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INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT): SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

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INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT):
SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS
Authors
Dr. Monika Bhatnagar
Associate Professor,
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department,
Galgotias College of Engineering & Technology,1,
Knowledge Park Phase -ll, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh

Dr. N. Rajendran
Assistant Professor (Senior Grade)
Department of Information Technology at B.S. Abdur Rahman Crescent
Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai

Dr. R. Priyadarshini
Assistant Professor Senior Grade II,
School of Computer Science and Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Science and Technology, Chennai

Dr. Ashok J
Associate Professor,
Department of Electronic and Communication Engineering,
V. S. B. Engineering College, Karur

Dr. Dinesh Mavaluru

College of Computing and Informatics
Saudi Electronic University
Riyadh. Saudi Arabia
Title: INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT):
SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

Author’s Name: Dr. Monika Bhatnagar

Dr. N. Rajendran
Dr. R. Priyadarshini
Dr. Ashok J
Dr. Dinesh Mavaluru

Published by: NTL Technology

Edition Details (I,II,III): I

Month & Year: February, 2023

ISBN: “978-81-953929-2-6”

Copyright @ NTL Technology

Pages: 198

Price: ₹490/-
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

1 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS 1-45
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 TECHNOLOGICAL TRENDS AND FUTURE
OPPORTUNITIES
1.3 IOT AND BUSINESS SCOPE EVOLUTION
1.4 BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES
1.5 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS RELATIONSHIP
1.6 CHALLENGES OF INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)
1.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF IOT
1.8 IOT LIFE CYCLE
1.9 PHYSICAL DESIGN OF IOT
1.10 IOT CONCEPTUAL ARCHITECTURE
1.11 IOT COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
1.12 LEVELS OF THE INTERNET OF THINGS
1.13 ARCHITECTURE OF THE INTERNET OF THINGS
1.14 ADVANTAGES OF IOT
1.15 IOT DISADVANTAGES
2 SMART OBJECTS
2.1 SMARTS OBJECTS IN IOT
2.2 THE "THINGS" IN THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)
2.3 IOT FOR LOGISTICS: PACKAGES AND CONTAINERS
AS “THINGS” CONNECTED TO THE INTERNET
2.4 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS IN IOT | ENABLING
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
2.5 CLASSIFICATION OF SMART OBJECTS
2.6 WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORK IN IOT
2.7 COMMUNICATIONS CRITERIA
3 IOT LAYERS
3.1 NETWORKING STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGIES
IN IOT
3.2 IOT NETWORKING PROTOCOLS
3.3 INTRODUCTION OF 5G NETWORKS IN IoT
3.4 IOT NETWORKING CONSIDERATIONS AND
CHALLENGES
3.5 THE BUSINESS CASE FOR THE INTERNET OF
THINGS
3.6 NETWORK OPTIMIZATION FOR IOT DEVICES
3.7 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS
3.8 NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS
3.9 IOT COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES
3.10 PROVIDING SOLID IOT QUALITY OF EXPERIENCE
3.11 APPLICATION PROTOCOLS FOR IOT
4 DATA ANALYTICS AND SUPPORTING SERVICES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 IOT DATA ANALYTICS CHALLENGES
4.3 IOT NETWORK ANALYTICS APPLICATIONS
4.4 INTELLIGENCE IN BUSINESS
4.5 GATHERING SOFTWARE FOR EVENTS
4.6 COMPUTING FOR IOT/M2M
APPLICATIONS/SERVICES USING A CLOUD
PLATFORM
4.7 CLOUD COMPUTING TRENDS
4.8 CLOUD PLATFORM SERVICES
4.9 CLOUD DEPLOYMENT MODELS
5 IOT PHYSICAL DEVICES AND ENDPOINTS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 IOT BUILDING BLOCKS
5.3 IOT WORKS
5.4 IOT ARCHITECTURE LAYERS
5.5 EXEMPLARY DEVICE: RASPBERRY PI
6 IOT PHYSICAL SERVERS AND CLOUD OFFERINGS
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO CLOUD COMPUTING
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS
6.3 SERVICE AND DEPLOYMENT
6.4 CLOUD STORAGE API
6.5 IOT / CLOUD CONVERGENCE
6.6 WAMP FOR IOT
6.7 AMAZON EC2 – PYTHON EXAMPLE
6.8 PYTHON FOR MAPREDUCE
6.9 PYTHON WEB APPLICATION FRAMEWORK -
DJANGO
7 INDUSTRIAL INTERNET OF THINGS (IIOT)
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 EVOLUTION OF IIOT
7.3 ADVANTAGES OF INDUSTRIAL IOT
7.4 DRIVERS OF IIOT
7.5 RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH IIOT SYSTEMS
7.6 BUSINESSES AND INDUSTRIES APPROACH IIOT
SECURITY
7.7 APPLICATIONS OF IIOT
7.8 WORK FLOW OF IIOT
7.9 SECURITY CONSIDERATIONS AND CHALLENGES
WHEN ADOPTING IIOT
7.10 COMPANIES CAN IMPLEMENT IIOT
INTELLIGENTLY
7.11 INDUSTRIAL INTERNET OF THINGS USE CASES
8 IOT APPLICATIONS & CASE STUDIES
8.1 IOT APPLICATIONS
8.2 IOT CONSUMER APPLICATIONS
8.3 IOT APPLICATIONS IN AGRICULTURE
8.4 IOT APPLICATIONS IN MEDIA, MARKETING, AND
ADVERTISING
8.5 APPLICATION OF IOT IN EDUCATION
8.6 GOVERNMENT APPLICATIONS
8.7 IOT ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
8.8 TRANSPORTATION AND THE INTERNET OF
THINGS (IOT)
8.9 IOT APPLICATIONS IN HEALTHCARE
8.10 IOT LAW ENFORCEMENT APPLICATIONS
ACRONYMS REFERENCES
 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS

