision as compared to the 16-bit microcontrollers.

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Microcontroller Architectural Features

There are mainly two categories of processors, namely, Von-Neuman (or) Princeton architecture and
Harvard Architecture. These two architectures differ in the way data and programs are stored and
accessed.

Von-Neuman Architecture
Microcontrollers based on the Von-Neuman architecture have a single data bus that is used to fetch
both instructions and data. Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
When such a controller addresses main memory, it first fetches an instruction, and then it fetches the
data to support the instruction. The two separate fetches slows up the controller’s operation. The
Von-Neuman architecture’s main advantage is that it simplifies the microcontroller design because
only one memory is accessed. In microcontrollers, the contents of RAM can be used for data storage
and program instruction storage.
Example: Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller

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Harvard Architecture
Microcontrollers based on the Harvard Architecture have separate data bus and an instruction bus.
This allows execution to occur in parallel. As an instruction is being “pre-fetched”, the current
instruction is executing on the data bus. Once the current instruction is complete, the next instruction
is ready to go. This pre-fetch theoretically allows for much faster execution than Von-Neuman
architecture, on the expense of complexity. The Harvard Architecture executes the instructions in
fewer instruction cycles than the Von-Neuman architecture.
Example: Intel MCS-51 family (8051), PIC microcontrollers

Microcontrollers based on instruction set it’s divided in to two types

 CISC (COMPLEX INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER)
 RISC (REDUCED INSTRUCTION SET COMPUTER)

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) Architecture

Almost today’s all microcontrollers are based on the CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
concept. When a microcontroller has an instruction set that supports many addressing modes for the
arithmetic and logical instructions, data transfer and memory accesses instructions, the
microcontroller is said to be of CISC architecture.

The typical CISC microcontroller has well over 80 instructions, many of them very powerful and
very specialized for specific control tasks. It is quite common for the instructions to all behave quite
differently. Some might only operate on certain address spaces or registers, and others might only
recognize certain addressing modes.

The advantages of the CISC architecture are that many of the instructions are macro like, allowing
the programmer to use one instruction in place of many simpler instructions.
Eg: Intel 8096 and 8051 family

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RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) Architecture

The industry trend for microprocessor design is for Reduced Instruction Set Computers
(RISC) designs. When a microcontroller has an instruction set that supports fewer addressing modes
for the arithmetic and logical instructions and for data transfer instructions, the microcontroller is
said to be of RISC architecture. The benefits of RISC design simplicity are a smaller chip, smaller
pin count, and very low power consumption.

Some of the typical features of RISC processor- Harvard architecture are

1. Allows simultaneous access of program and data.
2. Overlapping of some operations for increased processing performance.
3. Instruction pipelining increases execution speed.
4. Orthogonal (symmetrical) instruction set for programming simplicity.
5. Allows each instruction to operate on any register or use any addressing mode.

Applications
 Home monitoring System
 Automotive Appliances
 Microwave Oven
 Refrigerators
 Television
 VCRs
 Stereos
 Automobiles
 Engine Control
 Diagnostics
 Climate Control
 Environmental Control
 Green House
 Factory
 Home

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 Instrumentation
 Aerospace
 Robotics
 Data logging (from Sensors like Temperature, Humidity etc...)

Commercial Microcontroller Devices

Microcontrollers come in many varieties. Depending on the power and features that are needed, one
might choose a 4 bit, 8 bit, 16 bit, or 32 bit microcontroller. In addition, some specialized versions
are available which include features specific for communications, keyboard handling, signal
processing, video processing, and other tasks. The examples of different types of commercial
microcontroller devices are given in the following table

Micro-coded processor
It’s a processor within a processor, or a state machine that executes each different instruction as the
address to a subroutine of instructions.

Hardwired processor
A processor which uses the bit pattern of the instruction to access specific logic gates (unique to the
instruction), which are executed as a combinatorial circuit to carry out the instruction

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8051 Microcontroller
Features
The main features of 8051 microcontroller are
 RAM – 128 Bytes (Data memory)
 ROM – 4Kbytes (ROM signify the on – chip program space)
 8-bit data bus – It can access 8 bits of data in one operation
 16-bit address bus – It can access 216 memory locations for dual purpose – 64 KB (65536
locations) each of RAM and ROM
 Serial Port – Using UART makes it simpler to interface for serial communication.
 Two 16 bit Counter/Timers
 Input/output Pins – 4 Ports of 8 bits each on a single chip.
 6 Interrupt Sources
 8 bit ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), Accumulator and 8-bit Registers; hence it is an 8-bit
microcontroller
 Harvard Memory and CISC Architecture
 8051 can execute 1 million one-cycle instructions per second with a clock frequency of
12MHz.
 8051 consists of 16-bit program counter and data pointer
 8051 also consists of 32 general purpose registers each of 8 bits

The 8051 contains a micro coded processor that is in contrast to other microcontroller that uses a
hardwired one.

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Block Diagram of 8051

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8051 Pin Diagram

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PIN Description of 8051

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Crystal Circuit
The 8051 has an on-chip oscillator but requires an external clock to run it
 A quartz crystal oscillator is connected to inputs XTAL1 (pin19) and XTAL2 (pin18)
 The quartz crystal oscillator also needs two capacitors of 30 pF value

Note: 1. C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

RESET (RST)
RESET pin is an input and is active high (normally low)
 Upon applying a high pulse to this pin, the microcontroller will reset and terminate all
activities
 This is often referred to as a power-on reset
 Activating a power-on reset will cause all values in the registers to be lost

In order for the RESET input to be effective, it must have a minimum duration of 2 machine cycles
 In other words, the high pulse must be high for a minimum of 2 machine cycles before it is
allowed to go low

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EA bar
EA, “external access’’, is an input pin and must be connected to Vcc or GND
 The 8051 family members all come with on-chip ROM to store programs
-EA pin is connected to Vcc
 The 8031 and 8032 family members do no have on-chip ROM, so code is stored on an
external ROM and is fetched by 8031/32
-EA pin must be connected to GND to indicate that the code is stored externally
The following two pins are used mainly in 8031-based systems

PSEN, “program store enable’’, is an output pin

 This pin is connected to the OE pin of the ROM

ALE, “address latch enable”, is an output pin and is active high

 Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both address and data
 When connecting an 8051/31 to an external memory, port 0 provides both address and data
 The 8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins
 ALE indicates if P0 has address or data
 When ALE=0, it provides data D0-D7
 When ALE=1, it has address A0-A7
In 8051-based systems with no external memory connection
 Both P1 and P2 are used as simple I/O

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In 8031/51-based systems with external memory connections

 Port 2 must be used along with P0 to provide the 16-bit address for the external memory
 P0 provides the lower 8 bits via A0 – A7
 P2 is used for the upper 8 bits of the 16-bit address, designated as A8 – A15, and it cannot be
used for I/O

8051 Memory Organization

We will discuss about Memory Organization of Microcontroller 8051 Family. Most microprocessors
implement Von Neuman architecture for memory but, the 8051 implements Harvard architecture for
its memory. A separate memory space for program (code memory) and data, the architecture
provides on-chip memory as well as off-chip memory expansion capabilities. The 8051 has three
basic memory address spaces
 64K-bytes of Program Memory
 64K-bytes of External Data Program Memory
 256-bytes of Internal Data Memory

Data Memory Address Space Memory Organization Of 8051

The data memory address space consists of an internal and an external memory space. Internal data
memory is divided into the following three physically separate and distinct blocks
 Lower 128 bytes of RAM
 Upper 128 bytes of RAM (accessible in the 8032/8052 only)
 128-bytes of Special Function Register (SFR) area

Lower 128 bytes of RAM address range is 00H to 7FH.How can manufacturer divided these 128
bytes as given in below table:

RAM AREA NAME ADDRESS RANGE TOTAL(in bytes)

Register banks and the Stack 00H – 1FH 32
Bit Addressable Area 20H – 2FH 16
Scratch Pad Area 30H – 7FH 80

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The upper RAM area and the SFR (Special Function Register) area share the same address locations.
They are accessed through different addressing modes. Any location in the general-purpose RAM
can be accessed freely using the direct or indirect addressing modes.

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Register Banks in the 8051

Manufacturer allotted 32 bytes for Register Banks. These 32 bytes are divided into 4 banks of
registers in which each bank has 8 registers, named as R0-R7.Each register it takes 1 byte. So, each
bank occupies 8 bytes.
How can they give the address to that registers in each and every bank it shows in below diagram.

Bank 1 uses the same ram space as the stack. Register bank 0 is the default when the 8051 is
powered up. We can switch to other banks by use of the PSW (Program status word) register. PSW is
one of the SFR (Special Function Register) and also this one is bit addressable register. So, we can
access bit addressable instructions SETB and CLR. In this register PSW.3 and PSW.4 bits are used
to select the desired register bank as shown in below table.

Bank RS1 (PSW.4) RS0 (PSW.3)

BANK 0 0 0
BANK 1 0 1
BANK 2 1 0
BANK 3 1 1

If we are using CLR PSW.x instruction then it makes zero value in that particular bit, and if we are
using SETB PSW.x instruction then one(1) value passes in that particular bit. Where ‘x’ represents
either 3 (or) 4

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Special Function Registers (SFRS) Memory Organization Of 8051

 Special Function Registers (SFRs) are areas of memory that control specific functionality of
the 8051 processor. SFRs are accessed as if they were normal Internal RAM. The only
difference is that Internal RAM is from address 00H through 7FH whereas SFR registers
exist in the address range of 80H through FFH. Each SFR has an address (80H through FFH)
and a name.
 SFRs related to the I/O ports. The 8051 has four I/O ports of 8 bits, for a total of 32 I/O lines.
Whether a given I/O line is high or low and the value read from the line are controlled by
these SFRs.
 Total SFR memory is 128 bytes in that manufacturer allotted 21 bytes for 21 registers. Each
and every register is used for some specific application. That’s why these registers called as a
Special Function Registers.
 In total 21 SFRs only 11 SFRs are Bit – Addressable SFRs and these SFRs also Byte
Addressable SFRs
 Total 21 SFRs are Byte Addressable Registers.
 SFRs which in some way control the operation or the configuration of some aspect of the
8051.For example, TCON controls the timers, SCON controls the serial port. The remaining
SFRs are that they don't directly configure the 8051 but obviously the 8051 cannot operate
without them. For example, once the serial port has been configured using SCON, the
program may read or write to the serial port using the SBUF register. In that 21 registers
some of the registers explanation as given in below.

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PORT 0, PORT1, PORT2, PORT3 (BIT-ADDRESSABLE Registers)

PORT0 is input/output port 0. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on the
microcontroller. For example, bit 0 of port 0 is pin P0.0, bit 7 is pin P0.7. Writing a value of 1 to a
bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it
to a low level like PORT1(P1),PORT2(P2),PORT3(P3) also having same operation, addresses are
different those are available in above table.
SP (STACK POINTER, ADDRESS 81H)
SP means Stack Pointer used to access the stack. This SFR indicates where the next value to be taken
from the stack will be read from in Internal RAM. If we push a value onto the stack, the value will be
written to the address of SP + 1. That is to say, if SP holds the value 07H, a PUSH instruction will
push the value onto the stack at address 08H. This SFR is modified by all instructions, which modify
the stack, such as PUSH, POP, and LCALL, RET, RETI, and whenever interrupts are provoked by
the micro controller.
DPL/DPH (DATA POINTER LOW/HIGH, ADDRESS 82H/83H)
The SFRs DPL and DPH work together to represent a 16-bit value called the Data Pointer. The data
pointer is used in operations regarding external RAM and some instructions involving code memory.
Since it is an unsigned two-byte integer value, it can represent values from 0000H to FFFFH (0
through 65,535 decimal).
PCON (POWER CONTROL, ADDRESS 87H)
The Power Control SFR is used to control the 8051's power control modes. Additionally, one of the
bits in PCON is used to double the effective baud rate of the 8051's serial port.
TCON (TIMER CONTROL, ADDRESS 88H, BIT-ADDRESSABLE) of 8051
The Timer Control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051's two timers
operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag
to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are located in
the TCON SFR. These bits are used to configure the way in which the external interrupts are
activated and also contain the external interrupt flags which are set when an external interrupt has
occurred.

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TMOD (TIMER MODE, ADDRESS 89H)

The Timer Mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using
this SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, an 8-bit auto reload timer, a
13-bit timer, or two separate timers. Additionally, we may configure the timers to only count when
an external pin is activated or to count "events" that are indicated on an external pin.
SCON (SERIAL CONTROL, ADDRESS 98H, BIT-ADDRESSABLE)
The Serial Control SFR is used to configure the behavior of the 8051's on-board serial port. This
SFR controls the baud rate of the serial port, whether the serial port is activated to receive data, and
also contains flags that are set when a byte is successfully sent or received.
SBUF (SERIAL CONTROL, ADDRESS 99H)
The Serial Buffer SFR is used to send and receive data via the on-board serial port. Any value
written to SBUF will be sent out the serial port's TXD pin. Likewise, any value that the 8051 receive
via the serial port’s RXD pin, will be delivered to the user program via SBUF. In other words, SBUF
serves as the output port when written to and as an input port when read from.
IE (INTERRUPT ENABLE, ADDRESS A8H)
The Interrupt Enable SFR is used to enable and disable specific interrupts. The lower 7 bits of the
SFR are used to enable/disable the specific interrupts, where as the highest bit is used to enable or
disable ALL interrupts. Thus, if the high bit of IE is 0 all interrupts are disabled regardless of
whether an individual interrupt is enabled by setting a lower bit.
IP (INTERRUPT PRIORITY, ADDRESSES B8H, BIT-ADDRESSABLE)
The Interrupt Priority SFR is used to specify the relative priority of each interrupt. On the 8051, an
interrupt may either be of low (0) priority or high (1) priority.
PSW (PROGRAM STATUS WORD, ADDRESSES D0H, BIT-ADDRESSABLE)
The Program Status Word is used to store a number of important bits that are set and cleared by 8051
instructions. The PSW SFR contains the carry flag, the auxiliary carry flag, the overflow flag, and
the parity flag. Additionally, the PSW register contains the register bank select flags, which are used
to select, which of the "R" register banks are currently selected.

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ACC (ACCUMULATOR, ADDRESSES E0H, BIT- ADDRESSABLE)

The Accumulator is one of the most-used SFRs on the 8051 since it is involved in so many
instructions. The Accumulator resides as an SFR at 0E0h, which means the instruction MOV A,
#20h is really the same as MOV 0E0h, #20h. However, it is a good idea to use the first method since
it only requires two bytes whereas the second option requires three bytes.
B (B REGISTER, ADDRESSES F0H, BIT-ADDRESSABLE)
The "B" register is used in two instructions: the multiply and divide operations. Programmers also
commonly use the B register as an auxiliary register to temporarily store values.

Program Memory Address Space (ROM) Of 8051

The 64K-byte Program Memory space consists of an internal and an external memory portion. If the
External Access (EA) pin is held high, the 8051 executes 4K bytes as internal memory address range
is 0000H-0FFFH and locations 1000H through FFFFH (60 bytes) are fetched from external program
memory (or) If the External Access (EA) pin is held low, the 8051 executes total 64K bytes as
external memory address range is 0000H-FFFFH. Locations 00 through 23H in program memory are
used by the interrupt service routines.

Program Memory

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Assembly Language
An assembly language is a low-level programming language for a computer, microcontroller, or
other programmable device, in which each statement corresponds to a single machine code
instruction. Each assembly language is specific to particular computer architecture, in contrast to
most high-level programming languages, which are generally portable across multiple systems.

An assembler creates object code by translating assembly instruction mnemonics into opcodes, and
by resolving symbolic names for memory locations and other entities.

Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine operation or opcode.
Some opcodes require one or more operands as part of the instruction, and most assemblers can take
labels and symbols as operands to represent addresses and constants, instead of hard coding them
into the program.

A program written in assembly language consists of a series of (mnemonic) processor instructions

and meta-statements (known variously as directives, pseudo-instructions and pseudo-ops), comments
and data. Assembly language instructions usually consist of an opcode mnemonic followed by a list
of data, arguments or parameters. These are translated by an assembler into machine language
instructions that can be loaded into memory and executed.

Syntax
 LABEL: MNEMONIC OPERANDS ; COMMENTS
Example: MOV destination, source; copy source to dest.
 The instruction tells the CPU to move (in reality, COPY) the source operand to the
destination operand
Register are used to store information temporarily, while the information could be
 a byte of data to be processed, or
 an address pointing to the data to be fetched
The vast majority of 8051 register are 8-bit registers
 There is only one data type, 8 bits
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The 8 bits of a register are shown from MSB D7 to the LSB D0

 With an 8-bit data type, any data larger than 8 bits must be broken into 8-bit chunks before it
is processed.