1.1 Introduction
It is a network of physical objects or things that send, receive, or
communicate via the internet or other communication technologies. The
intelligent link between the physical and digital worlds, often known as the
Internet of Things (IoT), is expected to fundamentally alter every aspect of
how we work and do business. By integrating apps with their integrated
systems, businesses have the potential to significantly transform their
industries. Currently, 90% of the data produced by tablets, smartphones,
and linked devices is not utilised. Think about how you may be able to
change it. No other technological platform has ever combined this level of
complexity, global reach, and uniqueness, it is reasonable to claim. The
Internet of Things (IoT) has created opportunities for directly integrating
the real world with computer-based systems via sensors and the internet
since it allows items to be handled remotely. Automation in practically
every industry as well as the development of cutting-edge applications will
result from the integration of these many embedded devices. As a result,
accuracy, efficiency, and economic value have increased with reduced
human influence. Among the technologies explored are smart grids, smart
homes, intelligent transportation, and smart cities. Some of the main
benefits of IoT include the ones listed below:
❖ Greater Customer Engagement - By automating the process, the
Internet of Things (IoT) enhances the customer experience. For
instance, the sensors on an automobile will detect any issue right away.
Both the driver and the manufacturer will be communicated. Before the
driver arrives the gas station, his or her time is not over.
❖ The manufacturer will make that the faulty component is accessible at
the servicing facility.
❖ Technical Optimization - The Internet of Things has aided
technological advancement. In order to improve the vehicle's design
and efficiency, the manufacturer may make data from numerous
automobile sensors and analyse it.
Reduced Waste – Our current understanding is limited, but real-time
data from the Internet of Things (IoT) enables improved information
management and decision-making. For instance, if a manufacturer finds a
flaw in several engines, he may track the factory where the engines are
produced and correct the issue with the production belt.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

It is a network of physical objects or things that send, receive, or

communicate via the internet or other communication technologies.
The intelligent link between the physical and digital worlds, often
known as the Internet of Things (IoT), is expected to fundamentally alter
every aspect of how we work and do business. By integrating apps with
their integrated systems, businesses have the potential to significantly
transform their industries. Currently, 90% of the data produced by tablets,
smartphones, and linked devices is not utilised. Think about how you may
be able to change it. No other technological platform has ever combined
this level of complexity, global reach, and uniqueness, it is reasonable to
claim. The Internet of Things (IoT) has created opportunities for directly
integrating the real world with computer-based systems via sensors and the
internet since it allows items to be handled remotely. Automation in
practically every industry as well as the development of cutting-edge
applications will result from the integration of these many embedded
devices. As a result, accuracy, efficiency, and economic value have
increased with reduced human influence. Among the technologies explored
are smart grids, smart homes, intelligent transportation, and smart cities.
Some of the main benefits of IoT include the ones listed below:
❖ Greater Customer Engagement - By automating the process, the
Internet of Things (IoT) enhances the customer experience. For
instance, the sensors on an automobile will detect any issue right away.
Both the driver and the manufacturer will be communicated. Before the
driver arrives the gas station, his or her time is not over.
❖ The manufacturer will make that the faulty component is accessible at
the servicing facility.
❖ Technical Optimization - The Internet of Things has aided
technological advancement. In order to improve the vehicle's design
and efficiency, the manufacturer may make data from numerous
automobile sensors and analyse it.
Reduced Waste – Our current understanding is limited, but real-time
data from the Internet of Things (IoT) enables improved information
management and decision-making. For instance, if a manufacturer finds a
flaw in several engines, he may track the factory where the engines are
produced and correct the issue with the production belt.

1.2 Technological Trends and Future Opportunities

Many companies see the Internet of Things (IoT) as a significant
opportunity that has the potential to improve consumer interactions and

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

propel corporate development by increasing quality, productivity, and

reliability on the one hand while reducing costs, risk, and theft on the other.
IoT security breaches
Forrester asserts that the recent DDoS attack in the United States,
which affected 1600 websites, was only the tip of the iceberg in terms of
the threat posed by connected devices to the global world. That attack
confirmed the concern about IoT device vulnerability with a significant
distributed denial of service attack that crippled the servers of services
including Twitter, NetFlix, NYTimes, and PayPal across the United States.
It is the result of a significant internet assault that used malicious software
and millions of IP addresses. All indications point to the virus gaining
control of a sizable number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices, which
power widely used technologies like closed-circuit cameras and smart
home devices, and utilising them against the servers. a few IoT and mobile
components
The Internet of Things is creating new possibilities and giving firms a
competitive advantage in both developed and developing markets. It has an
aspect on all facets of your data collecting, including the when, where, how,
and why. In addition to changing the internet, the technologies that gave
birth to the Internet of Things are also changing the things that are linked to
it. More mobile moments (the times when a person pulls out a mobile
device to get what he or she wants, quickly and in context) will display on
the linked gadget, from home appliances to cars to smartwatches and virtual
assistants. Each of these linked devices has the potential to provide a rich
stream of data that product owners of goods and services may use to
communicate with their clients.
Artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) (AI)
In an IoT environment, AI can assist businesses narrow down the millions
of data points to what matters most. The fundamental premise is the same
as it is for retail applications: examine and analyse data to make trends or
resemblances that can be utilised to inform and improve decisions.

Connectivity and the Internet of Things (IoT)

Various parts of the IoT may be connected to the sensors via Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Low Power Wi-Fi, Wi-Max, traditional Ethernet, Long Term
Evolution (LTE), and the new and promising Li-Fi technology (using light
as a medium of communication between the different parts of a typical
network including sensors).

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

There are new business models with the Internet of Things (IoT).
Without strong and reliable business models for IoT, we risk experiencing
another bubble. This model must satisfy all requirements for consumer
markets, vertical markets, and horizontal markets. The inclusion of services
with the product is essential; otherwise, devices like Amazon's Alexa would
just be seen as another wireless speaker. Examples of these services include
voice recognition, music streaming, and Uber booking. The Internet of
applications has the potential to improve almost every aspect of our daily
life. The list below includes a few of the examples.
1. Prediction of natural disasters: By integrating sensors with their
autonomous coordination and modelling, it will be able to anticipate
when landslides and other natural disasters will occur and take
appropriate time in advance.
2. Applications for industry: For instance, managing a fleet of cars might
be done using the Internet of applications in the industry. The
processing of data to identify and choose the ones that need repair and
monitoring of their environmental performance are made easier with
the help of the Internet of Things.
3. Monitoring water scarcity: The Internet of Things may assist identify
water shortages in different locations. When the networks of sensors
are combined with the appropriate simulation exercises, they can be
used to monitor long-term water interventions like catchment area
management as well as warn stream users when an upstream event,
like the unintentional release of sewage into the stream, may have
potentially dangerous effects.
4. Smart home design: The Internet of Things (IoT) may assist with smart
home design in a number of ways, including energy consumption
management, appliance interaction, crisis detection, home safety and
simple item location, home security, and more.
5. Medical applications: The Internet of applications (IoT) can be used in
the medical field to save lives and improve quality of life. For instance,
monitoring health parameters, monitoring activities, assisting with
independent living, monitoring medication intake, and other similar
things are some examples of how the IoT can be used in the medical
field.
6. Agriculture application: A network of sensors may identify data,
analyse it, and notify the farmer through communication infrastructure,
such as a text message to a mobile phone, about data of land that need
particular attention. Examples of this include smart seed packaging,

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

fertiliser, and pest control technologies that adjust to specific local

conditions and provide recommendations. Intelligent farming systems
will assist agronomists better understand plant development models
and efficient farming practises by having information of the land
conditions and climate variability. This will be advantageous.
A significant boost in agricultural output may be achieved by removing
ineffective farming methods.
7. Intelligent transportation system architecture: The intelligent
transportation system will provide effective transportation control and
management by using contemporary sensor, information, and network
technologies. Intelligent transportation may include features like
8. continuous electronic highway tolls, mobile emergency command and
scheduling, transportation law enforcement, monitoring for vehicle
rules violations, reducing environmental pollution, anti-theft system,
avoiding traffic jams, reporting traffic incidents, smart beaconing,
reducing arrival delays, and more.
9. Smart city design: The Internet of Things may assist with smart city
design by, among other things, monitoring air quality, locating escape
routes, providing efficient city lighting, and watering plants.
Smart metering and monitoring: Accurate automated metre reading and
client invoice issuance will be made possible by the Internet of Things
(IoT) design for smart metering and monitoring. The development of
systems for gas, water, and environmental metering and monitoring,
among other things, may be facilitated by the Internet of Things.
10. Smart Security: The Internet of Things (IoT) may be utilised in the
security and surveillance sector for a variety of purposes, including
space surveillance, asset and person monitoring, infrastructure and
equipment maintenance, alerting, and more

1.3 IoT and Business Scope Evolution:

In 1999, British technology pioneer Kevin Ashton created the phrase
"Internet of Things" (IoT) to describe a system in which real things may be
linked to the Internet using sensors.
Ashton used the expression to illustrate the value of connecting RFID
tags13 used in corporate supply chains to the Internet in order to count and
track things without requiring human contact.
By the late 1970s, systems for remotely monitoring electricity grid
metres through telephone lines, for instance, were already in use in the
business world.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

Due to developments in wireless technology, machine-to-machine

(M2M) corporate and industrial solutions for equipment monitoring and
operation became popular in the 1990s. Numerous early M2M systems,
however, were dependent on closed, purpose-built networks and proprietary
or sector-specific software.
From a broad technology, the cheap and simple interconnection of
more and smaller devices is being made possible by the convergence of
numerous technological and business trends20:

Internet of Things - 7

FIG 1.1 Iot Evolution Model.