The most widely used registers

 A (Accumulator)
- For all arithmetic and logic instructions
 B, R0, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7
 DPTR (data pointer), and PC (program counter)

The steps of Assembly language program are outlines as follows:

1) First we use an editor to type a program, many excellent editors or word processors are available
that can be used to create and/or edit the program
 Notice that the editor must be able to produce an ASCII file
 For many assemblers, the file names follow the usual DOS conventions, but the source file
has the extension “asm“ or “src”, depending on which assembly you are using
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2) The “asm” source file containing the program code created in step 1 is fed to an 8051 assembler
 The assembler converts the instructions into machine code
 The assembler will produce an object file and a list file
 The extension for the object file is “obj” while the extension for the list file is “lst”
3) Assembler require a third step called linking
 The linker program takes one or more object code files and produce an absolute object file
with the extension “abs”
 This abs file is used by 8051 trainers that have a monitor program
4) Next the “abs” file is fed into a program called “OH” (object to hex converter) which creates a file
with extension “hex” that is ready to burn into ROM
 This program comes with all 8051 assemblers
 Recent Windows-based assemblers combine step 2 through 4 into one step

Addressing Modes
It is a way to address an operand i.e., an "addressing mode" refers to how you are addressing a given
memory location. Total 5 types of addressing modes are available in 8051 those are given in below.

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The MCS-51 instruction set offers several addressing modes, including

 direct register, using ACC (the accumulator) and R0-R7

 direct memory, which access the internal RAM or the SFRs, depending on the address
 Indirect memory, using R0, R1, or DPTR to hold the memory address. The instruction used
may vary to access internal RAM, external RAM, or program memory.
 individual bits of a range of IRAM and some of the SFR's

Types of addressing modes

 Immediate Addressing Mode
 Register Addressing Mode
 Direct Addressing Mode
 Indirect Addressing Mode
 Indexed Addressing Mode
To Understand the Addressing Modes we are using MOV instruction that instruction explained in
Data Transfer Instruction Set in below
Examples for Addressing Modes using data transfer instruction set

Each of these addressing modes provides important flexibility.

Immediate Addressing Mode

 Specify data by its value
 The value of a constant can follow the opcode in program memory
 The # sign is the designator of the constant
Possibilities
 MOV A, #data(8-bit)
 MOV Rn, #data(8-bit) ; n=0 - 7
 MOV DPTR, #data (16-bit)
 MOV @Ri, #data(8-bit) ; i=0/1
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Examples
MOV A, #0 ; put 0 in the accumulator
A = 00000000
MOV R0, #0x11 ; put 11hex in the R0 (BANK 0)
R0 = 00010001
MOV @R0, #11 ; put 11 decimal in to internal RAM with address contained in R0
11h= 00001011
MOV DPTR, #77h ; put 77 hex in DPTR
DPTR=77h

Direct Addressing mode

 Specify data by its 8-bit address
 At least one of the operand is specified by an 8 bit address field
 Internal data RAM and SFRs can be directly addressed
Possibilities
 MOV Addr, #data(8-bit)
 MOV A, Addr
 MOV Addr, A
 MOV Rn, Addr
 MOV Addr, Rn
 MOV Addr1, Addr2
Examples
MOV A, 0x70 ; copy contents of RAM at 70h to “A”
MOV 0xD0, A ; put contents of a into PSW I.E., PSW address is 0Xd0

Register Addressing Mode

Either source or destination is one of R0-R7 and another one is accumulator
Possibilities
 MOV R0, A
 MOV A, R0

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Examples
MOV R0, #34h ; put 34h value in R0 register
MOV A, R0 ; put contents of R0 in to “A” register

Indirect Addressing Mode

 The instruction specifies a register that contains the address of the operand
 Both Internal and External RAM can be indirectly addressed
 Address register can be R0 or R1 of a selected register bank or the SP for 8 bit and DPTR for
16 bit address
Possibilities for internal RAM
 MOV @Ri, A ; i=0/1
 MOV A, @Ri ; i = 0/1
 MOV @Ri, ADDR
 MOV ADDR, @Ri
Examples
Uses register R0 or R1 for 8-bit address
MOV 0xD0, #0 ; use register bank 0
MOV R0, #0x3C ; put 3Ch value in R0 register
MOV A, #34h ; put 34h value accumulator
MOV @R0, #3 ; memory at 3C gets #3(it’s a decimal value) i.e., 3
; M [3C]  3
MOV @R0, A ; memory at 3C gets contents of ‘A’ register i.e., M [3C]  34h

Indirect (External RAM)

 All external data moves must involve A register
 Rp, where p=0/1 can address 256 bytes; DPTR can address 64K bytes
 MOVX is normally used with external RAM or I/O address.
Possibilities
 MOVX @DPTR,A
 MOVX A,@DPTR

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Examples
MOV DPTR, #4000h ; DPTR  4000h
MOV A, #5h ; A  5h
MOVX @DPTR, A ; M [4000]  A
MOVX A, @DPTR ; A  M [4000]
 Note that 9000 is an address in external memory and ‘A’ is an accumulator register.

Indexed Addressing Mode

 Source or destination address is the sum of the base address and the accumulator.
 This Addressing Mode is only for code memory read.
 Base address can be or PC
Possibilities
 MOVC A,@A + DPTR
 MOVC A,@A + PC
Examples
MOV DPTR, #4000h
MOV A, #5h
MOVC A, @A+ DPTR; A  M [4005]

Instruction Set
Instruction set is a collection of Instructions are used in 8051 to perform specific applications. Total
4 types of Instruction Sets are available in 8051 those are discussed in below.

Types of Instruction Sets

 Data Transfer Instruction Set
 Arithmetic Instruction Set
 Logical Instruction Set
 Branch Instruction Set

Data Transfer Instruction Set

Is used for transfer the data from one place to another place this instruction set having one mnemonic
and two operands.

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In these two operands one is source operand and another one is destination operand. In this
instruction set mnemonic is “MOV”, operands are either constant data, registers, addresses or
indirect registers those examples are given below.
Syntax: MOV Destination, Source ; destination  source
According to above syntax whatever the data in source operand that is moved on to the destination
operand

Examples
MOV a, #data ; move data to accumulator
MOV addr, a ; move accumulator to addr
MOV Rn, addr ; move data of that address to register of current bank (Where n=0-7)
MOV addr1, addr2; move data in that addr to internal RAM
MOV @Ri,#data; move data to internal RAM with address contained in Ri (where i=0/1)
MOV DPTR, #data (16-bit); move 16-bit data into data pointer

Above examples are transfers the data from source to destination and those operands are related to
internal ram section only. Above examples and remaining examples of data transfer instruction set
explanation as given in below (In Addressing modes Examples).
A and B are Registers
A, B registers are used for arithmetic instructions. They can be accessed by direct mode as special
function registers
B – Address 0F0h
A – Address 0E0h - use “ACC” for direct mode

Stack-oriented data transfer – another form of register indirect addressing, but using SP
Examples
MOV SP, #0x40 ; Initialize SP
PUSH 0x55 ; SP  SP+1, M [SP]  M [55] i.e., M [41]  M [55]
POP B ; B  M [55], SP  SP-1

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The stack is a section of RAM used by the CPU to store information temporarily
 This information could be data or an address
The register used to access the stack is called the SP (stack pointer) register
 The stack pointer in the 8051 is only 8 bit wide, which means that it can take value of 00 to
FFH
 When the 8051 is powered up, the SP register contains value 07
 RAM location 08 is the first location begin used for the stack by the 8051
The storing of a CPU register in the stack is called a PUSH
 SP is pointing to the last used location of the stack
 As we push data onto the stack, the SP is incremented by one
 This is different from many microprocessors
Loading the contents of the stack back into a CPU register is called a POP
 With every pop, the top byte of the stack is copied to the register specified by the instruction
and the stack pointer is decremented once
Note: can only specify RAM or SFRs (direct mode) to push or pop. Therefore, to push/pop the
accumulator, must use acc, not a.

Possibilities
PUSH acc

pop

push

Stack

Stack pointer

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Exchange Instructions
 two way data transfer i.e., move data in two directions
 All exchanges are internal to 8051
 All exchange instructions use “Accumulator”
 When using XCHD, the upper nibbles are not exchanged
Possibilities
 XCH A, Rn --> n=0-7
 XCH A, addr
 XCH A, @Ri --> i=0(or)1
 XCHD A, @Ri
Examples
XCH A, 0x30 ; A  M [30]
XCH A, R0 ; A  R0
XCH A, @R0 ; A  M [R0]
XCHD A, @R0 ; exchange lower nibbles of ‘A' register and M [R0] register.
Data Processing Instructions
 Arithmetic Instruction Set
 Logical Instruction Set

Arithmetic Instruction Set

 Add
 Subtract
 Increment
 Decrement
 Multiply
 Division
 Decimal adjust

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Mnemonic Description
ADD A, #data add A to byte, put result in A
ADDC A, addr add A, data in address with carry
SUBB A, addr subtract A, data in address with borrow
INC A increments the data by 1 in “A” register
INC addr increment data by 1 in memory(address)
INC DPTR increment data by 1 in data pointer
DEC A decrement the data by 1 in accumulator
DEC addr decrement the data by 1 in addr
MUL AB multiply accumulator with b register
DIV AB divide accumulator by b register
DA A decimal adjust the accumulator

Options
ADD A, #data (8bit)
ADDC A, Rn
SUBB A, direct_addr
A, @Ri
Examples
ADD A, byte ; A  A + byte
ADDC A, byte ; A  A + byte + C
These instructions affect 3 bits in PSW:
C = 1 if result of add is greater than FF
AC = 1 if there is a carry out of bit 3
OV = 1 if there is a carry out of bit 7, but not from bit 6, or vice versa.

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Q) What is the value of the C, AC and an OV flags after the second Instruction is executed for
below example?
MOV A, #0x3F
ADD A, #0xD3
Ans: 0011 1111 C=1
1101 0011 AC = 1
0001 0010 OV = 0

Subtract
SUBB A, #data subtract with borrow

Example:
SUBB A, #0x4F ; A  A – 4F – C
 Notice that there is no subtraction WITHOUT borrow. Therefore, if a subtraction without
borrow is desired, it is necessary to clear the C flag.

Increment and Decrement

Options
INC A
DEC Rn
direct_addr
@Ri
INC DPTR
 The increment and decrement instructions do not affect the C flag.
 Notice we can only INCREMENT the data pointer, not decrement.
Multiply
When multiplying two 8-bit numbers, the size of the maximum product is 16-bits
FF x FF = FE01 i.e., in decimal (255 x 255 = 65025)
MUL AB ; A * B (Result is stored like below format)
A  Lower byte, B  Higher byte

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Note: When we are getting more than 8 bits (1 byte), then B gets the HIGH byte, A gets the LOW
byte

Division
DIV AB ; divide A by B
A  Quotient (A/B), B  Remainder (A/B)
OV - used to indicate a divide by zero condition.
C – Set to zero

Decimal Adjust
DA adjusts the contents of the Accumulator to correspond to a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
number after two BCD numbers have been added by the ADD or ADDC instruction. If the carry bit
is set or if the value of bits 0-3 exceeds 9, 0x06 is added to the accumulator. If the carry bit was set
when the instruction begins (or) if 0x06 was added to the accumulator in the first step, 0x60 is added
to the accumulator. The Carry bit (C) is set if the resulting value is greater than 0x99, otherwise it is
cleared.

Syntax: DA A ; decimal adjust A

Examples: MOV A, #0x23

MOV B, #0x29
ADD A, B ; A  23 + 29 = 4C
DA A ; A  A + 6 = 52
Note: This instruction does not convert binary to BCD. In the above example Accumulator gets 4c
but BCD values are 0-9. So, in lower nibble we got “C” hexadecimal that’s why we have to add 0x06
to the number. For suppose if we will get “A-F” hexa decimal values in Higher nibble we have to
add 6 to higher nibble means add with 0x60. Both are possible by using “DA” instruction only.
When we are u8sing DA instruction automatically it added “6” value to that hexadecimal number
(A-F).

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Logical Instruction set

 Bitwise logic operations (AND, OR, XOR, NOT)
 Clear
 Rotate
 Swap
 Logic instructions do NOT affect the flags in PSW
ANL – AND Examples: ANL 00001111
ORL – OR 10101100
XRL – exclusive OR 00001100
CPL – Complement

ORL 00001111 XRL 00001111 CPL 10101100

10101100 10101100 01010011
10101111 10100011

Q) Write a program to save the accumulator in R7 of bank 2.

Solution:
CLR PSW.3
SETB PSW.4
MOV R7, A

Byte Level Operations

Options
ANL A, #n & A, @Rp
ORL A, add & addr, A
XRL A, Rn & Addr, #n

 ANL -Both inputs are high then only output is high

 ORL -Any one of the input is high then only output is high
 XRL -Both inputs are same output is low vice versa.

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CPL
 It complements the value in a register i.e., when this instruction is executed it makes zeros to
ones and ones to zeros.
 We are using only one operand in this instruction i.e., Accumulator. This register only acts as
both source and destination operand final result is stored in ‘a’ register itself.
Syntax: CPL A

Other Logical Instructions

 CLR - clear
 RL – rotate left
 RLC – rotate left through Carry
 RR – rotate right
 RRC – rotate right through Carry
 SWAP – swap accumulator nibbles

CLR
Set all bits to 0
Syntax: CLR A
CLR bit_addr
Rotate
Rotate instructions operate only on a. We are using only one operand in below instructions i.e.,
Accumulator. This register only acts as both source and destination operand final result is stored in
‘a’ register itself.

Syntax: RL A (rotate the value in A register to left side)

RR A (rotate the value in A register to right side)
RL RR

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Example
MOV A, #0xF0 ; A  11110000
RL A ; A  11100001

Rotate through Carry

Syntax: RLC A (rotate the value in A register to left side through carry flag)
RRC A (rotate the value in A register to right side through carry flag)

RRC RLC

Example
MOV A, #0A9h ; A  A9
ADD A, #14h ; A  BD (10111101), C0
RRC A ; A  01011110, C1
Swap
This instruction swaps the data in A register i.e., it changes lower nibbles to higher nibbles and
higher nibbles to lower nibbles
Syntax: SWAP A

Example:
MOV A, #72h ; A  72h
SWAP A ; A  27h

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Bit Logic Operations

Some logic operations can be used with single bit operands
Options
SETB C
CLR C
CPL C
CLR bit_address
SETB bit_address
CPL bit_address
ANL C, bit_address
ORL C, bit_address
Note: “bit_address” can be any of the bit-addressable RAM locations or SFRs.

Rotate and Multiplication/Division

 Note that a shift left is the same as multiplying by 2, shift right is divide by 2
MOV A, #3 ; A 00000011 (3H)
CLR C ; C 0
RLC A ; A 00000110 (6H)
RLC A ; A 00001100 (12H)
RRC A ; A 00000110 (6H)

Shift/Multiply Example
 Program segment to multiply by 2 and add 1
CLR C
RL A ; multiply by 2
INC A ; and add one

Branch Instruction Set

 Unconditional jumps
 Conditional jumps
 Call and return
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Unconditional Jumps
• SJMP <rel addr> - Sort jump, relative address is 8-bit 2’s complement number, so jump
can be up to 127 locations forward, or 128 locations back.
• LJMP <address 16> - Long jump
• AJMP <address 11> - Absolute jump to anywhere within 2K block of program memory
• JMP @A + DPTR - Long indexed jump

Infinite Loops
Example
Start: MOV C, P3.7
MOV P1.6, C
SJMP Start
Microcontroller application programs are almost always infinite loops!
Re-locatable Code
Start: MOV C, P1.6
MOV P3.7, C
SJMP Start

Conditional Jump
These instructions cause a jump to occur only if a condition is true. Otherwise, program execution
continues with the next instruction.
loop: MOV A, P1
JZ loop ; if a=0, go to loop, else go to next instruction
MOV B, A
Syntax
Mnemonic Description
JZ <rel addr> Jump if a = 0
JNZ <rel addr> Jump if a != 0
JC <rel addr> Jump if C = 1

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JNC <rel addr> Jump if C != 1

JB <bit>, <rel addr> Jump if bit = 1
JNB <bit>,<rel addr> Jump if bit != 1
JBC <bit>, <rel addr> Jump if bit =1, clear bit
CJNE A, direct, <rel addr> Compare A and memory, jump if not equal

Conditional Jumps for Branching

If condition is true go to label else go to next instruction

Example: If C is 1 led should be ON else led should be off i.e., when C is zero by using conditional
jump instruction

JZ led_off
SETB C
MOV P1.6, C
SJMP skipover
led_off: CLR C
MOV P1.6, C
skipover: MOV A, P0

More Conditional Jumps

Mnemonic Description
CJNE A, #data <rel addr> Compare A and data, jump if not equal
CJNE Rn, #data <rel addr> Compare Rn and data, jump if not equal
CJNE @Rn, #data <rel addr> Compare Rn and memory, jump if not equal
DJNZ Rn, <rel addr> Decrement Rn and then jump if not zero
DJNZ direct, <rel addr> Decrement memory and then jump if not zero

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Examples
1) Increment a value up to 4 2) Decrement R0 value from 4 to 0 and increment A value

CLR A MOV R0, #4

loop: loop: INC A
CJNE A, #4, loop DJNZ R0, loop

Call and Return

Call is similar to a jump, but
 Call instruction pushes PC on stack before branching
 Allows RETURN back to main program

Absolute call: (2 BYTE INSTRUCTIUON) ACALL <address ll> ; stack  PC

; PC  address 11
Long call: (3 BYTE INSTRUCTIUON) LCALL<address 16> ; stack  PC
; PC  address 16

Return (RET)
 Return instruction pops PC from stack to get address to jump to
Syntax
RET ; PC  stack
Initializing Stack Pointer
 The Stack Pointer (SP) is initialized to 0x07. (Same address as R7)
 When using subroutines, the stack will be used to store the PC, so it is very important to
initialize the stack pointer. Location 2F is often used.
MOV SP, #0x2F
Sub Routines
 Subroutines allow us to have "structured" assembly language programs.
 This is useful for breaking a large design into manageable parts.
 It saves code space when subroutines can be called many times in the same program.
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Assembler Directive (or) pseudo–instructions

 Assembler specific Keywords which instruct the assembler how to process subsequent
assembly language instructions.