❖ Ubiquitous Connectivity—Low–cost, high–speed, widespread network
connectivity, particularly via licensed and unlicensed wireless services
and technology, allows nearly everything to be connected.
―connectable‘‘.
❖ Widespread acceptance of IP–based networking—IP has established
itself as the de facto worldwide networking standard, providing a well–
defined and extensively deployed framework.
❖ Platform of software and tools that can be simply and cheaply
incorporated into a wide variety of devices.
❖ Miniaturization— Manufacturing advancements have incorporated it
possible to combine cutting-edge computer and communications
technology into extremely small things. When combined with more
computational power,

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

❖ This has driven the development of small, low-cost sensor devices,

which are at the heart of many IoT applications.
❖ Data Analytics Advances— New algorithms and fast advances in
computer power, data storage, and cloud services allow the
aggregation, correlation, and analysis of enormous and dynamic
datasets, opening up new avenues for extracting information and
knowledge.
❖ The Rise of Cloud Computing– Cloud computing enables small and
scattered devices to interact with sophisticated back-end analytic and
control capabilities by using distant, networked computing resources to
process, manage, and store data.
In this light, the Internet of Things reflects the coming together of a
number of decades-old computer and connectivity developments.
Currently, a broad variety of industry sectors – including automotive,
healthcare, manufacturing, home and consumer electronics, and many more
– are looking into the potential of implementing IoT technology into their
products, services, and operations.

1.4 Business Perspectives

FIG 1.2 Scope of the Business.

Increase Business Possibilities Due to enhanced business models and
services, the Internet of Things (IoT) opens up new business prospects and
enables companies to capitalise on these chances.
Business cases are strengthened, time to market is sped up, and returns
on investment are increased via IoT-driven innovations. The IoT has the
potential to transform how customers and companies see the world by using
its reach beyond connection.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

Most Effective Asset Utilization

IoT will improve asset tracking (equipment, machinery, tools, and so
forth) through sensors and connections, enabling businesses to get real-time
information. Organizations may more easily identify asset flaws and do
preventive maintenance to improve asset utilisation.

Efficacious Procedures
By tying a lot of devices to the internet, IoT enables organisations to
become smarter with operational insights in real-time while lowering
operating costs. Inventory, time to market, and maintenance downtime will
all be decreased with the help of the data acquired from the logistics
network, production floor, and supply chain.

Security and Safety have Increased.

IoT services are combined in conjunction with sensors, cameras, and
video recording devices to monitor the workplace and prevent physical
hazards. To resolve problems swiftly, many teams are coordinated utilising
IoT connection.

Increased Productivity
The profitability of each company depends on how productive it is.
The Internet of skills increases corporate productivity by enabling
employees to get just-in-time training, increase labour productivity, and
reduce skill mismatches.

Cost-Cutting
Utilization of resources, output, and process effectiveness You may
perhaps all save money with 1iency. For instance, real-time diagnostics and
predictive analytics save maintenance costs. The hype around emerging
technology has culminated in the Internet of Things (IoT). Despite the
potential benefits of IoT, businesses face significant obstacles to adoption,
including issues with data and information management, a shortage of
appropriate technologies, privacy and security concerns, and the skills
necessary to handle IoT's growing complexity. On the other hand, a
knowledgeable IoT service provider may assist you in overcoming these
obstacles and increasing your return on investment.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

Logistics
IoT sensors greatly improve order fulfilment and supply chain
management processes to meet order demand. Managers can track their
shipments and make sure they reach at their destination on time thanks to
sensors on delivery containers and moving vehicles, for instance, which
provide managers real-time status updates. an organised industry IoT
provides automation potential for businesses that must manage and
replenish their stockpiles. When data from IoT devices is connected to your
enterprise resource planning (ERP) system, you can carefully monitor your
inventory, evaluate purchase and consumption habits of a certain product,
and automatically reorder products when IoT sensors show that supply is
running low. There are fewer instances of being out of stock, and extra
stock is avoided.

Fast Payment
The Internet of Things has the potential to transform how businesses
conduct transactions given that the majority of payments are done
electronically through point-of-sale systems or the internet. Examples of
this may already be seen today, thanks to ApplePay, which enables
customers to purchase products and services not only via smartphone
applications but also through wearable technology.
Thanks to IoT devices, restaurants and businesses may soon be able to
register or charge clients as soon as they walk through the door.

Market Research
Businesses will have a competitive edge if they can understand the data
that IoT devices are collecting. Marketers, for instance, may discover a lot
about how consumers use their products and which groups are most
interested in them. Then, using this data, businesses can make better
decisions about how to improve their products and services for consumers
and direct future marketing initiatives. Businesses adopting the Internet of
Things will likely face a number of challenges, but those that are successful
will gain fully from this quickly developing technology.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

1.5 Embedded Systems Relationship

FIG 1.3 Embedded Processing

Today's electrical components include embedded systems as a
necessary component. Examples of low power consumption parts include
remote controls, washing machines, microwaves, RFID tags, sensors,
actuators, and thermostats used in a variety of applications, as well as
networking equipment including switches, routers, modems, mobile
phones, PDAs, and other devices. Embedded devices often function as a
smaller component of a bigger device. For instance, embedded systems are
used in home automation to automate and regulate lighting, security,
audio/visual systems, detect temperature change, and monitoring, among
other things. In HVAC systems, embedded systems are employed as
networked thermostats. Embedded microcontrollers are present in
practically all modern devices, including CT scanners, power tools, and
DVD players. Compared to PCs, they are smaller and less powerful. Even
though embedded systems are significantly smaller than their PC
counterparts, they often feature a CPU, memory, and external interfaces.
Frequently, the bulk of the electrical circuitry is housed on a single chip.A
sensor detects (senses) changes in the information or the status of another
device or system, and then sends or processes the data in a certain way.
❖ Analog sensors provide a continuous output signal or voltage that
is proportionate to the quantity being measured in most cases.
❖ Temperature, speed, pressure, displacement, strain, and other
physical variables are all analog values since they are continuous
in nature.
❖ Digital sensors provide discrete digital output signals or voltages
that indicate the quantity being measured in digital form.
❖ Digital sensors provide a binary output signal (ON or OFF) in the
form of a logic 1 or a logic 0.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