• Assembler Directives
– Instructions for the ASSEMBLER
– NOT 8051 instructions
– Give direction to the assembler

Categories of Directives in A51 assembler from KEIL IDE

 Segment Control
Generic Segments: SEGMENT, RSEG
Absolute Segments: CSEG, DSEG, BSEG, ISEG, XSEG
 Symbol Definition
Generic Symbols: EQU, SET
Address Symbols: BIT, CODE, DATA, IDATA, XDATA
SFR Symbols: sfr, sfr16, sbit
 Memory Initialization
DB, DW, DD
 Memory Reservation
DBIT, DS, DSB, DSW, DSD
 Procedure Declaration
PROC/ENDP, LABEL
 Program Linkage
PUBLIC, EXTRN/EXTRN, NAME
 Address Control
ORG, EVEN, USING

Note: From above assembler directives few are discussed in below with examples

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Segment Control Directives

A segment is a block of code or data memory the assembler creates from code or data in an 8051
assembly source file. They allow user to locate program code, constant data, and variables in specific
memory areas of 8051 CPU.
 CSEG – Stands for code segment
 Segment, rseg - it combines two ASM files
Syntax
 CSEG AT Address
 user_seg_name segment class_symbol
rseg user_seg_name
Example
CSEG AT 1000h ; address of next instruction is 1000h
delay segment code ; this one we have to written in sub header file then only
rseg delay ; this file added to main file

Symbol definition directives

EQU
Used to create symbols that can be used to represent registers, numbers, and addresses
Syntax
Symbol EQU constant
Example:
GREEN_LED EQU P1.6 ; symbol for Port 1, bit 6

DATA
Used to define a name for memory locations
Syntax
Symbol DATA data_address
Example
SP DATA 0x81 ; special function registers
MY_VAL DATA 0x44 ; RAM location

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data_address
 is a data memory address in the range 0 to 127
 Or a special function registers (SFRs) address in the range 128 - 255.

BIT
Used to define a name for memory locations of particular bits
Syntax
Symbol BIT bit_address
Example: B0 BIT 20H.0

bit_address:
 Is the address of a bit in internal data memory in the area 20H-2FH
 Or a bit address of an 8051 bit-addressable SFR.

Memory initialization directives

DB
These are used to initialize code or constant space in byte units.
Syntax usr_symbol: DB 8-bit_constant
DB 8_bit_constants_with_comma
DB ‘string’
Example
char: DB ‘a’
STR: DB “VECTOR”
Num: DB 25, 36, 45
Other
 The END directive signals the end of the assembly module.
 Any text in the assembly file that appears after the END directive is ignored while
assembling.

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MACRO
Macro’s in A51:
 A macro is a name that you assign to one or more assembly statements.
 The Ax51 assembler will replace the macro name with the text specified in the macro
definition.

Usage
Symbol MACRO no_arg ; begin macro definition

; User code goes here

ENDM ; end of macro definition

Usage
Symbol MACRO args_up_to_16 ; begin macro definition

; User code goes here

ENDM ; end of macro definition

Example: (MACRO.ASM)

REGBANK0 MACRO ; SIMPLE macro definition

CLR RS0
CLR RS1
ENDM ; end MACRO

REGBANK1 MACRO ; SIMPLE macro definition

SETB RS0
CLR RS1
ENDM ; end MACRO

SUM MACRO X, Y ; ARGUMENTED macro definition

MOV A, #X
MOV B, #Y
ADD A, B
ENDM ; end MACRO
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CSEG AT 0
REGBANK0 ; USING MACRO
MOV R0, #1
REGBANK1 ; USING MACRO
MOV R0, #2
SUM 1, 2 ; USING MACR0
END

Tools & Development

IDE (Integrated Development Environment)

A Development Tool chain i.e. a package of tools
Tools for 8051 development are in IDE
 Editor,
 Cross Assembler,
 Cross Compiler,
 linker,
 simulated Debugger,
 simulated peripherals at least

Flow Chart for KEIL IDE for 8051

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File Extensions

Machine cycle
To execute an instruction–the processor must these four steps refer to Machine Cycle.
1. Fetch the instruction from memory
2. Decode the instruction
3. Execute the instruction
4. Store the result back in the memory.
 Generally one machine cycle = X clock cycles (_X_ depends on the particular instruction
being executed). For short clock cycle less time it takes to complete one machine cycle, so
instructions are executed faster.
 Fetching and executing an instruction
Fetching involves the following steps
 Contents of PC are placed on address bus.
 READ signal is activated.
 Data (instruction opcode) are read from RAM and placed on data bus.
 Opcode is latched into the CPU’s internal instruction register.
 PC is incremented to prepare for the next fetch from memory.

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While execution involves decoding the opcode and generating control signals to gate internal
registers in and out of the ALU and to signal the ALU to perform the specified operation.

Clock cycle - the basic unit of time for processor activity.

Instruction/machine cycle - is the time period (measured by the number of oscillator clock
cycles) during which a CPU processes a machine language instruction from its memory.

8051 Machine Cycle

 8051 being mostly CISC processor, has 255 instructions of varying lengths and machine
cycles.
 Instruction sizes may be 1,2,3 bytes
 Instructions may require 1, 2 or 4 machine cycles time for execution.
 Two oscillator pulses define one state
 6 states (i.e., 6x2=12 clock cycles) define a machine cycle in this original core and
compatible variants.
 1/f gives the pulse time P
 Hence Time taken for executing an 8051 instruction is
T (inst) = (no of machines cycles x 12) / freq
1) By using above formula calculate time for 1machine cycle by using 12 MHz frequency

T= (1x12)/12MHz =>1microsecond

So, if you are taking 12 MHz frequency time period is 1 microsecond for 1 machine cycle.

2) By using above formula calculate time for 1machine cycle by using 11.0592 MHz frequency

T= (1x12)/11.0592MHz =>1.085microsecond

So, if you are taking 12 MHz frequency time period is 1.085 microsecond for 1 machine cycle.

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8051 instructions having varying machine cycles. So, apply these values based on instructions and
calculate Time Period i.e., delay. This delay we are using in peripheral programs like LED, 7-
Segment etc… for knowing the status in between two operations Examples are given below for 1 ms
time delay.

Assembly Language Programming

Delay

/*Write an ALP to generate 1ms time delay by using 12 MHz crystal frequency*/

CSEG AT 0 ; starts from 0th memory location (Assembler Directive)

MOV R7, #250 ; for MOV instruction it takes 1 machine cycle i.e., ;

; 1m=1microsecond

l1:
DJNZ R7, l1 ; for branch instruction it takes 2 machine cycles i.e.,
; 2m.c=2microseconds it checks R7 value it rotates there
; up to R7 gets zero value it rotates total 250 times
; i.e., 250*2=500machine cycles=500 Microseconds
MOV R6, #249 ; for MOV instruction it takes 1 machine cycle i.e.,
; 1m.c=1microsecond
l2:
DJNZ R6, l2 ; for branch instruction it takes 2 machine cycles
; i.e., 2m.c=2microseconds it checks R7 value it rotates
; There up to R7 gets zero value it rotates total 249
; Times i.e., 249*2=498machine cycles=500 Microseconds
END ; at the end calculate total machine cycles

Output: 1+500+1+498=1000

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/*Write an ALP to generate 1ms time delay by using 11.0592 MHz crystal frequency*/

CSEG AT 0 ; cycles

MOV R7, #225 ; 1.085

l1: DJNZ R7, l1 ; 2*1.085=2.17 =>2.17*225=488.25
MOV R6, #225 ; 1.085
l2: DJNZ R6, l2 ; 2*1.085=2.17 =>2.17*225=488.25
MOV R5, #09 ; 1.085
l3: DJNZ R5, l3 ; 2*1.085=2.17 =>2.17*9=19.53
END

Output:
1.085+ (225*2.17) +1.085+ (225*2.17) +1.085+ (9*2.17) =999.285 approx=1millisec

/*Write an ALP to generate 10ms time delay by using 12 MHz crystal frequency*/

CSEG AT 0
ACALL DELAY10MS ; including ACALL
SJMP $ ; It rotates there it self

DELAY1MS: ; cycles
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L1: DJNZ R7, L1 ; 2*250=500
MOV R6, #247 ; 1
L2: DJNZ R6, L2 ; 2*247=494
RET ; 2

DELAY10MS: ; Cycles
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L3: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms
DJNZ R5, L3 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L4: DJNZ R7, L4 ; 2*250=500
MOV R5, #237 ; 1
L5: DJNZ R5, L5 ; 2*237=474
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NOP ; 1
RET ; 2
END
/*OUTPUT:
TOTAL ; 10MILLI SECONDS*/

/*Write an ALP to generate 100ms time delay by using 1ms & 10ms delays frequency is 12 MHz*/

CSEG AT 0
ACALL DELAY100MS ; Including ACALL
SJMP $ ; It rotates there it self

DELAY1MS: ; cycles
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L1: DJNZ R7, L1 ; 2*250=500
MOV R6, #247 ; 1
L2: DJNZ R6, L2 ; 2*247=494
RET ; 2

DELAY10MS: ; Cycles
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L3: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms
DJNZ R5, L3 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L4: DJNZ R7, L4 ; 2*250=500
MOV R5, #237 ; 1
L5: DJNZ R5, L5 ; 2*237=474
NOP ; 1
RET ; 2

DELAY100MS: ; Cycles
MOV R0, #09 ; 1
L6: ACALL DELAY10MS ; 9*10ms=90ms
DJNZ R0, L6 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L7: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms

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DJNZ R5, L7 ; 9*2=18us

MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L8: DJNZ R7, L8 ; 2*250=500
MOV R5, #228 ; 1
L9: DJNZ R5, L9 ; 2*228=456
RET
END
/*OUTPUT:
TOTAL ; 100MILLI SECONDS*/

Note: Similar instruction comments are given in first program

I/O Programming for I/O Port Pins

The four 8-bit I/O ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 each port having 8 pins

 All the ports upon RESET are configured as input, ready to be used as input ports
 To reconfigure it as an input, “1” value must be sent to the port
 To use any of these ports as an input port, it must be programmed
 When the first 0 is written to a port, it becomes an output

Port 0
It can be used for input or output; each pin must be connected externally to a 10K ohm pull-up
resistor
 This is due to the fact that P0 is an open drain, unlike P1, P2, and P3
 Open drain is a term used for MOS chips in the same way that open collector is used for TTL
chips
Dual Role of Port 0
Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both address and data
 When connecting an 8051/31 to an external memory, port 0 provides both address and data

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File Name: DELAY.ASM (Sub Header File)

DELAY SEGMENT CODE

RSEG DELAY

DELAY1MS: ; cycles
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L1: DJNZ R7, L1 ; 2*250=500
MOV R6, #247 ; 1
L2: DJNZ R6, L2 ; 2*247=494
RET ; 2

DELAY10MS: ; Cycles
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L3: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms
DJNZ R5, L3 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L4: DJNZ R7, L4 ; 2*250=500
MOV R5, #237 ; 1
L5: DJNZ R5, L5 ; 2*237=474
NOP ; 1
RET ; 2

DELAY100MS: ; Cycles
MOV R0, #09 ; 1
L6: ACALL DELAY10MS ; 9*10ms=90ms
DJNZ R0, L6 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L7: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms
DJNZ R5, L7 ; 9*2=18us
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L8: DJNZ R7, L8 ; 2*250=500
MOV R5, #228 ; 1
L9: DJNZ R5, L9 ; 2*228=456
RET
END

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/* The following code will continuously send out to port 0 the alternating value 55H and AAH */

$include(delay.asm)
CSEG AT 0 ; it starts from 0th memory location
BACK: MOV A, #55H
MOV P0, A
ACALL DELAY100MS
MOV A, #0AAH
MOV P0, A
ACALL DELAY100MS
SJMP BACK
END ; it ends the program

 In order to make port 0 an input, the port must be programmed by writing 1

to all the bits

/* Port 0 is configured first as an input port by writing 1s to it, and then data is received from that
port and sent to P1 */

CSEG AT 0 ; it starts from 0th memory location

MOV A, #0FFH ; A=FF hex
MOV P0, A ; make P0 an i/p port by writing it all 1s
BACK: MOV A, P0 ; get data from P0
MOV P1, A ; send it to port 1
SJMP BACK ; keep doing it
END ; it ends the program

Port 1
Port 1 can be used as input or output
 In contrast to port 0, this port does not need any pull-up resistors since it already has pull-up
resistors internally
 Upon reset, port 1 is configured as an input port

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/* The following code will continuously send out to port 0 the alternating value 55H and AAH */

CSEG AT 0 ; it starts from 0th memory location

MOV A, #55H
BACK: MOV P1, A
ACALL DELAY100MS
CPL A
SJMP BACK
END ; it ends the program
To make port 1 an input port, it must be programmed as such by writing 1 to all its bits

/* Port 1 is configured first as an input port by writing 1s to it, then data is received from that port
and saved in R7 and R5 */

$include(delay.asm)
CSEG AT 0 ; it starts from 0th memory location
MOV A, #0FFH ; A=FF hex
MOV P1, A ; make P1 an input port by writing it all 1s
MOV A, P1 ; get data from P1
MOV R7, A ; save it to in register R7
ACALL DELAY100MS ; wait
MOV A, P1 ; another data from P1
MOV R5, A ; save it to in register R5
END ; it ends the program

Port 2
Port 2 can be used as input or output
 Just like P1, port 2 does not need any pull up resistors since it already has pull-up resistors
internally
 Upon reset, port 2 is configured as an input port

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Dual Role of Port 2 and as input

 To make port 2 an input port, it must be programmed as such by writing 1 to all its bits
 In many 8051-based system, P2 is used as simple I/O
 In 8031-based systems, port 2 must be used along with P0 to provide the 16- bit address for
the external memory
 Port 2 is also designated as A8 – A15, indicating its dual function
 Port 0 provides the lower 8 bits via A0 – A7
Port 3
Port 3 can be used as input or output
 Port 3 does not need any pull-up resistors
 Port 3 is configured as an input port upon reset, this is not the way it is most commonly used
 Port 3 has the additional function of providing some extremely important signals

I/O Ports and Bit Addressability

/* Sometimes we need to access only 1 or 2 bits of the port */

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$include(delay.asm)
CSEG AT 0 ; it starts from 0th memory location
BACK: CPL P1.2 ; complement P1.2
ACALL DELAY10MS ; wait up to 10ms
SJMP BACK ; go to back label
/*another variation of the above program*/
AGAIN: SETB P1.2 ; set only P1.2
ACALL DELAY10MS ; wait up to 10ms
CLR P1.2 ; clear only P1.2
ACALL DELAY10MS ; wait up to 10ms
SJMP AGAIN ; go to AGAIN label
END ; it ends the program

Peripheral Programs in Assembly language by using Delay

LED:
If any LED wants to glow by using microcontroller we have to know about Active Low LED and
Active High LED. Those are discussed in below

First you can connect LED with the Port line. The activation level is selectable as either 1 or 0. If you
want to use activation level 1, then we have to pass high value from microcontroller to the led then
the connected LED glows at the port line for the active high level condition. Otherwise, LED glows
at the low level signal when you are connected LED as an Active Low condition.

The actual real time circuits that represent the above choice of point LED interfacing is given here
for your reference.

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Note: For driving LEDs, 10K resistor is not required. But when you drive relays, the pull up 10K
resistor is required because the output current sourcing capacity of any port line varies between 60
and 100 micro A. This small current is insufficient to drive the base of high current transistor.

Note: If you want to know about LED refer Diodes topic in previous chapter.