A component of a machine or system that moves or regulates the

mechanism or system is known as an actuator. The mechanism through
which a control system works on the environment is known as an actuator.
A control signal and a source of energy are required for an actuator.
Power Savings
Until recently, one of the most frequent ways to preserve power in an
embedded system was to execute as rapidly as possible before going into
sleep mode. However, there are currently CPU core designs that require
almost no power, but at a lower performance level. This is an appealing
design for a WSN edge node.
C, C++, and Java are some of the programming languages utilized in
deeply embedded systems. It's vital to note in mind that Java runs on top of
an operating system. So the question isn't whether you'll use C/C++ or
Java; it's whether you'll utilize both. Java is appealing for IoT devices
because to the large number of Java developers globally, which means the
industry has a potential of room for expansion. Java ME Embedded from
Oracle is intended for small devices.
When cost isn't an issue, we may choose a single strong CPU to handle
all of your device's functions. However, using two CPUs in the
sensor/actuator device is a typical technical compromise. The physical-
world interface is handled by one low-cost processor (8 or 16 bits), while
the network interface is handled by a second 32-bit processor. This second
processor is often housed in a separate module that has previously been
approved by the FCC and has been certified for the protocol.

FIG.1. 4 IoT Devices With Two Processo RS

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

Designing a Design
A gateway is a device that joins two disparate networks to allow data
to pass between them. This is usually a link between a private network and
the Internet.

FIG. 5 Embedded Devices With Gateway

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for transmitting data
between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and for establishing
personal area networks. Zigbee wireless technology was created
specifically for low-cost sensors and control devices, and it is extensively
utilized in a variety of applications.
The Z-Wave wireless communication standard is primarily utilized for
home automation. It's a mesh network that communicates from appliance to
appliance using low-energy radio waves, allowing for wireless management
of home appliances and other devices including lights, security systems,
thermostats, and windows.
Wi-Fi is a popular wireless networking technology that employs radio
waves to enable high-speed Internet and network connections across long
distances. A widespread misunderstanding is that Wi-Fi stands for wireless
fidelity "fidelity of wireless communication
The International Society of Automation produced the ISA100.11a
wireless networking technology standard (ISA). This is the official
description: "Wireless (WiFi)
Process Control and Related Applications in Industrial Automation
Systems

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

EnOcean is a wireless energy harvesting technology that is primarily

used in building automation systems, but it is also used in industry,
transportation, logistics, and smart homes. EnOcean technology enables
wireless communications between batteryless wireless sensors, switches,
controllers, and gateways by combining micro energy converters with ultra
low power electronics.
Different utility providers may install a number of IoT devices in your
home, each with its own gateway, as part of home automation. Electricity
or gas, water, phone, Internet, cable/satellite, alarm system, medical
devices, and so on are examples of these. Additional features, such as local
storage or a user interface, may be required by some of these gateways.

1.6 Challenges of Internet of Things (IOT)

At the moment, IoT faces several challenges, including:
❖ insufficient monitoring and updating
❖ concerns over data storage and privacy
❖ The difficulty of software
❖ Volumes of data and their interpretation
❖ AI and automation integration
❖ Devices necessitate a continuous power source, which is
impossible to
❖ obtain.
❖ Interaction and close contact.

1.7 Characteristics of IoT

There are seven important IoT characteristics:
1. Interconnectivity. This does not need any clarification. There must be a
link between different layers of everything in IoT devices and
computers, with sensors and other electronics and related hardware and
control systems.
2. Particulars. All that can be tagged or linked in the way that it is
intended to be connected. Sensors, kitchen equipment, and tagged
livestock are only a few examples. Sensors may be built into devices,
or sensing materials may be added to devices and objects.
3. Details. Data is the glue that holds the Internet of Things together, and
it is the first step toward action and intelligence.
4. Communicate. Devices are linked so that they can exchange data,
which can then be analyzed. Communication may occur over short
distances or medium to very long distances. Wi-Fi and LPWA network
technology such as LoRa or NB-IoT is examples.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

FIG 1.6: IoTCharacteristics

5. Intelligence The intelligence factor, such as sensing capabilities in IoT
devices and intelligence derived from big data analytics (also artificial
intelligence).
6. Take action. The product of intelligence. This can be a manual action
dependent on disputes about phenomena (for example, in smart factory
decisions) or automation, which is often the most critical piece.
7. The ecosystem. The Internet of Things' position on other technology,
cultures, priorities, and the overall image into which the Internet of
Things fits. The Internet of Everything dimension, the network
dimension, and the need for strong relationships are all important
considerations.

1.8 IoT Life Cycle

The lifetime of IoT development is pretty basic.
Monitoring, maintenance, and management come after deployment,
then regular upgrades and decommissioning.
IoT Product Lifecycle is described in the below diagram.

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 Internet of Things (IoT): Systems and Applications

FIG 1.7 IoT Life Cycle

Aside from these facts, there are certain benefits and drawbacks of
Internet of Things devices that can significantly affect humans' present and
future generations.