/*Flash an LED connected to any of the port pin using logical instruction set at the rate of 10ms*/
FILE NAME: LED.ASM

Solution 1: Here Delay definitions (Subroutines) in Main File only

LED EQU P1.0 ; Port 1.0 pin is assigned to variable name of LED
CSEG AT 0 ; starts from 0th memory location
AGAIN:
CLR LED ; LED gets zero value P1.0  0
ACALL DELAY100MS ; wait up to 100milliseconds
SETB LED ; LED gets one value P1.0  1
ACALL DELAY100MS ; wait up to 100milliseconds
SJMP AGAIN ; it jumps to label name of AGAIN

/* below steps it generates 1ms time delay*/

DELAY1MS: ; cycles
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L1: DJNZ R7, L1 ; 2*250=500
MOV R6, #247 ; 1
L2: DJNZ R6, L2 ; 2*247=494
RET ; 2

DELAY10MS: ; Cycles
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L3: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms
DJNZ R5, L3 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R7, #250 ; 1

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L4: DJNZ R7, L4 ; 2*250=500

MOV R5, #237 ; 1
L5: DJNZ R5, L5 ; 2*237=474
NOP ; 1
RET ; 2

DELAY100MS: ; Cycles
MOV R0, #09 ; 1
L6: ACALL DELAY10MS ; 9*10ms=90ms
DJNZ R0, L6 ; 9*2us=18us
MOV R5, #09 ; 1
L7: ACALL DELAY1MS ; 9*1ms=9ms
DJNZ R5, L7 ; 9*2=18us
MOV R7, #250 ; 1
L8: DJNZ R7, L8 ; 2*250=500
MOV R5, #228 ; 1
L9: DJNZ R5, L9 ; 2*228=456
RET
END

Solution 2: Here Delay definitions (Subroutines) in DELAY.ASM file, that file you can include in
this main file with the help of $include

/*Note: If we want to maintain any file as a sub header file don’t include CSEG
and END assembler directives*/

$include (DELAY.ASM)
LED EQU P1.0 ; Port 1.0 pin is assigned to variable name of LED
CSEG AT 0 ; starts from 0th memory location (Assembler Directive)
AGAIN:
CLR LED ; LED gets zero value P1.0  0
ACALL DELAY100MS ; wait up to 100milliseconds
SETB LED ; LED gets one value P1.0  1
ACALL DELAY100MS ; wait up to 100milliseconds
SJMP AGAIN ; it jumps to label name of AGAIN

END ; It ends the program (Assembler Directive)

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Switch

Momentary Switch Interface

When you select the Momentary switch interface, a momentary switch can be connected to the I/O
lines of the controller. The activating level for the individual switches can be set either as 1 or 0.
Activating level means the level when the switch is in the pressed condition.

Example

Some real time circuit examples are given here

If level 1 is selected as activation level for a particular switch, then during normal (unpressed)
condition the port line (connected to that switch) assumes a 0 level.

When the same switch is in the pressed condition, level 1 will be fed into the port line.

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If level 0 is selected as activation level for a particular switch, then during normal (unpressed)
condition the port line (connected to that switch) assumes a 1 level.

When the same switch is in the pressed condition, level 0 will be fed into the port line.

Toggle switch interface

In the Toggle switch interface, a toggle switch can be connected with any on of the port lines of the
controller.

/* A momentary switch (SW) is connected to P2.0 and 8 LEDs are connected to P1 now flash the
LEDs when we pressed the switch using complement logic*/

CSEG AT 0 ; Start from 0th memory location

LED EQU 90H ; 90H is the address of P1 is assigned to LED

; Variable name
SW EQU P2.0 ; Port pin P2.0 is assigned to SW variable name
MOV A, LED ; A  LED  0XFF (Default value of P1 is 0xFF)
BACK:
JNB SW, DONE ; if switch is zero it jumps to the label name of
; DONE else Next Instruction
SJMP BACK ; It jumps to the label name of BACK

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DONE: CPL A ; it complements the Accumulator value

MOV LED, A ; LEDP1A
SJMP BACK ; It jumps to the label name of BACK

END ; It ends the program

7 Seven Segment Display

Introduction
For the seven segment display you can use the LT-541 or LSD5061-11 chip. Each of the segments of
the display is connected to a pin on the 8051 (the schematic shows how to do this). In order to light
up a segment on the pin must be set to 0V. To turn a segment off the corresponding pin must be set
to 5V. This is simply done by setting the pins on the 8051 to '1' or '0'.

LED displays are

 Power-hungry (10ma per LED)
 Pin-hungry (8 pins per 7-seg display)
But they are cheaper than LCD display

7-SEG Display is available in two types – one is Common anode and second one is Common
cathode, but common anode display are most suitable for interfacing with 8051 since 8051 port pins
can sink current better than sourcing it.

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Possible configurations are:

 Non Multiplexed displays with 7 segment inputs.

 Multiplexed 7 segment input displays with internal multiplexer.
 Multiplexed 7 segment input displays with external multiplexer.

In the seven segment displays, the port lines are directly connected to the segments of the display and
segments glow according to the display data available at the port lines and also the display type,
common anode or common cathode. In the external multiplexer configuration, a multiplexing
device, like 74LS139 (2 to 4), 74LS138 (3 to 8) or 74LS154 (4 to 16) is connected between the port
lines and the digit select control lines of the display. Some of the real time circuit examples to
connect the seven segment displays are given here for your reference.

Non-multiplexed displays with 7-segment input. (For a two digit display)

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The circuit shown here is meant for the common anode display with the seven segment inputs. In this
configuration, the port lines are connected to the segments of the display directly or through buffers.
When using this configuration, you can connect a maximum of 4 digits of displays with the
controllers having 32 I/O lines.

For the common cathode type displays, you can’t connect the port lines directly to the segment lines
as you have seen above because the source current of any port line is about 60microA.

You can use a buffer between the port lines and the segment lines of the display as shown here.

Multiplexed 7 segment input displays with internal multiplexer

 Seven Segment Inputs.

 Internal Multiplexer with activation level 0.
 Common anode displays.
 4 digits of display.

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/* Write an ALP to display 0-9 numbers on 7-Segment Display (Common Cathode) by using delay
header file*/
FILE NAME: SEG. ASM

$include (DELAY.ASM)

/* in 100H code memory location place common Anode values*/

CSEG AT 0100H
LUT: DB 0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90

CSEG AT 0 ; starts from 0th memory location

MOV DPTR, #LUT ; It moves 100h (code memory location) to DPTR
AGAIN:
CLR A ; A  0
MOVC A,@A+DPTR ; it moves the data in M [DPTR+0] to “A” register
MOV P1, A ; P1A
MOV A, DPL ; ADPL
INC DPTR ; DPTR=DPTR+1
ACALL DELAY100MS ; wait up to 100 milliseconds

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CJNE A, #09, AGAIN; if “A” register value is not equal to “09” it jumps
; to label Else it executes next instruction
SJMP $ ; It rotates here it self

END ; It ends the program (Assembler Directive)

Note: “DELAY.ASM” sub header file is mentioned in above refer that file

Embedded C
Introduction
It is not part of the C language. But, it is a C language extension that is the subject of a technical
report by the ISO working group named "Extensions for the Programming Language C to
Support Embedded Processors”. It aims to provide portability and access to common performance-
increasing features of processors used in the domain of DSP and embedded processing. The
Embedded C specification for fixed-point, named address spaces, and registers gives the programmer
direct access to features in the target processor, thereby significantly improving the performance of
applications. The hardware I/O extension is a portability feature of Embedded C. Its goal is to allow
easy porting of device-driver code between systems.
KEIL software is an IDE EMBEDDED C
(Using C51 cross compiler)

Language Extensions
C51 provides a number of extensions of ANSI standard C. Most of these provide direct support for
elements of the 8051 architecture.

C51 includes extensions for

 Memory types and memory areas on the 8051
 Memory models
 Memory type specifies
 Bit variables and bit addressable data

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 Special function registers

 Pointers
 Function Attributes

Key Words
To facilitate many of the features of the 8051, C51 adds a number of new keywords to the scope of
the language. The following is the list of keywords

Memory Areas
The 8051 architecture supports several physically separate memory areas or memory spaces for
program and data. Each memory area offers certain advantages and disadvantages. Those are
discussed in below.

Program Memory
Program memory may be accessed using the code memory type specifier in the C51 compiler.

Internal Data Memory

Internal data can be broken into three distinct memory types those are data, idata, and bdata.

 The data memory specifier always refers to the first 128 bytes of internal data memory.
These variables are accessed using direct addressing.
 The idata memory specifier refers to all 256 bytes for (89s52) and 128 bytes for (8051) of
internal data memory; however, this memory type specifier code is generated by indirect
addressing which is slower than direct addressing.

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 The bdata memory specifier refers to the 16 bytes of bit-addressable memory in the internal
data memory i.e., RAM area (20h to 2Fh). This memory type specifier allows you to declare
data types that can also be accessed at the bit level.

External Data Memory

The C51 Compiler offers two different memory types that access external data: xdata and pdata.
 The xdata memory specifier refers to any location in the 64 Kbytes address space of external
data memory.
 The pdata memory type specifier refers to only one (1) page or 256 bytes of external data
memory.

Memory Models
The memory models determine which default memory type to use for function arguments, automatic
variables and declarations with no explicit memory type specifier.

Small Model
 In this model, by default all variables reside in the internal data memory.
 Variable access is very efficient.
 However the stack should fit into the internal RAM

Compact Model
 In this case, all variables reside in one page of external data memory.
 This memory model can accommodate a maximum of 256 bytes of variables.
 In this model, C51 accesses the external memory with instructions that utilize the @R0 and
@R1 operands.

Large Model
 In this model, all variables reside in the external data memory up to 64k bytes
 The data pointer is used for addressing.

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Explicitly declared memory types

Memory Type Description

code Program memory (64 Kbytes); accessed by opcode MOVC A, @A+DPTR.
data Direct addressable internal data memory; fastest access to variables(128 bytes).
idata Indirectly addressable internal data memory; accessed across the full
internal address space (256 bytes) for 89s52 and (128 bytes) for 8051.
bdata Bit-addressable internal data memory; supports mixed bit and byte
access (16 bytes).
xdata External data memory (64 Kbytes); accessed by opcode MOVX A, @DPTR
pdata Paged (256 bytes) external data memory; accessed by opcode MOVX A, @Rn.

Examples
char data var1;
char code text[] = "ENTER PARAMETER:";
unsigned long xdata array [100];
float idata x, y, z;
unsigned int pdata dimension;
unsigned char xdata vector [10][4][4];
char bdata flags;

Data Types
Data type bits bytes range
bit 1 0 or 1

signed char 8 1 -128 to +127

unsigned char 8 1 0 to 255

enum 8 / 16 1 or 2 -128 to +127 or –32768 to +32767

signed int 16 2 -32768 to +32767

unsigned int 16 2 0 to 65535

signed long 32 4 -2147483648 to +2147483647

unsigned long 32 4 0 to 4294967295

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float 32 4 ±1.175494E-38 to ±3.402823E+38

sbit 1 0 or 1

sfr 8 1 0 to 255

sfr16 16 2 0 to 65535

Example 1
int bdata ibase; /* Bit-addressable int */
char bdata bary [4]; /* Bit-addressable array */
sbit mybit0 = ibase ^ 0; /* bit 0 of ibase */
sbit mybit15 = ibase ^ 15; /* bit 15 of ibase */
sbit Ary07 = bary[0] ^ 7; /* bit 7 of bary[0] */
sbit Ary37 = bary[3] ^ 7; /* bit 7 of bary[3] */

main()
{
Ary37 = 1; /* clear bit 7 in bary[3] */
bary[3] = 'a'; /* Byte addressing */
ibase = -1; /* Word addressing */
mybit15 = 1; /* set bit 15 in ibase */
}

NOTE: You may not specify bit variables for the bit positions of a float.

Special Function Registers

 The C51 compiler provides you an include file “reg51.h” for 8051, which contains
declarations for the SFRs available on it.
 The C51 compiler provides access to SFRs with the sfr, sfr16, and sbit data types.
Examples
sfr P0 = 0x80; /* Port-0, address 80h */
sfr P1 = 0x90; /* Port-1, address 90h */
sfr P2 = 0xA0; /* Port-2, address 0A0h */
sfr P3 = 0xB0; /* Port-3, address 0B0h */

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Access to 16-bit SFRs is possible only when the low byte immediately precedes the high byte. The
low byte is used as the address in the sfr16 declaration.
sfr16 DPTR = 0x82; /* DPTR : DPL 82h, DPH 83h */

For 8052
sfr16 T2 = 0xCC; /* Timer 2: T2L 0CCh, T2H 0CDh */
sfr16 RCAP2 = 0xCA; /* RCAP2L 0CAh, RCAP2H 0CBh */

With typical 8051 applications, it is often necessary to access individual bits within an SFR. The C51
compiler makes this possible with the sbit data type which provides access to bit-addressable SFRs
and other bit-addressable objects.

How can we access in our program we mentioned in below.

sfr PSW = 0xD0;
sfr IE = 0xA8;
sbit OV = PSW ^ 2;
sbit CY = PSW ^ 7;
sbit EA = IE ^ 7;

sbit OV = 0xD0 ^ 2;
sbit CY = 0xD0 ^ 7;
sbit EA = 0xA8 ^ 7;

sbit OV = 0xD2;
sbit CY = 0xD7;
sbit EA = 0xAF;

Absolute Variable Location

 Variables may be located at absolute memory locations in your C program source modules
using the _at_ keyword.

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 The usage for this feature is:

type [memory_space] variable_name _at_ constant t;
Where
 memory_space is the memory space for the variable. If it is missing from the declaration, the
default memory space is used.
 type is a variable type.
 Variable_name is the variable name.(user defined)
 Constant is the address at which to locate the variable.
 The following restrictions apply to absolute variable location:

1. Absolute variables cannot be initialized.

2. Functions and variables of type bit cannot be located at an absolute address.

The following example demonstrates how to locate several different variable types using the _at_
keyword.
Example
char xdata text[256] _at_ 0xE000; /* array at xdata 0xE000 */
int xdata i1 _at_ 0x8000; /* int at xdata 0x8000 */
main()
{
i1 = 0x1234;
text[0] = 'a';
}

Pointers
The C51 compiler provides two different types of pointers:
 generic pointers
 Memory-specific pointers

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Generic Pointers
 Generic pointers are declared in the same fashion as standard C pointers.

Examples
char *s; /* string ptr */
int *numptr; /* int ptr */
long *state; /* Texas */
 Generic pointers are always stored using three bytes. The first byte is the memory type, the
second is the high-order byte of the offset, and the third is the low-order byte of the offset.
 Generic pointers may be used to access any variable regardless of its location in 8051
memory space.

Memory-specific Pointers
 Memory-specific pointers always include a memory type specification in the pointer
declaration and always refer to a specific memory area.
Examples
char data *str; /* ptr to string in data */
int xdata *numtab; /* ptr to int(s) in xdata */
long code *powtab; /* ptr to long(s) in code */
 Memory-specific pointers can be stored using only one byte (idata, data, bdata,
and pdata pointers) or two bytes (code and xdata pointers).
 The code generated for a memory-specific pointer executes more quickly than the equivalent
code generated for a generic pointer. This is because the memory area is known at compile-
time rather than at run-time. The compiler can use this information to optimize memory
accesses. If execution speed is a priority, you should use memory-specific pointers instead of
generic pointers wherever possible.
 Like generic pointers, you may specify the memory area in which a memory-specific pointer
is stored.

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Examples
char data * xdata str; /* ptr in xdata to data char */
int xdata * data numtab; /* ptr in data to xdata int */
long code * idata powtab; /* ptr in idata to code long */
 Memory-specific pointers may be used to access variables in the declared 8051 memory area
only.
 Memory-specific pointers provide the most efficient method of accessing data objects, but at
the cost of reduced flexibility.

Embedded C Programming

Time delay
There are two way s to create a time delay in 8051 C
 Using the 8051 timer (we will discussed in timers topic)
 Using a simple for loop
be mindful of three factors that can affect the accuracy of the delay
 The 8051 design
– The number of machine cycle
– The number of clock periods per machine cycle
 The crystal frequency connected to the X1 – X2 input pins Compiler choice
-- C compiler converts the C statements and functions to Assembly
Language instructions
-- Different compilers produce different code
/*Write an ECP (Embedded C Programming) to generate 1ms time delay by using 1ms delay
frequency is 12 MHz*/

void delay(unsigned int i);

main()
{
delay(1);// function name is “delay” call this function with 1 ms
while(1);// By using this loop it rotates there it self it never
// fails
}

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/*DELAY function definition*/

void delay(unsigned int i)
{
unsigned char j;
for(;i>0;i--) // in above delay calling function having one
// value “i” variable assigned to that value
{
for(j=255;j>0;j--); //it rotates 255 times there it self
for(j=232;j>0;j--); //it rotates 232 times there it self

}
}
/*Write an ECP (Embedded C Programming) to generate 10ms time delay by using 1ms delay
frequency is 12 MHz*/

void delay(unsigned int); // Function declaration of “delay”

main()
{
delay(10); // function name is “delay” call this function 10
// times for 10 ms
while(1); // By using this loop it rotates there itself it
// never fails
}
DELAY function definition
void delay(unsigned int i)
{
unsigned char j;
for(;i>0;i--) // in above delay calling function having one
// value “i” variable assigned to that value
{
for(j=255;j>0;j--); //it rotates 255 times there it self
for(j=232;j>0;j--); //it rotates 232 times there it self

}
}

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/*Write an ECP (Embedded C Programming) to generate 100ms time delay by using 1ms & 10ms
delays frequency is 12 MHz*/

void delay(unsigned int); // Function declaration of “delay”

main()
{
delay(100); // function name is “delay” call this function 100
// times for 100 ms
while(1); // By using this loop it rotates there it self it
// never fails
}

/*DELAY function definition*/

void delay(unsigned int i)
{
unsigned char j;
for(;i>0;i--) // in above delay calling function having one
// value “i” variable assigned to that value
{
for(j=255;j>0;j--); //it rotates 255 times there it self
for(j=232;j>0;j--); //it rotates 232 times there it self

}
}

Note: Like above programs you can generate any delay with the help of same function definition how
much you want to generate that value you can place in delay function calling. But, by using for loops
we are not getting exact delay it’s an approximate delay. If you want exact delay then you can use
timers.

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LED

/*Write an ECP to Flash an LED connected to any of the port pin at the rate of 500ms (check at
Active Low LED circuit)
FILE NAME: LED.C

Solution 1: Here Delay definitions (Subroutines) in Main File only

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)
#include”delay.h” // Include delay header file as predefined

sbit led=P1^0; // single bit declaration data type to declare single

// port pin to user defined variable named as “led”
void delay(unsigned int); // Function declaration of “delay”

main()
{
while(1) // infinite loop never fails why because 1 is constant
// non-zero value it rotates infinitely
{
led=0; // led P1^0  0, i.e., led gets ON position
delay(500); // it is delay function calling i.e., it waits up to 500ms
led=1; // led P1^0  1, i.e., led gets OFF position
delay(500); // it is delay function calling i.e., it waits up to 500ms
}
}
/*DELAY function definition*/
void delay(unsigned int i)
{
unsigned char j;
for(;i>0;i--) // in above delay calling function having one
// value “i” variable assigned to that value
{
for(j=255;j>0;j--); //it rotates 255 times there it self

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for(j=232;j>0;j--); //it rotates 232 times there it self

}
}

Solution 2:
Here Delay definitions (Subroutines) in DELAY.H file, that file you can include in this main file
with the help of “#include”
File Name: delay.h (Sub Header File)
_________________________________________________________________________________

#ifndef _delay_h_ // if not define delay header file

#define _delay_h_ // define header file
/*DELAY function definition*/
void delay(unsigned int i)
{
unsigned char j;
for(;i>0;i--) // in above delay calling function having one
// value “i” variable assigned to that value
{
for(j=255;j>0;j--); //it rotates 255 times there it self
for(j=232;j>0;j--); //it rotates 232 times there it self
}
}

#endif // it ends if statement

MAIN FILE NAME: LED.C

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)
#include “delay.h” // It includes delay sub header file
sbit led=P1^0; // single bit declaration data type to declare single
// port pin to user defined variable named as “led”
void delay(unsigned char); // Function declaration of “delay”

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main()
{
while(1) // infinite loop never fails why because 1 is constant
// non-zero value it rotates infinitely
{
led=0; // led P1^0  0, i.e., led gets ON position
delay(500); // it is delay function calling i.e., it waits up to 500ms
led=1; // led P1^0  1, i.e., led gets OFF position
delay(500); // it is delay function calling i.e., it waits up to 500ms
}
}
Note: Open one file save that file with one name in that just we have to write function definition then
that one will be considering as a sub header file. Include that header file in your main file with as it
is what we saved with that file name. In sub header file we have to write function definitions only.
Active low, active high led circuits are explained in above.

SWITCH

/* Write an ECP a momentary switch (SW) is connected to P2.0 and 8 LEDs are connected to P1
now “ON” the LEDs when we pressed the switch and vice versa*/

#include <reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header

// file (Predefined)
#define led P1 //define port to 8leds
sbit sw=P2^0; // single bit declaration data type to declare single
// port pin to user
main()
{
if(sw==0) // it checks the condition switch is pressed or not
led=0x00; // if switch is pressed led gets “ON” position
else //if switch is not pressed
led=0xff; //led gets “OFF” position
}
/*NOTE: for above example switch and leds are connected in active low */

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7-SEGMENT

/* Write an ECP to display 0-9 numbers on Common Cathode 7-Segment Display by using delay
header file*/

FILE NAME: SEG. C

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)
#include”delay.h” // include delay sub header file
#define seg P1 //define port 1 for segment

/*Look UP table for 7 segment common Anode values*/

code char a[]={0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90};

main()
{
unsigned char i; //declare "i" variable
while(1) // infinite loop
{
for(i=0;i<=9;i++) //for getting 0-9 values use for loop up
// to 9 times
{
seg =a[i]; //assign array values to segment
delay (1000); //wait second
}
}
}

Note: “delay.h” is defined in LED’s topic use that file.

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/* Write an ECP to display 0-99 numbers on multiplexed Common Cathode 7-Segment Display by
using delay header file*/
FILE NAME: SEGMUX. C

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)
#include”delay.h” // include delay sub header file

#define seg P2 //define port 2 for multiplexed (2) 7-segment

sbit sel1=P3^0; //for 1st segment selection assign port pin
sbit sel2=P3^1; //for 2nd segment selection assign port pin

/*Look UP table for 7 segment common Anode values*/

code char a[]={0xc0,0xf9,0xa4,0xb0,0x99,0x92,0x82,0xf8,0x80,0x90};
main()
{
unsigned char i, j; //declare "i","j" variables
sel1=sel2=0; //first "OFF" both segments
for(i=0;i<=9;i++) //for getting 0-9 values by using look up
{ // table on 1st segment
for(j=0;j<=9;j++) //for getting 0-9 values by using look up
{ //table on 2nd segment

sel1=1; // 1st segment gets "ON" position

seg=a[i]; //assign array values to 1st segment
delay(5); //wait 5 milli seconds
sel1=0; //1st segment gets "OFF" position
sel2=1; // 2nd segment gets "ON" position
seg=a[j]; //assign array values to 2nd segment
delay(5); //wait 5 milli seconds
sel2=0; // 2nd segment gets "OFF" position
}
}
}
Note: “delay.h” is defined in LED’s topic use that file.

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Key Board
Before learning “Interfacing Matrix Keypad to Microcontroller” you should know how to interface a
switch to microcontroller.

Revise the article for interfacing switches to 8051.

Introduction
Keypads are a part of HMI or Human Machine Interface and play really important role in a small
embedded system where human interaction or human input is needed. Matrix keypads are well
known for their simple architecture and ease of interfacing with any microcontroller.

►Constructing a Matrix Keypad

Keyboards are organized in a matrix of rows and columns
 The CPU accesses both rows and columns through ports
 Therefore, with two 8-bit ports, an 8 x 8 matrix of keys can be connected to a microprocessor
 When a key is pressed, a row and a column make a contact
 Otherwise, there is no connection between rows and columns
 In IBM PC keyboards, a single microcontroller takes care of hardware and software
interfacing
A 4x4 matrix connected to two ports
 The rows are connected to an output port and the columns are connected to an input port
Construction of a keypad is really simple. As per the outline shown in the figure below we have four
rows and four columns. In between each overlapping row and column line there is a key
So keeping this outline we can construct a keypad using simple SPST Switches as shown below:

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Now our keypad is ready, all we have to do is connect the rows and columns to a port of
microcontroller and program the controller to read the input.

►Scanning a Matrix Keypad

There are many methods depending on how you connect your keypad with your controller, but the
basic logic is same. We make the columns as i/p and we drive the rows making them o/p, this whole
procedure of reading the keyboard is called scanning.

In order to detect which key is pressed from the matrix, we make row lines low one by one and read
the columns. Let’s say we first make Row1 low, and then read the columns. If any of the key in row1
is pressed, will make the corresponding column as low i.e. if second key is pressed in Row1, then
column2 will give low. So we come to know that key 2 of Row1 is pressed. This is how scanning is
done.

So to scan the keypad completely, we need to make rows low one by one and read the columns. If
any of the buttons is pressed in a row, it will take the corresponding column to a low state which tells
us that a key is pressed in that row. If button 1 of a row is pressed then Column 1 will become low, if
button 2 then column2 and so on...

Keypad Connections with 8051 Microcontroller

As you can see no pin is connected to ground, over here the controller pin itself provides the ground.

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/* Write an ECP to display keypad values on led*/

#include<reg51.h>
#include”delay.h”

#define led P1 // define 8 leds to Port1

/* Declare rows and columns to Port2*/

sbit C0=P2^0;
sbit C1=P2^1;
sbit C2=P2^2;
sbit C3=P2^3;
sbit R0=P2^4;
sbit R1=P2^5;
sbit R2=P2^6;
sbit R3=P2^7;

/* Define 2 dimensional array for displaying corresponding data based on key

pressing*/
/* Total 4 rows and 4 columns i.e., 16 keys each key having one data*/
char keypad[4][4]={{'1','2','3','4'},
{'5','6','7','8'},
{'9','A','B','C'},
{'D','E','F's,'0'}};

/*Main Function*/
main()
{
int row=0,col=0;// initialize variables for identify row and
// column
R0=R1=R2=R3=0; // 1st make all rows as zeros
C0=C1=C2=C3=1; // make all columns are ones

while(C0&C1&C2&C3); // check switch pressing or not

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while(1) // infinite loop

{
/* Row Checking*/
R0=0;R1=R2=R3=1;// check in row0 any one of key pressed or
// not
if(!(C0&C1&C2&C3))// if condition is true zero value is
// assigned to row
{
row=0;
break;
}
R1=0;R0=R2=R3=1;// check in row1 any one of key pressed or
// not
if(!(C0&C1&C2&C3))// if condition is true one value is
// assigned to row
{
row=1;
break;
}
R2=0;R1=R0=R3=1;// check in row2 any one of key pressed or
// not

if(!(C0&C1&C2&C3))// if condition is true two value is

// assigned to row
{
row=2;
break;
}
R3=0;R1=R2=R0=1;// check in row3 any one of key pressed or
// not
if(!(C0&C1&C2&C3))// if condition is true three value is
// assigned to row
{
row=3;
break;
}
}

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/* Column Check*/
if(C0==0)
col=0;
else if(C1==0)
col=1;
else if(C2==0)
col=2;
else if(C3==0)
col=3;

while (!(C0&C1&C2&C3)); // for key releasing

led = keypad[row][col]; // assign key value to led to see

// the output
delay (500); // wait 500 milli seconds
}
Note: “delay.h” is defined in LED’s topic use that file.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

 LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs
 The declining prices of LCD
 The ability to display numbers, characters, and graphics
 Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, thereby relieving the CPU of the task
of refreshing the LCD
 Ease of programming for characters and graphics

LCD also called as Liquid Crystal Display is very helpful in providing user interface as well as for
debugging purpose. The most common type of LCD controller is HITACHI 44780 which provides a
simple interface between the controller & an LCD. These LCD's are very simple to interface with the
controller as well as cost effective.

The LCD’s provide an easy way to get text display for an embedded system.The most commonly
used ALPHANUMERIC displays are 1x16 (Single Line & 16 characters), 2x16 (Double Line & 16
character per line) & 4x20 (four lines & Twenty characters per line).

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UNDERSTANDING LCD

Pin-out
8 data pins D7:D0
 Bi-directional data/command pins. Alphanumeric characters are sent in ASCII format.
RS: Register Select
 RS = 0 -> Command Register is selected
 RS = 1 -> Data Register is selected
R/W: Read or Write
 0 -> Write, 1 -> Read

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E: Enable (Latch data)

 This pin is used to latch the data present on the data pins. A high-to-low edge is needed to
latch the data.
VEE: contrast control
 When writing to the display, data is transferred only on the high to low transition of this
signal. However, when reading from the display, data will become available shortly after the
low to high transition and remain available until the signal falls low again.

Display Data RAM (DDRAM)

Display data RAM (DDRAM) is where you send the characters (ASCII code) you want to see on the
LCD screen. It stores display data represented in 8-bit character codes. Its capacity is 80 characters
(bytes). Below you see DD RAM address layout of a 2*16 LCD.

In the above memory map, the area shaded in black is the visible display (For 16x2 displays). For
first line addresses for first 15 characters is from 00h to 0Fh. But for second line address of first
character is 40h and so on up to 4Fh for the 16th character. So if you want to display the text at
specific positions of LCD, we require to manipulate address and then to set cursor position
accordingly.

Character Generator RAM (CGRAM)-User defined character RAM

In the character generator RAM, we can define our own character patterns by program. CG RAM is
64 bytes, allowing for eight 5*8 pixel, character patterns to be defined.

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Registers

The HD44780 has two 8-bit registers, an instruction register (IR) and a data register (DR). The IR
stores instruction codes. The DR temporarily stores data to be written into DDRAM or CGRAM and
temporarily stores data to be read from DDRAM or CGRAM. Data written into the DR is
automatically written into DDRAM or CGRAM by an internal operation. . These two registers can
be selected by the register selector (RS) signal. See the table below:

Register Selection
RS R/W Operation
0 0 IR write as an internal operation (display clear, etc.)
0 1 Read busy flag (DB7) and address counter (DB0 to DB6)
1 0 DR write as an internal operation (DR to DDRAM or CGRAM)
1 1 DR read as an internal operation (DDRAM or CGRAM to DR)

Busy Flag (BF)

When the busy flag is 1, the LCD is in the internal operation mode, and the next instruction will not
be accepted. When RS = 0 and R/W = 1 (see the table above), the busy flag is output to DB7 (MSB
of LCD data bus). The next instruction must be written after ensuring that the busy flag is 0.

LCD Commands

The LCD’s internal controllers accept several commands and modify the display accordingly. These
commands would be things like:

 Clear screen
 Return home
 Shift display right/left

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Set Cursor Move Direction

 ID - Increment the Cursor after Each Byte Written to Display if Set
 S - Shift Display when Byte Written to Display

Enable Display/Cursor
 D - Turn Display on (1)/Off (0)
 C - Turn Cursor on (1)/Off (0)
 B - Cursor Blink On (1)/Off(0)

Move Cursor/Shift Display

 SC - Display Shift on (1)/Off (0)
 RL - Direction of Shift Right (1)/Left (0)

Set Interface Length

 DL - Set Data Interface Length 8(1)/4(0)
 N - Number of Display Lines 1(0)/2(1)
 F - Character Font 5x10(1)/5x7(0)
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Poll the "Busy Flag"

 BF - This bit is set while the LCD is processing
Move Cursor to CGRAM/Display
 A – Address

Read/Write ASCII to the Display

 D – Data

Set cursor position (DDRAM address)

As said earlier if we want to display the text at specific positions of LCD, we require to manipulate
address and then to set cursor position accordingly.
I want to display "VECTOR" in message "Hi VECTOR" at the right corner of first line then I should
start from 10th character. So, referring to table 80h+0Ah= 8Ah.

Interfacing LCD to 8051

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data bus. The
user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus.
If a 4-bit data bus is used, the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines.
If an 8-bit data bus is used, the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines.

The three control lines are EN, RS, and RW.

Note that the EN line must be raised/lowered before/after each instruction sent to the LCD regardless
of whether that instruction is read or write, text or instruction. In short, you must always manipulate
EN when communicating with the LCD. EN is the LCD's way of knowing that you are talking to it.
If you don't raise/lower EN, the LCD doesn't know you're talking to it on the other lines.

Checking the Busy Flag

You can use subroutine for checking busy flag or just a big (and safe) delay.

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1. Set R/W Pin of the LCD HIGH(read from the LCD)

2. Select the instruction register by setting RS pin LOW
3. Enable the LCD by Setting the enable pin HIGH
4. The most significant bit of the LCD data bus is the state of the busy flag (1=Busy,0=ready to
accept instructions/data). The other bits hold the current value of the address counter.

If the LCD never come out from "busy" status because of some problems, the program will”hang,"
waiting for DB7 to go low. So in real applications it would be wise to put some kind of time limit on
the delay--for example, a maximum of 100 attempts to wait for the busy signal to go low. This would
guarantee that even if the LCD hardware fails, the program would not lock up.