1.9 Physical Design Of IoT

1.9.1 Things
Things are IoT Devices with special personalities that can do remote
sensing, actuation, and monitoring. Things are the most critical component
of an IoT program. Sensing Devices, Smart Watches, Smart Electronics
Appliances, Wearable Sensors, Automobiles, and Automotive Robots are
all examples of IoT Devices. These devices collect data in various ways.
Data analytics tools' analysis yields valuable information to direct
subsequent activities locally or remotely.
Temperature data produced by a Temperature Sensor in the home or
other location, for example, when analyzed, may aid in determining
temperature and taking action based on user input. The diagram above
represents a typical block diagram of an IoT device. It can provide multiple
interfaces for connecting to other devices. Sensors have I/O interfaces,
Internet connectivity, storage, and audio/video. IoT devices gather data
from onboard or connected sensors. The data is transmitted to another
device or a cloud-based server. There are numerous cloud servers available
today, especially for IoT systems. These platforms are known as IoT

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Platforms. These clouds are specifically designed for IoT purposes.

However, we can quickly review and process data here.
For example, suppose a relay switch attached to an IoT device will turn
on/off an appliance based on commands sent to the IoT device over the
Internet.

FIG 1.8 Block Diagram of IoT

Temperature data produced by a Temperature Sensor in the home or
other location, for example, when analyzed, may aid in determining
temperature and taking action based on user input. The diagram above
depicts a typical block diagram of an IoT device. It can provide multiple
interfaces for connecting to other devices. Sensors have I/O interfaces,
Internet connectivity, storage, and audio/video. IoT devices gather data
from onboard or connected sensors. The data is transmitted to another
device or a cloud-based server. There are various cloud servers available
today, especially for IoT systems. These platforms are known as IoT
Platforms. These clouds are specifically designed for IoT purposes.
However, we can quickly analyze and process data here.
For example, suppose a relay switch attached to an IoT device will turn
on/off an appliance based on commands sent to the IoT device over the
Internet.

1.9.2 IoT Protocols

IoT protocols aid in establishing Internet-based communication
between IoT devices (Node Devices) and cloud-based servers. It aids in

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sending commands to IoT devices and receiving data from IoT devices
through the Internet. An illustration is shown below. You can tell which
protocols were used by looking at this graphic.

1.9.2.1 Link Layer

Link-layer protocols govern how data is physically transmitted through
the network's physical layer or medium (Coaxial cable or another radio
wave). This Layer specifies how packets are encoded and signaled by the
hardware device over the medium to which the host is connected (e.g.,
coaxial cable).
802.3 – Ethernet: Ethernet is a collection of technologies and protocols
mainly found in local area networks (LANs). IEEE 802.3 specification was
the first to standardize in the 1980s. IEEE 802.3 specifies the physical and
medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired
Ethernet networks. Ethernet is divided into two types: traditional Ethernet
and switched Ethernet.

FIG 1.9 Layers of IoT

Ethernet is a collection of applications and protocols mainly used in
local area networks (LANs). IEEE 802.3 standard was the first to
standardize in the 1980s. IEEE 802.3 specifies the physical and medium
access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired Ethernet
networks. Ethernet is divided into two types: traditional Ethernet and
switched Ethernet.
Classic Ethernet is the original version of Ethernet, with data speeds
ranging from 3 to 10 Mbps. The variants are widely known as
10BASE-X. In this case, 10 denotes the highest throughput, i.e., 10
Mbps, BASE denotes the use of baseband communication, and X
denotes the medium form. In today's communication setting, most types of
traditional Ethernet have become outdated.

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Switches are used to link LAN stations in a switched Ethernet network.

It replaces the traditional Ethernet repeaters and allows for maximum
bandwidth use. IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions
There are several versions of the IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most
popular ones are -
IEEE 802.3: This was the initial 10BASE-5 standard. It used a dense
single coaxial cable through which a link could be tapped by drilling into
the cable to the heart. In this case, 10 represents the highest throughput, i.e.,
10 Mbps, BASE represents the use of baseband transmission, and 5
represents the maximum segment length of 500m.
❖ IEEE 802.3a: This provided the standard for thin coax (10BASE-
2), a thinner version in which BNC connectors join coaxial cable
parts. The number 2 corresponds to the overall section length of
roughly 200m (185m, precisely).
❖ IEEE 802.3i: This standard established the twisted pair (10BASE-
T) standard, which employs unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper
wires as the physical layer medium. IEEE 802.3u included
additional variants for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4, and
100BASE-FX.
❖ IEEE 802.3i: This is the standard for Ethernet over Fiber
(10BASE-F), which uses fiber optic cables as the communication
medium.

FIG 1.10 IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions

Classic Ethernet Frame Format and IEEE 802.3

The primary fields of a traditional Ethernet frame are as follows:
❖ Preamble: This is the initial area that contains the alert and timing
pulse for transmission. In the case of traditional Ethernet, it is an 8-
byte field, while in the case of IEEE 802.3, it is a 7-byte field.

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❖ Frame Delimiter Start: It is a one-byte field in an IEEE 802.3 frame

involving alternating patterns of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
❖ Destination Address: This is a 6-byte sector that contains the physical
addresses of destination stations.
❖ Source Address: This is a 6-byte field that includes the sending
station's physical address.
❖ Length: This is a 7-byte field that keeps track of the number of bytes in
the data field.
❖ Data: This variable-sized area contains data from the upper layers. The
actual data field size is 1500 bytes.
❖ Padding: This is applied to the data to make it the minimum length
of 46 bytes.
❖ CRC: CRC is an abbreviation for cyclic redundancy search. It
includes details about error detection.