/* Write an ECP to display “V” character on LCD by using 8-bit mode*/

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)
#include”delay.h” // It includes delay sub header file
#define lcd P0 // define one port to lcd data lines
sbit RS=P1^0; // define port pin for register select
sbit RW=P1^1; // define port pin for read/write operations
sbit EN=P1^2; // define port pin for enable

/* Function Declarations*/
void init_lcd(void); // initialization of lcd
void cmd_lcd(unsigned char); // command mode of lcd
void data_lcd(unsigned char); // data mode of lcd
void write_lcd(unsigned char); // write command or data
void delay(unsigned int ); // for delay

/* Main Function */
main()
{
init_lcd(); // it calls initialize function
cmd_lcd(0x80); // call command to get cursor from
// starting position

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data_lcd('V'); // display "v" character on LCD

while(1); // stop here
}

/* Function Definitions of LCD*/

void init_lcd()
{
cmd_lcd(0x38); // 8-bit mode 5*7 pixels
cmd_lcd(0x01); // clear the screen
cmd_lcd(0x0C); // display on with cursor off
cmd_lcd(0x06); // shift cursor right side
cmd_lcd(0x80); // cursor is in 1st position
}

void cmd_lcd(unsigned char ch)

{
RS=0; // LCD switches in to command mode
Write_lcd(ch); // write command by using write function
// calling
}

void data_lcd(unsigned char ch)

{
RS=1; // LCD switches in to data mode
Write_lcd(ch); // write data by using write function
// calling
}

void write_lcd(unsigned char ch)

{
lcd=ch; // lcd <-- ch
RW=0; // LCD switches to write operation
EN=1; // to latch the information
delay(2); // wait 2 milliseconds
EN=0; // make enable low
}
Note: “delay.h” header file available in “LEDs program”

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/* Write an ECP to display “V” character on LCD by using 4-bit mode*/

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)
#include”delay.h” // It includes delay sub header file

#define lcd P0 // define one port to lcd data lines

sbit RS=P1^0; // define port pin for register select
sbit RW=P1^1; // define port pin for read or write
sbit EN=P1^2; // define port pin for enable

/* Function Declarations*/
void init_lcd(void); // initialization of lcd
void cmd_lcd(unsigned char); // command mode of lcd
void data_lcd(unsigned char); // data mode of lcd
void write_lcd(unsigned char); // write data or command
void delay(unsigned int ); // for delay

/* Main Function*/
main()
{
init_lcd(); // it calls initialize function
cmd_lcd(0x80); // call command to get cursor from
// starting position
data_lcd('V'); // display "v" character on LCD
while(1); // stop here.
}
/* Function Definitions of LCD*/
void init_lcd()
{
cmd_lcd(0x02); // return cursor to home position
cmd_lcd(0x28); // 4-bit mode(it accepts only 4 data lines)
cmd_lcd(0x01); // clear the screen
cmd_lcd(0x0C); // display on with cursor off
cmd_lcd(0x06); // shift cursor right side
cmd_lcd(0x80); // cursor is in 1st position
}

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void cmd_lcd(unsigned char ch)

{
RS=0; //LCD switches in to command mode
Write_lcd(ch); // write command by using write function
// calling
}
void data_lcd(unsigned char ch)
{
RS=1; // LCD switches in to data mode
Write_lcd(ch); // write data by using write function
// calling
}
void write_lcd(unsigned char ch)
{
lcd=(ch & 0xf0); // higher nibble value passes to lcd
RW=0; // LCD switches to write operation
EN=1; // to latch the information
delay(2); // wait 2 milliseconds
EN=0; // make enable low
lcd=(ch<<4); //lower nibble value gets higher position
// and passes to lcd
RW=0; // LCD switches to write operation
EN=1; // to latch the information
delay(2); // wait 2 milliseconds
EN=0; // make enable low
}

Note: “delay.h” header file available in “LEDs program”

Timers
The 8051 has two timers/counters, they can be used either as
 Timers to generate a time delay or as
 Event counters to count events happening outside the microcontroller
Both Timer 0 and Timer 1 are 16 bits wide
 Since 8051 has an 8-bit architecture, each 16-bits timer is accessed as two separate registers
of low byte and high byte

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Accessed as low byte and high byte

 The low byte register is called TL0/TL1 and
 The high byte register is called TH0/TH1
 Accessed like any other register

MOV TL0, #4FH

MOV R5, TH0

Both timers 0 and 1 use the same register, called TMOD (timer mode), to set the various timer
operation modes
TMOD is an 8-bit register
 The lower 4 bits are for Timer 0
 The upper 4 bits are for Timer 1
 In each case,
 The lower 2 bits are used to set the timer mode
 The upper 2 bits to specify the operation

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GATE: Gating control when set

 Timer/counter is enabled only while the INTx pin is high and the TRx control pin is set
 When cleared, the timer is enabled whenever the TRx control bit is set

C/T: Timer or counter selected

 Cleared for timer operation (input from internal system clock)
 Set for counter operation (input from Tx input pin)

Mode1 and Mode2

Timer Mode 0 and Mode 1

The timer/counters can be operated in one of four modes, under software control. In mode 0, the
timer/counter will behave like a 13 bit counter. When the counter overflows, the TF0 or TF1 (timer
flag) bit in the TCON (timer control) SFR is set. This will cause the appropriate timer interrupt
(assuming it is enabled). Both timer 0 and timer 1 operate in the same way for mode 0. The operation
of the timers in mode 1 is the same as it is for mode 0 with the exception that all sixteen bits of the
timer are used instead of only thirteen.

Timer Mode 2
In mode 2, the timer is set up as an eight bit counter which automatically reloads whenever an
overflow condition is detected. The low byte of the timer (TL0 or TL1) is used as the counter and the
high byte of the timer (TH0 or TH1) holds the reload value for the counter.

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When the timer/counter overflows, the value in THx is loaded into TLx and the timer continues
counting from the reload value. Both timer 0 and timer 1 function identically in mode 2. Timer 1 is
often used in this mode to generate baud rates for the UART.

Timer Mode 3
In mode 3, timer 0 becomes two eight bit counters which are implemented in TH0 and TL0. The
counter implemented in TL0 maintains control of all the timer 0 flags, but the counter in TH0 takes
over the control flags in TCON from timer 1. This implies that timer 1 can no longer force interrupts,
however, it can be used for any purpose which will not require the overflow interrupt such as a baud
rate generator for the UART, or as a timer/counter which is polled by the software.

This is useful when an application must use a UART mode which requires baud rate generation from
timer 1 and also requires two timer/counters. When timer 1 is placed in mode 3 it simply freezes.

If C/T = 0, it is used as a timer for time delay generation. The clock source for the time delay is the
crystal frequency of the 8051

If desired, the timer/counters can force a software interrupt when they overflow. The TCON (Timer
Control) SFR is used to start or stop the timers as well as hold the overflow flags of the timers. The
TCON SFR is detailed below in Table A7. The timer/counters are started or stopped by changing the
timer run bits (TR0 and TR1) in TCON. The software can freeze the operation of either timer as well
as restart the timers simply by changing the TRx bit in the TCON register. The TCON register also
contains the overflow flags for the timers. When the timers overflow, they set their respective flag
(TF0 or TF1) in this register. When the processor detects a 0 to 1 transition in the flag, an interrupt
occurs if it is enabled. It should be noted that the software can set or clear this flag at any time.
Therefore, an interrupt can be prevented as well as forced by the software.

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Example 1
Indicate which mode and which timer is selected for each of the following.
(a) MOV TMOD, #01H (b) MOV TMOD, #20H (c) MOV TMOD, #12H

Solution
We convert the value from hex to binary. From Figure 9-3 we have:
(a) TMOD = 00000001, mode 1 of timer 0 is selected.
(b) TMOD = 00100000, mode 2 of timer 1 is selected.
(c) TMOD = 00010010, mode 2 of timer 0, and mode 1 of timer 1 are selected.

Example 2
Find the timer’s clock frequency and its period for various 8051-based systems, with the crystal
frequency 11.0592 MHz when C/T bit of TMOD is 0(it acts as a timer according to TMOD
register).

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Solution

f=1/12 × 11.0529 MHz = 921.6 MHz;

T = 1/921.6 kHz = 1.085 us

The following are the characteristics and operations of mode1:

1. It is a 16-bit timer; therefore, it allows value of 0000 to FFFFH to be loaded into the
Timer’s register TL and TH

2. After TH and TL are loaded with a 16-bit initial value, the timer must be started
 This is done by SETB TR0 for timer 0 and SETB TR1 for timer 1

3. After the timer is started, it starts to count up

 It counts up until it reaches its limit of FFFFH
 When it rolls over from FFFFH to 0000, it sets high a flag bit called TF (timer flag)
– Each timer has its own timer flag: TF0 for timer 0, and TF1 for timer 1
– This timer flag can be monitored
 When this timer flag is raised, one option would be to stop the timer with the instructions
CLR TR0 or CLR TR1, for timer 0 and timer 1, respectively

4. After the timer reaches its limit and rolls over, in order to repeat the process
 TH and TL must be reloaded with the original value, and
 TF must be reloaded to 0

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To generate a time delay

1. Load the TMOD value register indicating which timer (timer 0 or timer 1) is to be used and which
timer mode (0 or 1) is selected.
2. Load registers TL and TH with initial count value
3. Start the timer
4. Keep monitoring the timer flag (TF) with the JNB TFx, target instruction to see if it is raised
 Get out of the loop when TF becomes high
5. Stop the timer
6. Clear the TF flag for the next round
7. Go back to Step 2 to load TH and TL again

Example 3
In the following program, we create a square wave of 50% duty cycle (with equal portions high
and low) on the P1.5 bit. Timer 0 is used to generate the time delay.(with 12 MHz frequency)

CSEG AT 0
MOV TMOD, #01 ; Timer 0, mode 1(16-bit mode)
HERE: MOV TL0, #0CH ; TL0=0CH, the low byte
MOV TH0, #0FEH ; TH0=FEH, the high byte
CPL P1.5 ; toggle P1.5
ACALL DELAY ; It calls delay function (subroutine)
SJMP HERE ; It jumps to “HERE” label

DELAY:
SETB TR0 ; start the timer 0
AGAIN: JNB TF0, AGAIN ; monitor timer flag 0 until it rolls over
CLR TR0 ; stop timer 0
CLR TF0 ; clear timer 0 flag
RET ; It returns from the delay subroutine
END ; It ends the program

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In the above program notice the following steps:

1. TMOD is loaded.
2. FFF2H is loaded into TH0-TL0.
3. P1.5 is toggled for the high and low portions of the pulse.
4. The DELAY subroutine using the timer is called.
5. In the DELAY subroutine, timer 0 is started by the SETB TR0 instruction.
6. Timer 0 counts up with the passing of each clock, which is provided by the crystal oscillator. As
the timer counts up, it goes through the states of FE0B, FE0C, FE0D, FE0E, FE0F, FF10, FF11, and
so on until it reaches FFFFH. One more clock rolls it to 0, raising the timer flag (TF0=1). At that
point, the JNB instruction falls through.

7. Timer 0 is stopped by the instruction CLR TR0. The DELAY subroutine ends and the process is
repeated.
Notice that to repeat the process, we must reload the TL and TH registers, and start the process is
repeated

Example 4
In Example 9-4, calculate the amount of time delay in the DELAY subroutine generated by the
timer. Assume XTAL = 12 MHz

Solution
The timer works with a clock frequency of 1/12 of the XTAL frequency; therefore, we have 12 MHz
/ 12 = 1 MHz as the timer frequency. As a result, each clock has a period of T = 1/1 MHz = 1us. In
other words, Timer 0 counts up each 1us resulting in delay = number of counts × 1us. The number of
counts for the roll over is FFFFH – FE0CH = 1F3H (499 decimal). However, we add one to 499
because of the extra clock needed when it rolls over from FFFF to 0 and raise the TF flag.

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This gives 500 × 1us = 500us for half the pulse. For the entire period it is T = 2 × 500us = 1000us
i.e., 1ms as the time delay generated by the timer.

Example 5
In Example 4, calculate the frequency of the square wave generated on pin P1.5.

Solution
In the timer delay calculation of Example 4, we did not include the overhead due to instruction in
the loop. To get a more accurate timing, we need to add clock cycles due to these instructions in
the loop. To do that, we use the machine cycle from Table A-1 in Appendix A, as shown below.

CSEG AT 0
Cycles
HERE: MOV TL0, #0F2H 2
MOV TH0, #0FFH 2
CPL P1.5 1
ACALL DELAY 2
SJMP HERE 2

DELAY:
SETB TR0 1
AGAIN: JNB TF0, AGAIN 14
CLR TR0 1
CLR TF0 1
RET 2
END
Total-28
T = 2 × 28 × 1us = 56us and F = 17857.1 Hz

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Example 6
In the following program, we create a square wave of 50% duty cycle (with equal portions high
and low) on the P1.5 bit. Timer 0 is used to generate the time delay (with 12 MHz frequency) by
using timer0 mode 0.
_________________________________________________________________________________

CSEG AT 0

MOV TMOD, #00 ; Timer 0, mode 0(13-bit mode)

HERE: MOV TL0, #0BH ; TL0=0CH, the low byte
MOV TH0, #0F0H ; TH0=FEH, the high byte
CPL P1.5 ; toggle P1.5
ACALL DELAY ; It calls delay function (subroutine)
SJMP HERE ; It jumps to “HERE” label

DELAY:
SETB TR0 ; start the timer 0
AGAIN: JNB TF0, AGAIN ; monitor timer flag 0 until it rolls over
CLR TR0 ; stop timer 0
CLR TF0 ; clear timer 0 flag
RET ; it returns from the delay subroutine

END ; It ends the program

Maximum value is 8191-500=7691 (decimal) = 1111000001011 (Binary) =THX (8 bits) and TLX
(Lower 5 bits prescaler) now, hex value is F00BH.

Timer 0 mode 0 maximum value in hexadecimal TL0= 1FH and TH0=FFH

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SERIAL COMMUNICATION
Basics
Computers transfer data in two ways:

Parallel
 Often 8 or more lines (wire conductors) are used to transfer data to a device that is only a few
feet away
Serial
 To transfer to a device located many meters away, the serial method is used
 The data is sent one bit at a time

 At the transmitting end, the byte of data must be converted to serial bits using parallel-in-
serial-out shift register
 At the receiving end, there is a serial-in- parallel-out shift register to receive the serial data
and pack them into byte
 When the distance is short, the digital signal can be transferred as it is on a simple wire and
requires no modulation
 If data is to be transferred on the telephone line, it must be converted from 0s and 1s to audio
tones
 This conversion is performed by a device called a modem, “Modulator/demodulator”

Serial data communication uses two methods

 Synchronous method transfers a block of data at a time
 Asynchronous method transfers a single byte at a time

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It is possible to write software to use either of these methods, but the programs can be tedious and
long
 There are special IC chips made by many manufacturers for serial communications
- UART (universal asynchronous Receiver transmitter)
- USART (universal synchronous-asynchronous Receiver-transmitter)
If data can be transmitted and received, it is a duplex transmission
 If data transmitted one way a time, it is referred to as half duplex
 If data can go both ways at a time, it is full duplex
This is contrast to simplex transmission

A protocol is a set of rules agreed by both the sender and receiver on

 How the data is packed
 How many bits constitute a character
 When the data begins and ends
 Asynchronous serial data

Communication is widely used for character-oriented transmissions

 Each character is placed in between start and stop bits, this is called framing
 Block-oriented data transfers use the synchronous method

The start bit is always one bit, but the stop bit can be one or two bits
The start bit is always a 0 (low) and the stop bit(s) is 1 (high)

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Due to the extended ASCII characters, 8-bit ASCII data is common

 In older systems, ASCII characters were 7- bit
In modern PCs the use of one stop bit is standard
 In older systems, due to the slowness of the receiving mechanical device, two stop bits were
used to give the device sufficient time to organize itself before transmission of the next byte
The rate of data transfer in serial data communication is stated in bps (bits per second)

Another widely used terminology for bps is baud rate

 It is modem terminology and is defined as the number of signal changes per second
 In modems, there are occasions when a single change of signal transfers several bits of data
As far as the conductor wire is concerned, the baud rate and bps are the same, and we use the terms
interchangeably
The data transfer rate of given computer system depends on communication ports incorporated into
that system
 IBM PC/XT could transfer data at the rate of 100 to 9600 bps
 Pentium-based PCs transfer data at rates as high as 56K bps
 In asynchronous serial data communication, the baud rate is limited to 100K bps

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An interfacing standard RS232 was set by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960
 The standard was set long before the advent of the TTL logic family, its input and output
voltage levels are not TTL compatible
 In RS232, a 1 is represented by -3 ~ -25 V, while a 0 bit is +3 ~ +25 V, making -3 to +3
undefined
IBM introduced the DB-9 version of the serial I/O standard

Current terminology classifies data communication equipment as

DTE (data terminal equipment)

 refers to terminal and computers that send and receive data
DCE (data communication equipment)
 refers to communication equipment, such as modems
 The simplest connection between a PC and microcontroller requires a minimum of three pins,
TxD, RxD, and ground
DTR (data terminal ready)
 When terminal is turned on, it sends out signal DTR to indicate that it is ready for
communication
DSR (data set ready)
 When DCE is turned on and has gone through the self-test, it assert DSR to indicate that it is
ready to communicate
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RTS (request to send)

 When the DTE device has byte to transmit, it assert RTS to signal the modem that it has a
byte of data to transmit
CTS (clear to send)
 When the modem has room for storing the data it is to receive, it sends out signal CTS to
DTE to indicate that it can receive the data now
DCD (data carrier detect)
 The modem asserts signal DCD to inform the DTE that a valid carrier has been detected and
that contact between it and the other modem is established
RI (ring indicator)
 An output from the modem and an input to a PC indicates that the telephone is ringing
 It goes on and off in synchronous with the ringing sound

MAX 232
 A line driver such as the MAX232 chip is required to convert RS232 voltage levels to TTL
levels, and vice versa
 8051 has two pins that are used specifically for transferring and receiving data serially
- These two pins are called TxD and RxD and are part of the port 3 group (P3.0 and
P3.1)
- These pins are TTL compatible; therefore, they require a line driver to make them
RS232 compatible

 We need a line driver (voltage converter) to convert the R232’s signals to TTL voltage levels
that will be acceptable to 8051’s TxD and RxD pins

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 To allow data transfer between the PC and an 8051 system without any error, we must make
sure that the baud rate of 8051 system matches the baud rate of the PC’s COM port
 HyperTerminal function supports baud rates much higher than listed below

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With XTAL = 11.0592 MHz, find the TH1 value needed to have the following baud rates.
(a) 9600 (b) 2400 (c) 1200

Solution
The machine cycle frequency of 8051 = 11.0592 / 12 = 921.6 kHz, and 921.6 kHz / 32 = 28,800 Hz
is frequency by UART to timer 1 to set baud rate.

(a) 28,800 / 3 = 9600 where -3 = FD (hex) is loaded into TH1

(b) 28,800 / 12 = 2400 where -12 = F4 (hex) is loaded into TH1
(c) 28,800 / 24 = 1200 where -24 = E8 (hex) is loaded into TH1

Notice that dividing 1/12 of the crystal frequency by 32 is the default value upon activation of the
8051 RESET pin.

TF is set to 1 e
TF is set to 1 every 12 ticks, so it functions as a frequency divider

SBUF Register
SBUF is an 8-bit register used solely for serial communication
 For a byte data to be transferred via the TxD line, it must be placed in the SBUF register
- The moment a byte is written into SBUF, it is framed with the start and stop
Bits and transferred serially via the TxD line

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 SBUF holds the byte of data when it is received by 8051 RxD line
- When the bits are received serially via RxD, the 8051 deframes it by eliminating the
stop and start bits, making a byte out of the data received, and then placing it in SBUF

MOV SBUF, #’D’ ; load SBUF=44h, ASCII for ‘D’

MOV SBUF, A ; copy accumulator into SBUF
MOV A, SBUF ; copy SBUF into accumulator

SCON Register
SCON is an 8-bit register used to program the start bit, stop bit, and data bits of data framing, among
other things

SM0, SM1
They determine the framing of data by specifying the number of bits per character, and the start and
stop bits

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SM2
This enables the multiprocessing capability of the 8051.

REN (receive enable)

It is a bit-addressable register
 When it is high, it allows 8051 to receive data on RxD pin
 If low, the receiver is disable

TI (transmit interrupt)
When 8051 finishes the transfer of 8-bit character
 It raises TI flag to indicate that it is ready to transfer another byte
 TI bit is raised at the beginning of the stop bit

RI (receive interrupt)
When 8051 receives data serially via RxD, it gets rid of the start and stop bits and places the byte in
SBUF register
 It raises the RI flag bit to indicate that a byte has been received and should be picked up
before it is lost
 RI is raised halfway through the stop bit

Serial Communication Programming

Programming for Serial Data Transmitting
In programming the 8051 to transfer character bytes serially
1. TMOD register is loaded with the value 20H, indicating the use of timer 1 in mode 2
(8-bit auto-reload) to set baud rate
2. The TH1 is loaded with one of the values to set baud rate for serial data transfer
3. The SCON register is loaded with the value 50H, indicating serial mode 1, where an 8-
Bit data is framed with start and stop bits
4. TR1 is set to 1 to start timer 1
5. TI is cleared by CLR TI instruction
6. The character byte to be transferred serially is written into SBUF register

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7. The TI flag bit is monitored with the use of instruction JNB TI, xx to see if the
Character has been transferred completely
8. To transfer the next byte, go to step 5

/* Write a program for the 8051 to transfer letter “A” serially at 9600 baud, continuously.
(11.0592 MHz frequency) */

CSEG AT 0

MOV TMOD, #20H ; timer 1, mode 2(auto reload)

MOV TH1, #-3 ; 9600 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ; 8-bit, 1 stop, REN enabled
SETB TR1 ; start timer 1
AGAIN: MOV SBUF, #”A” ; letter “A” to transfer
HERE: JNB TI, HERE ; wait for the last bit
CLR TI ; clear TI for next char
SJMP AGAIN ; keep sending A

END ; it ends the program

Programming Serial Data Receiving

In programming the 8051 to receive character bytes serially
1. TMOD register is loaded with the value 20H, indicating the use of timer 1 in mode
2 (8-bit auto-reload) to set baud rate
2. TH1 is loaded to set baud rate
3. The SCON register is loaded with the value 50H, indicating serial mode 1, where an 8- bit data is
framed with start and stop bits
4. TR1 is set to 1 to start timer 1
5. RI is cleared by CLR RI instruction
6. The RI flag bit is monitored with the use of instruction JNB RI,xx to see if an entire character has
been received yet
7. When RI is raised, SBUF has the byte; its contents are moved into a safe place
8. To receive the next character, go to step 5
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/* Write a program for the 8051 to receive bytes of data serially, and put them in P1, set the baud
rate at 9600, 8-bit data, and 1 stop bit */

CSEG AT 0
MOV TMOD, #20H ; timer 1, mode 2(auto reload)
MOV TH1, #-3 ; 9600 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ; 8-bit, 1 stop, REN enabled
SETB TR1 ; start timer 1
HERE: JNB RI, HERE ; wait for char to come in
MOV A, SBUF ; saving incoming byte in A
MOV P1, A ; send to port 1
CLR RI ; get ready to receive next byte
SJMP HERE ; keep getting data
END ; it ends the program

/* Write a program for the 8051 to receive bytes of data serially, transfer what we receive at 9600
baud, continuously. (11.0592 MHz frequency) */

CSEG AT 0
MOV TMOD, #20H ; timer 1, mode 2(auto reload)
MOV TH1, #-3 ; 9600 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ; 8-bit, 1 stop, REN enabled
SETB TR1 ; start timer 1
HEREE: JNB RI, HEREE ; wait for char to come in
MOV A, SBUF ; saving incoming byte in A
MOV SBUF, A ; Accumulator value to transfer
HERE: JNB TI, HERE ; wait for the last bit
CLR TI ; clear TI for next char
CLR RI ; get ready to receive next byte
SJMP HEREE ; keep getting data
END ; it ends the program

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/* Write a program for the 8051 to transfer letter “A” continuously as well as parallel to receive
bytes of data serially at 9600 baud rate, transfer what we receive on P1 (f=11.0592 MHz
frequency) */

CSEG AT 0
MOV TMOD, #20H ; timer 1, mode 2(auto reload)
MOV TH1, #-3 ; 9600 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ; 8-bit, 1 stop, REN enabled
SETB TR1 ; start timer 1
AGAIN: MOV SBUF, #"A" ; Accumulator value to transfer
HERE: JNB TI, HERE ; wait for the last bit

JB RI, HEREE ; last bit is completed

HEREE: MOV A, SBUF ; saving incoming byte in A
MOV P1, A ; send Accumulator value to P1
CLR TI ; clear TI for next char
CLR RI ; get ready to receive next byte
SJMP AGAIN ; keep sending A
END ; it ends the program

Doubling the baud rate

There are two ways to increase the baud rate of data transfer
 To use a higher frequency crystal
 To change a bit in the PCON register
PCON register is an 8-bit register
 When 8051 is powered up, SMOD is zero
 We can set it to high by software and thereby double the baud rate

MOV A, PCON ; place a copy of PCON in ACC

SETB ACC.7 ; make D7=1
MOV PCON, A ; changing any other bits
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Interrupts
An interrupt is an external or internal event that interrupts the microcontroller to inform it that a
device needs its service
A single microcontroller can serve several devices by two ways

 Whenever any device needs its service, the device notifies the microcontroller by sending it
an interrupt signal
 Upon receiving an interrupt signal, the microcontroller interrupts whatever it is doing and
serves the device
 The program which is associated with the interrupt is called the interrupt service routine
(ISR) or interrupt handler

Polling
 The microcontroller continuously monitors the status of a given device
 When the conditions met, it performs the service
 After that, it moves on to monitor the next device until every one is serviced

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Polling can monitor the status of several devices and serve each of them as certain conditions are met
 The polling method is not efficient, since it wastes much of the microcontroller’s time by
polling devices that do not need service

Example
JNB TF, target

The advantage of interrupts is that the microcontroller can serve many devices (not all at the same
time)
 Each devices can get the attention of the microcontroller based on the assigned priority
 For the polling method, it is not possible to assign priority since it checks all devices in a
round-robin fashion
The microcontroller can also ignore (mask) a device request for service
 This is not possible for the polling method

Interrupt Service Routine

For every interrupt, there must be an interrupt service routine (ISR), or interrupt handler
 When an interrupt is invoked, the microcontroller runs the interrupt service routine
 For every interrupt, there is a fixed location in memory that holds the address of its ISR
 The group of memory locations set aside to hold the addresses of ISRs is called interrupt
vector table

Steps for executing an interrupt

Upon activation of an interrupt, the microcontroller goes through the following steps
1. It finishes the instruction it is executing and saves the address of the next instruction (PC) on
the stack
2. It also saves the current status of all the interrupts internally (i.e: not on the stack)
3. It jumps to a fixed location in memory, called the interrupt vector table that holds the address
of the ISR

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4. The microcontroller gets the address of the ISR from the interrupt vector table and jumps to it
 It starts to execute the interrupt service subroutine until it reaches the last instruction
of the subroutine which is RETI (return from interrupt)
5. Upon executing the RETI instruction, the microcontroller returns to the place where it was
interrupted
 First, it gets the program counter (PC) address from the stack by popping the top two bytes of
the stack into the PC
 Then it starts to execute from that address

Interrupts in 8051
Six Interrupts in 8051 those are mentioned in below
 Reset – power-up reset
 Two interrupts are set aside for the timers: one for timer 0 and one for timer 1
 Two interrupts are set aside for hardware external interrupts
 - P3.2 and P3.3 are for the external hardware interrupts INT0 (or EX1), and INT1 (or
EX2)
 Serial communication has a single interrupt that belongs to both receive and transfer

Enabling and Disabling an Interrupt

Upon reset, all interrupts are disabled (masked), meaning that none will be responded to by the
microcontroller if they are activated
The interrupts must be enabled by software in order for the microcontroller to respond to them
 There is a register called IE (interrupt enable) that is responsible for enabling (unmasking)
and disabling (masking) the interrupts
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To enable an interrupt, we take the following steps:

1. Bit D7 of the IE register (EA) must be set to high to allow the rest of register to take effect
2. The value of EA
 If EA = 1, interrupts are enabled and will be responded to if their corresponding bits in IE are
high
 If EA = 0, no interrupt will be responded to, even if the associated bit in the IE register is
high

Timer Interrupts
The timer flag (TF) is raised when the timer rolls over
 In polling TF, we have to wait until the TF is raised
- The problem with this method is that the microcontroller is tied down while waiting for TF
to be raised, and can not do anything else
 Using interrupts solves this problem and, avoids tying down the controller
- If the timer interrupts in the IE register is enabled, whenever the timer rolls over,
TF is raised, and the microcontroller is interrupted in whatever it is doing, and jumps to the
interrupt vector table to service the ISR
- In this way, the microcontroller can do other until it is notified that the timer has rolled over
1
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/* Write a program that continuously get 8-bit data from P3 and sends it to P1 while
simultaneously creating a square wave of 200 μs period on pin P2.1. Use timer 0 to create the
square wave. Assume that XTAL = 11.0592 MHz. */

/*We will use timer 0 in mode 2 (auto reload). TH0 = 100/1.085 us = 92*/
/*upon wake-up go to main, avoid using memory allocated to Interrupt Vector
Table*/
CSEG AT 0
LJMP MAIN ; by-pass interrupt vector table

/*ISR for timer 0 to generate square wave*/

CSEG AT 000BH ; Timer 0 interrupt vector table
CPL P2.1 ; toggle P2.1 pin
RETI ; return from ISR

/* The main program for initialization */

CSEG AT 0030H ; after vector table space
MAIN: MOV TMOD, #02H ; Timer 0, mode 2
MOV P3, #0FFH ; make P0 an input port
MOV TH0, #0A4H ; TH0=A4H for -92
MOV IE, #82H ; IE=10000010 (bin) enable Timer 0
SETB TR0 ; Start Timer 0
BACK: MOV A, P3 ; get data from P3
CPL A ; compliment “A” value
MOV P1, A ; issue it to P1
MOV P3, A ; issue to P3
SJMP BACK ; keep doing it loop unless interrupted by TF0
END ; it ends the program

Note: Same process to Timer1 we have change timer mode TH and TL values after
check TF1 flag that will be discussed in class.

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External Hardware Interrupts

The 8051 has two external hardware interrupts
 Pin 12 (P3.2) and pin 13 (P3.3) of the 8051, designated as INT0 and INT1, are used as
external hardware interrupts
- The interrupt vector table locations 0003H and 0013H are set aside for INT0 and
INT1
 There are two activation levels for the external hardware interrupts
- Level triggered
- Edge triggered

Level Triggered Interrupt

In the level-triggered mode, INT0 and INT1 pins are normally high
 If a low-level signal is applied to them, it triggers the interrupt
 Then the microcontroller stops whatever it is doing and jumps to the interrupt vector table to
service that interrupt
 The low-level signal at the INT pin must be removed before the execution of the last
instruction of the ISR, RETI; otherwise, another interrupt will be generated
This is called a level-triggered or level activated interrupt and is the default mode upon reset of the
8051

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/* assume that the INT1 pin is connected to a switch that is normally high. Whenever it goes low,
it should turn on an LED. The LED is connected to P1.3 and is normally off. When it is turned on
it should stay on for a fraction of a second. As long as the switch is pressed low, the LED should
stay on. */

Solution:
CSEG AT 0000H
LJMP MAIN ; by-pass interrupt vector table

/*ISR for INT1 to turn on LED*/

CSEG AT 0013H ; INT1 ISR

SETB P1.3 ; turn on LED
MOV R3, #255
BACK: DJNZ R3, BACK ; keep LED on for a while
CLR P1.3 ; turn off the LED
RETI ; return from ISR

/*MAIN program for initialization*/

CSEG AT 30H
MAIN: MOV IE, #10000100B; enable external INT 1(IE= 84H)
HERE: SJMP HERE ; stay here until get interrupted

END ; it ends the program

Note: Same process to Interrupt0 we have to change IE register values after check
INT0 (P3.2) pin that will be discussed in class.
On reset, IT0 (TCON.0) and IT1 (TCON.2) are both low, making external interrupt
level-triggered

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Edge-Triggered Interrupt
To make INT0 and INT1 edge triggered interrupts, we must program the bits of the TCON register
 The TCON register holds, among other bits, the IT0 and IT1 flag bits that determine level- or
edge-triggered mode of the hardware interrupt
- IT0 and IT1 are bits D0 and D2 of the TCON register
- They are also referred to as TCON.0 and TCON.2 since the TCON register is
Bit addressable

TCON (Timer/Counter) Register (Bit- Addressable)

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/* Assume that pin 3.2 (INT0) is connected to a pulse generator, write a program in which the
falling edge of the pulse will send a high to P1.3, which is connected to an LED (or buzzer). In
other words, the LED is turned on and off at the same rate as the pulses are applied to the INT0
pin. */

CSEG AT 0000H
LJMP MAIN ; by-pass interrupt vector table

/*ISR for INT0 to turn on LED*/

CSEG AT 0003H ; INT0 ISR

SETB P1.3 ; turn on LED
MOV R3, #255
BACK: DJNZ R3, BACK ; keep LED on for a while
CLR P1.3 ; turn off the LED
RETI ; return from ISR

/*MAIN program for initialization*/

CSEG AT 30H
MAIN: SETB TCON.0 ; make INT0 edge-triggered int.
MOV IE, #10000001B ; enable external INT 0(IE= 81H)
HERE: SJMP HERE ; stay here until get interrupted

END ; it ends the program

Note: Same process to External Interrupt 1 just we have to change IE register

value and set TCON.3 value for edge triggered according to requirement

Serial Communication Interrupt

 TI (transfer interrupt) is raised when the last bit of the framed data, the stop bit, is transferred,
indicating that the SBUF register is ready to transfer the next byte
 RI (received interrupt) is raised when the entire frame of data, including the stop bit, is
received

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In the 8051 there is only one interrupt set aside for serial communication
 This interrupt is used to both send and receive data
 If the interrupt bit in the IE register (IE.4) is enabled, when RI or TI is raised the 8051 gets
interrupted and jumps to memory location 0023H to execute the ISR
 In that ISR we must examine the TI and RI flags to see which one caused the interrupt and
respond accordingly

/* Write a program in which the 8051 gets data from P1 and sends it to P2 continuously while
incoming data from the serial port is sent to P0. Assume that XTAL=11.0592. Set the baud rata at
9600 */

CSEG AT 0000H
LJMP MAIN

CSEG AT 23H
LJMP SERIAL ; jump to serial interrupt ISR

CSEG AT 30H
MAIN: MOV P1, #0FFH ; make P1 an input port
MOV IE, 10010000B ; enable serial int.
MOV TMOD, #20H ; timer 1, auto reload
MOV TH1, #0FDH ; 9600 baud rate
MOV SCON, #50H ; 8-bit, 1 stop, “REN” enabled
SETB TR1 ; start timer 1
BACK: MOV P1, A ; read data from A send it to P1
MOV P2, A ; also send it to P2
SJMP BACK ; stay in loop indefinitely

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CSEG AT 100H
SERIAL: JB TI, TRANS ; jump if TI is high
MOV A, SBUF ; otherwise due to receive

MOV P0, A ; send incoming data to P0

CLR RI ; clear RI since CPU doesn’t
RETI ; return from ISR
TRANS: CLR TI ; clear TI since CPU doesn’t
RETI ; return from ISR
END

/* Write an ECP to generate EXT Int0, Timer 0 and Serial Interrupt */

#include<reg51.h> // It includes all SFRs addresses in this header file

// (Predefined)

#define LEDS P1 // declare port for 8 leds

sbit LED1=P0^0; // declare port pin for led
sbit LED2=P0^1; // declare port pin for led
sbit LED3=P0^2; // declare port pin for led

/*Interrupt service routine function for external interrupt 0*/

void ExtInt0(void) interrupt 0

{
LED1=~LED1; // compliment led1
}

/*Interrupt service routine function for timer 0*/

void T0_Int(void) interrupt 1

{
LED2=~LED2; // compliment led2
}

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/*Interrupt service routine function for serial interrupt*/

void SerTxRxInt(void) interrupt 4

{
if(RI==1) // if mc receives the data
{
LED3=~LED3; // compliment led3
RI=0; // RI flag make it zero
}
if(TI==0) // if mc not transmits the data
{
TI=0; // TI flag make it zero
}

main()
{
unsigned char x=0x01;// declare and assign some value to "x"
EA=EX0=ET0=ES=IT0=1; // Enable 3 interrupts (Ext INT0, Timer0,
// Serial Interrupt)
SCON=0x50; // select standard UART mode and Enable
// reception and transmission
TMOD=0x21; // Select timer1 mode2 for UART and
// timer0 mode1 for timer0 interrupt
TH1=TL1=-3; // pass "-3" value on TH1 for setting the
// baud rate (9600)
TR1=1; // set timer1 run bit then it starts the timer1
TR0=1; // set timer0 run bit then it starts the timer0

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/* Normal Task continuation task */

while(1) // infinite loop

{
LEDS=x; // Assign "x" value to LEDS
delay(1000); // wait some time by using delay

SBUF='A'; // "A" character is placed in SBUF

// register for transmitting
while(TI==0); // check TI flag
x=x<<1; // x value is left shifted by 1
}
}

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Snap Shots for Keil uvision2

How to use Keil uvision2?