FIG 1.11 Classic Ethernet Frame Format

FIG 1.12 IEEE 802.3 Frame Format

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IEEE 802.11 – WiFi: Part of the IEEE 802 family of LAN protocols,
IEEE 802.11 defines a set of media access control (MAC) and physical
layer (PHY) protocols for integrating wireless local area network (WLAN)
Wi-Fi device communication at different frequencies, including but not
limited to 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60
GHz.
IEEE 802.11 is a series of medium access control (MAC) and physical
layer (PHY) protocols for incorporating wireless local area network
(WLAN) device communication that is part of the IEEE 802 set of local
area network (LAN) technical standards. The standard and its revisions
serve as the foundation for wireless network devices bearing the Wi-Fi
name. They are the most commonly used wireless computer networking
protocols in the world. IEEE 802.11 is used in most home and office
networks to allow computers, printers, smartphones, and other devices to
communicate and link to the Internet without wires.
The LAN/MAN Standards Committee of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) develops and maintains the standards (IEEE
802). The standard's base version was published in 1997, and it has since
been amended. Although each amendment is legally repealed when
introduced into the most recent edition of the standard, the business
community continues to market to amendments because they concisely
denote the capabilities of their goods. As a result, each revision becomes its
standard in the marketplace.
IEEE 802.11 operates at various frequencies, including, but not limited
to, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz, and 60 GHz. While the IEEE 802.11
requirements list potential networks, the radio frequency
spectrum availability allowed differs substantially by regulatory
domain.
The protocols, which are usually used in combination with IEEE
802.2, are intended to interoperate easily with Ethernet and often carry
Internet Protocol traffic.
802.16 – Wi-Max: The WiMAX infrastructure standard is a standard
for Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMANs) established by IEEE
802 working group number 16, specializing in point-to- multipoint
broadband wireless networking.
WiMAX is a wireless broadband networking technology that uses the
IEE 802.16 standard to provide high-speed data over a wide region.
WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(AXess), and it is a point-to-multipoint wireless networking
technology.

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WiMAX technology may address the demands of a wide range of

consumers, from those in developing countries who wish to build a modern
high-speed data network quite cheaply without the expense and time taken
to install a wired network to those in remote areas who need quick
connectivity where wired options might not be possible due to distances
and costs involved - simply delivering WiMAX broadband. It is also used
by smartphone apps, which provide high-speed data to consumers on the
go.

The Fundamentals of WiMAX Technology

The WiMAX technology standard is a wireless metropolitan area
network (WMAN) established by IEEE 802 working group number 16,
specializing in point-to-multipoint broadband wireless connectivity.
Initially, 802.16a was developed and published, but it has been refined. The
802.16d standard, also known as the 802.16-2004 standard, was introduced
as a streamlined version of the 802.16a standard targeted at fixed
implementations. Another variant of the standard, 802.16e or 802.16-2005,
targeted at the roaming and smartphone markets, was also
announced.WiMAX broadband infrastructure relies on many main
innovations to provide high-speed data rates:
❖ OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM has
been integrated into WiMAX technology to provide high-speed
data without the selective fading and other problems that other
signal formats provide.
❖ MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output): WiMAX technology
employs MIMO for multipath propagation. MIMO allows for
lower signal intensity levels or higher data speeds by using the
various signal paths.

WiMAX Discussion Forum

The WiMAX Forum is a wireless industry consortium composed of a
rising number of industry leaders. It was founded to promote and grow
WiMAX technology globally and bring universal standards around the
globe to allow it to become a globally established technology.
One of the forum's objectives is to facilitate the implementation of a
standard that will allow complete interoperability between goods. The
WiMAX Forum seeks to avoid the issues associated with previous wireless
standards' low interoperability and the effect on adoption. Eventually,
vendors will be able to have their products approved under the Forum's
auspices and then market their products as "Forum Certified."

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Even though WiMAX technology can accept traffic dependent on

communication technologies such as Ethernet, Internet Protocol (IP), and
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), the Forum will only validate the IP-
related elements of 802.16 items. The focus is on IP operations since this is
still the most commonly used protocol.

The Evolution of WiMAX

The origins of WiMAX can be traced back to the 1990s when it was
realized that there would be a major rise in data traffic over
telecommunications networks. Since wired telecommunications networks
are very costly, especially in rural areas, and are not widely available in
many countries, methods of delivering wireless broadband were
investigated.
WiMAX history began with these inquiries into what was known as
"last mile connectivity" - means of providing high-speed data to a vast
number of people who do not have a wired link.
The promise of low-cost last-mile connectivity and technology capable
of handling backhaul over a cellular link proved to be a convincing case for
developing a modern wireless data link system.
` The IEEE's standards development was the next big milestone in
WiMAX history.
The IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee formed the 802.16
standards working group in 1999. In December 2001, the first
802.16 standards were accepted, followed by two revisions to the original
802.16 standards. These revisions, defined as 802.16a and
802.16c, discussed radio spectrum and interoperability problems.
A new revision project was launched in September 2003. This was to
match the standard with the European / ETSI HIPERMAN standard. It was
also planned to have conformance evaluation requirements as the overall
standard. The project was finished in 2004, and the standard was introduced
as 802.16d. However, due to the implementation date, it is sometimes
referred to as 802.16-2004. The previous 802.16 manuals, including the a,
b, and c amendments, discontinued the introduction of the 802.16-2004
standard.