1) First we have to open Keiluvision2.So, you can follow below steps

 First double click on Keil uvision2 icon on desktop

Another way is there to open Keil uvision2 i.e.,

 Click on Start button

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 Click on All Programs

 Click on Keil uvision2

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 Now it opens Keil uvision2

2) Create a Project for that follows these steps

 Click on Project on Menu bar

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 Click on New Project

 Now it opens one dialogue box, select path where you want to save your project. So, click on
scroll bar click on one drive where you want to save.

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 Now it opens that drive

 Click on create new folder icon to save your project in that folder

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 Now it opens with “New Folder”

 Give one name to that folder

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 Double click on that folder now it opens another dialogue box to save your project

 Give project name in “File name” blank with out any extension

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 Select “project files (*.uv2)” in “save as type scroll bar”

 Click on “Save” button now it opens one dialogue box.

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 In that dialogue box they given one list it’s related to manufacturer name of IC’s. Select one
manufacturer name related to your target board.

 Select “ATMEL” and click on “+” button

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 Now it opens ATMEL related ICs

 Search for your required IC with the help of Scroll bar select that IC click on that IC name for
example select “89s52”

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 Then click “OK” button

 It opens one dialogue box it’s related to start up code for 8051 there is no need of start up
code. So, click on “NO” button

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 Now Target is created with the project name of (8051). Project name is your wish

3) Now create a file for that follows these steps

 Click on file on Menu bar

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 Click on “New” for creating new file

 It opens the file

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 Save that file for that again click on “File” menu bar click on save as (short cut key (ctrl+s))

 It opens one dialogue box for saving the file

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 Give any name in “File name” blank with extension of “.asm” or “.c” based on program

 If it is Assembly language program save with “.asm” extension, if it is Embedded C

programming save with “.c” extension.
 For example File Name: “ test.asm”(asm soured file)

 For example File Name: “ test.c” (c source file)

Note: If you want to practice in “VECTOR Lab” save your projects and files in your “server
ID”. Otherwise you will loss your data. If any doubts in this concept plesae be contact your
concern Lab Co-ordinators”.

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 Select “save as type” as All Files (*.*)

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 Click on “Save” button

 Now file also created with name (Observe above menu bar it shows path where we saved and
name of the project and file like for example[D:\8051\test.asm]

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 If it is C source file [D:\8051\test.c]. Selection of path project and file names are based on
user requirement it’s not fixed. What you selected that one only it shows above menu bar.

4) Which file you want to compile add that file to source group for that we have to follow these steps
 Select source group on project window

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 Right click on that source group in this it’s named as “Source Group 1”

 Select Add Files to Group ‘Source Group 1’

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 Now it opens one dialogue box in this it shows which file you want to add and which file you
want to compile (by default it shows c source files)

 If you want to compile asm files select file type as “Asm Source File”. Then it listed total
overall asm files

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 Now “asm files” are opened then you can select required file name for writing program and
for compilation

 Click on “Add” button

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 Next click on “Close” button

 Now file is added to source group (File name is not visible to you then you can click on left
side “+” symbol of source group. Double click on file name.

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 Now you can write program if program is not available in that file
 Before writing the program first of all you have to know about Addressing modes,
instruction sets and Assembler directives. So, first you can read after you can write
program

 Every time you can save that file with the short cut key (CTRL+S)
 After you can compile for that click on “project” on menu bar

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 Next click on Build Target (or) press F7 short cut key

 Now check the output on output window. In that it shows errors, warnings and how much
size your program (blue color marking is output window)

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5) Next if you want to see the output on this keil you have to know debugging process for that
follows these steps

 Click on “debugging” symbol or short cut key (CTRL+F5)

 Or click on “Debug” on menu bar and click on start/stop Debug Session

 then it opens on window

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 Now you can do step by step execution for that click on “Debug” on menu bar

 Click on “Step” short cut key (F11) (or) same symbol is available in debug tool bar

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 Output shows on register window observe blue color marking

 Another way to see the output your program output is a 34h that one you can see on
memory window example “A” register is internal RAM. So, you can type D: address on
memory window. Now “A” register address is 0xE0 (or) 0E0H. D:0E0h

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 If you want to see the output on ports then you can select peripherals and click on desired
port.

 With out all windows it visible likes this.

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 If you want to see project window to see output on general purpose registers, A and B and
some SFRs, another one is memory window to see data on particular memory, another one is
Disassembly window to see the program in opcodes format, another one is watch & call stack
window to see user defined variables output those all are available in “View” on menu bar.

 Which one wants you can click on that window it’s opened if you don’t want again you can
click on same “View” button on menu bar and which window you don’t want click on that it
disabled.

 On memory window if you want to see the data on code memory type C: address, and for
external memory type X: address and for internal data type D: address

 If you want to come out from the debugging process again click on “Debug” on menu bar and
click on start/stop debugging (or) press CTRL+F5 (or) click on “d” symbol on debug tool
bar.

 You can see these all windows at a time in below.

 Now you can follow above process to open all windows

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 Now you can see all windows which are explained in previously.

 If you want to create another project follow same process how to create project before that
one first close previous project.
 First come out from the debugging and after click on “Project” on Menu bar after you can
click on “close project” option.

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 If you want to create new file follow same process “How to create file” we discussed
previously. Before that one close the file
 Click on “File” on menu bar and click on “Close” option.

 Next remove file from source group on project window for that which file you want to
remove on that you can give right click after click on “remove file”.

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Again if you want to create and save the project and file we have to follow same above process.

6) How to open Project

 Click on Project on menu bar

 Click on “Open Project” option

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 It opens one dialogue box like this

 Select your project name which one you want to open

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 Click on “open”. It opens that project.

7) How to open file

 First click on File on menu bar

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 Click on “open”

 It opens one dialogue box in that select path and your filename

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 Click on open option then it opens the file.

8) How to Create Hex File

 First select target after right click on target

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 Click on “Options for Target”

 It opens one dialogue box like below set your desired frequency

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 Click on output tab

 Give desired hex file name in Name of Executable blank

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 Enable create HEX File i.e., click on empty square box

 If you want to save your hex file in particular place click on “select folder for objects” select
path where you want to save

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 It opens one dialogue box from there you can set your path

 Click “Ok” button

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 After you can save press CTRL+S and build your target press F7 now hex file is created

See output window it shows hex file name including with path.

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SCHEMATICS

POWER SUPPLY:

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AT89S52:

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IN SYSTEM PROGRAMMERS:

ACTIVE HIGH LED’S

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ACTIVE LOW LED’S

AND GATE & ACTIVE LOW SWITCHES:

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ACTIVE HIGH SWITCHES:

7-SEGMENT DISPLAY’S

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ALPHANUMERIC LCD:

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GRAPHICAL LCD:

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MAX 232:

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4*4 MATRIX KEYPAD:

DS18B20 : IR RX :

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SPI(MCP3204):

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I2C:

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L293D:

ULN2003:

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ASSIGNMENTS
8051 Micro controller (mandatory) Programs On
1. Data Transfer Operations…………………………………………………………
2. Logical & Bit Operations………………………………………………………….
3. Arithmetic Operations……………………………………………………………
4. Branching Operations…………………………………………………………….
5. Interfacing of LED’s ……………………………………………………………..
6. Interfacing of Switches, LED’s/Buzzer………………………………………….
7. Interfacing Seven Segment Display & switches…………………………………
8. Interfacing of LCD………………………………………………………………..
9. Interfacing 4x4 Matrix Keypad & LCD/Seven Segment…………………………
10. Timers/Counters……………………………………………………………………
11. Serial Communication using UART peripheral’s Standard UART Mode ………..
12. Interrupts…………………………………………………………………..
Project on any ONE of the below
13. SMS Matrix Keypad……………………………………………………………….
14. Interfacing of I2C EEPROM AT24C01 & LCD/UART…………………………..
15. Interfacing of I2C RTC DS1307 & LCD/UART…………………………………..
16. Interfacing of SPI ADC MCP3201 & LCD/UART……………………………..
17. Interfacing of 128*64 Graphical LCD……………………………………………..
18. IR decoding, Philips Remote Control RC5 protocol implementation ……………
19. Smart Card Authentication…………………………………………………………
20. Memory Mapped I/0 using 8255 PPI………………………………………………
21. Temperature Sensing using 1-wire protocol………………………………………..
22. Implementing a Round Robin Scheduler……………….…………………………..
23. Multitasking Application using Real Time OS…………………………………….
24. RF Based Automation………………………………………………………………
25. Distance measurement with ultrasonic sensor...........................................................

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Data Transfer Operations (In Assembly Language) Exercises

1. Place the number 3Bh in internal RAM locations 30h to 32h.
2. Copy the byte at internal RAM address 27h to external RAM address 27h.
3. Set timer 1 to A23Dh.
4. Copy the data in external RAM location 0123h to TL0 and the data in external RAM location
0234h to TH0.
5. Exchange the contents of the B register and external RAM address 02CFh.
6. Copy the internal code byte at address 0300h to external RAM address 0300h.
7. Exchange both low nibbles of registers R0 and R1: put the low nibble of R0 in R1, and the
low nibble of R1 in R0.
8. PUSH the contents of the B register to TMOD.

Logical & Bit Operations (In Assembly Language) Exercises

1. Set port 0, bits 1, 3, 5 and7, to 1; set the rest to 0.

2. Clear bit 3 of RAM location 22h without affecting any other bit.
3. Invert the data of the port 0 pins and write the data to port 1.
4. Swap the nibbles of R0 and R1 so that the low nibble of R0 swaps with the high nibble of
R1 and the high nibble of R0 swaps with the low nibble of R1.
5. Complement the lower nibble of RAM location 2Ah.
6. Make the high nibble of R5 the complement of the low nibble of R6.
7. Move bit 4 of RAM location 30h to bit 2 of A.
8. Store the least significant nibble of A in both nibbles of RAM address 3Ch; for example, if
A=36h, then 3Ch == 66h.
9. Set the Carry flag to 1 if the number in A is even; set the Carry flag to 0 if the number in
A is odd.
10. Treat registers R0 and R1 as 16-bit registers, and rotate them on place to the left; bit 7 of
R0 becomes bit 0 of R1, bit 7 of R1 becomes bit 0 of R0, and so on.
11. Reverse the bits of R0 registers.
12. Rotate the DPTR one place to the right.
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Arithematic Operations (In Assembly Language) Exercises

1. Add 55h and 66h and put the result in r4 and r5 of bank 2
2. Add the content in 55h,56h and 57h and put the result a(msb) and b(lsb)
3. Add the byte in intram loc 45h with extram loc 45h
4. Sub the contents of r0 and r1 and put the res in r0 of bank1
5. Multiply FFh and FFH and store the result in r2 and r3
6. Div 58 by 5 and store the result in r0 and r1
7. Add one to every external ram location from 10h to 13h
8. Square the content of acc and store the result in ext ram loc 00 and 01
9. Store 0fdh in tl0 and increment it by 2 and put the res in th0
10. Store 0ech in r5 and convert it to bcd and store res in r6
11. Add the content of tl0 and tl1 and store the res in th0
12. Add the content of p0 with p1 and store the res in p2

Branching Operations (In Assembly Language) Exercises

1. Put a random number in R3 and increment it until it equals E1h.

2. Put a random number in address 20h and increment it until it equals a random number put in
R5.
3. Detect both the OV flag & CY flag being set in 8051.If set put 1 in R7,else put 0 in R7.
4. Count the number of 1s in any number in register B and put the count in R5.
5. Transfer the data in internal RAM locations 10h to 20h to internal RAM locations s30h to
40h.
6. Write a program to copy a block of 10 bytes of data from RAM locations starting at 35H to
RAM locations starting at 60H.
7. Assuming that in ROM space at 250H contains ‘Vector’, write a program to transfer the bytes
into RAM locations starting at 40H.
8. Let the assembler locate (initialize) the string ‘Welcome’ in ROM space .Write an ALP to
bring in the string into the RAM space.
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9. Write a program to add the following numbers and save the result in R2, R3. The data is
stored in on-chip ROM.
MYDATA: DB 53, 94, 56, 92, 74, 65, 43, 23, 83
10. Write a sub-routine that adds to 8-bit numbers and stores the result in r6 (MSB) and r7(LSB)
and call it.
11. Write a sub-routine to create a delay of about 1 ms and call it.
12. Write a sub-routine to create any approximate delay within of 1 ms up to 100ms.

Interfacing of LEDs

1. Flash an LED connected to port line using complement logic at the rate of 1 second for 10
times and stop.
2. Flash an LED connected to port line using the set and clear logic each at the rate of 1second
for 10 times and stop.
3. Display on the LEDS connected to port the pattern as explained:

First all the LEDS should be off and remaining in this state for about 1 sec.
After 1 second laps switch on the only LED0 (bit 0)
After 2 seconds laps switch on the only LED1 (bit 1)
………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
After 8 seconds laps switch on the only LED7 (bit 7)
Switch of all the LEDS for about 3 secs.
Repeat this pattern for 5 times ONLY.

Interfacing of Switches and LEDs & Buzzer

1. Read the status of momentary switch (SW) connected to any port pin and display it on the
LED & make the buzzer beep connected to another port pins.

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2. A momentary switch (SW) is connected P2.5 and four LEDs are connected to lower nibble of
port 0.Your program should behave as follows :
Depending on the number of times the SW pressed -
The 1st time, LED 0 should be ON only,
The 2nd time, LED 1 should be ON only,
The 3rd time, LED 2 should be ON only,
The 4th time, LED 3 should be ON only,
If pressed here after none should be ON until system reset.
3. Read the status of all momentary switches SW’s connected to PORT 0 and display their
status of being pressed on corresponding LEDS connected to PORT 2 infinitely.
4. Read the status of 4 momentary switches SW’s connected to lower nibble of PORT 0 and
display their status on an LED connected to P2.0 only.

Interfacing of Seven Segments & Switches

1. Show up counting from 00 to 99 on seg1, seg2 @ of 1s.
2. Display “HELP” on segments and Make if flash 5 times
3. Implement a 2 digit up and down counter. Use two switches as mentioned sw1 for
incrementing count & sw2 for decrement count.
4. Display on 4 digits @ 1s per display the consecutively values 1.234, 12.34, 123.4 infinitely.

Interfacing of LCD

1. Display and Scroll the string “VECTOR”, towards right, on Line 1 of LCD until it disappears
from the screen.
2. Display and circularly Scroll the string “VECTOR”, towards right, on Line 1 of LCD
infinitely on the screen.
3. Display 4 new customized characters.

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Understanding Timer/Counter peripherals usage

Write8051 assembly programs to create generate a square wave of duty cycles 25%, 50%,
33%, and 75%.
What value do we need to load into the timer’s registers if we want to have time delay of
10ms.Write the program for infinitely creating a pulse width of 10ms P0.7?
Assuming that XTAL=12MHz, write a program to generate a square wave of 2 KHz
frequency on P0.6.
Solution:
T = 1/f = 1/2 kHz = 500us the period of square wave
½ of it for high and low portions of the pulse is 250us
250us/1us=250 and 65536 – 250 = 65286(convert to hex).
Load TLX and THX
Write an embedded C program to count pulse inputs at the pin T1.

Serial Communication:
1) Write an ALP to serially transmit the message “Welcome to VECTOR” on serial window/pc
hyper terminal window.
2) Write an ALP to infinitely receive any character then re-transmit its ASCII value in decimal and
hex format. Output should be seen as for example below
Output: Received ‘A’ 65 41
Received ‘a’ 97 61
……………………..
3) Using the concept of multiple file assembly, assuming three files, say mainfile.asm, serial.asm
and delay.asm are edited as mentioned below
Mainfile.asm – contains the main logic of the application which invokes routines from other files
Serial.asm - contains UART input and output routines
Delay.asm – contains loop delay and timer delay routine
Write an ALP to show 00 – 99 secs counters on the serial window.

4) Write an Embedded-C program for demonstrating full duplex feature of UART in mode 1.
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Interrupts

1.Test with some form of visual outputs the response of the microcontroller to various interrupt
sources.

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