WiMAX variants
New WiMAX applications have been developed since its introduction.
As a result, there are two "flavors" of WiMAX technology available:
The two flavors of WiMAX broadband technologies are used for
various implementations. Although they are based on the same standard,

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each implementation has been optimized for its specific use. 802.16d - DSL
substitute The 802.16d version is also known as 802.16-2004, and it is
closer to the original version of WiMAX described by 802.16a. It is
targeted at fixed applications and provides a wireless counterpart to DSL
broadband data, commonly referred to as WiMAX broadband. In reality,
the WiMAX Forum defines the technology as "a standards-based
technology that enables the distribution of last-mile wireless broadband
service as an alternative to cable and DSL."
Because 802.16d can have data speeds of up to 75 Mbps, it is suitable
for fixed, DSL replacement applications such as WiMAX broadband. It can
also be used for backhaul, transmitting the final data to individual users.
Cell radii can range up to 75 kilometers.
802.16e - Mobile / Nomadic Although 802.16 / WiMAX was initially
intended to be a fixed-only technology, people on the move demand high-
speed data at a lower cost than wireless networks, created a need for a
mobile version, and 802.16e was established. This standard is often referred
to as 802.16-2005. It currently allows users to bind to a WiMAX cell from
some locations, with potential updates to include cell handover.
Data speeds of up to 15 Mbps are possible with 802.16e, and cell
radius lengths are usually between 2 and 4 km. Competition
There are some implementations of the IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most
well- known are -
The rivalry between WiMAX and 802.16 is dependent on the form or
variant used. While it was originally believed that WiMAX would be a
major competitor to Wi-Fi, there are other places where WiMAX is a
challenge.
❖ Cable DSL bars WiMAX is capable of providing customers with high-
speed data connections. As such, it can pose a challenge to DSL cable
operators.
❖ Cell phone service providers Cell phone providers viewed the
smartphone version of WiMAX as a potential challenge as LTE was
being established and the first roll-outs began. It was also proposed as
the IMT 4G standard. However, LTE was chosen as the standard,
leaving WiMAX for fixed WiMAX broadband, last-mile connections,
and other point-to-point applications.
WiMAX technology has been used in a variety of applications.
Although it was originally seen as a contender for 4G, its use is dwindling.
However, it is still used for WiMAX broadband and last-mile connections.
802.15.4 -LR-WPAN: A collection of Low-rate wireless personal area
network standards. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard specifies the MAC and

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PHY layer used for networking protocols such as Zigbee®, 6LoWPAN,

Thread, WiSUN, and MiWiTM. The standards allow low-cost, low-speed
communication for devices with limited power.
2G/3G/4G- Cell Communication: There are separate generations of
telecommunications. These specifications allow IoT devices to connect
over cellular networks.
1.9.2.2 Networking Layer In charge of transmitting IP datagrams from
the source network to the destination network. The Network layer handles
host addressing and packet routing. For Host recognition, we used IPv4 and
IPv6. IPv4 and IPv6 are also hierarchical IP address allocation systems.
IPv4: Internet Protocol Version 4.
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical mark assigned
to every device attached to a computer network that communicates using
the Internet Protocol. An IP address performs two primary functions:
defining a host or network interface and addressing location. An IP address
is specified as a 32-bit number in Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4).
However, due to the proliferation of the Internet and the shortage of valid
IPv4 addresses, a new variant of IP (IPv6) was standardized in 1998, using
128 bits for the IP address. Since the mid-2000s, IPv6 implementation has
been continuing.
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical mark assigned
to every device attached to a computer network that communicates using
the Internet Protocol.
[1][2] Formalized paraphrase An IP address performs two primary
functions: defining a host or network interface and addressing a particular
location.
An IP address is specified as a 32-bit number in Internet Protocol
version 4 (IPv4).
[2] Formalized paraphrase, However, due to the proliferation of the
Internet and the shortage of valid IPv4 addresses, a new variant of IP (IPv6)
was standardized in 1998, using 128 bits for the IP address. (3rd) [4].
Formal paraphrase [5] Formal paraphrase Since the mid-2000s, IPv6
implementation has continued.
In IPv4, IP addresses are written and displayed in human-readable
notation, such as 172.16.254.1, and in IPv6, 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1. In
CIDR notation, the size of the routing prefix of the address is specified by
suffixing the address with the number of significant bits, for example,
192.168.1.15/24, which is equal to the traditionally used subnet mask
255.255.255.0.

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The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and five regional

Internet registries (RIRs) are responsible in their designated regions for
assigning IP addresses to local Internet registries, such as Internet service
providers (ISPs) and other end users. IANA allocated IPv4 addresses to
RIRs in blocks of approximately 16.8 million addresses each. However,
these have been depleted at the IANA stage since 2011. Just one of the
RIRs has a supply of local assignments in Africa left. [6] Formalized
paraphrase Some IPv4 addresses are reserved for private networks and are
thus not internationally exclusive.
Network administrators give each device connecting to a network an IP
address. Such assignments can be static (fixed or permanent) or
dynamically based on network policies and software features. An IPv4
address is 32 bits long, limiting the address space to 4294967296 (232)
addresses. These addresses are reserved for specific uses, such as private
networks (18 million) and multicast addressing (270 million).
IPv4 addresses are typically expressed in dot-decimal notation,
consisting of four decimal numbers separated by dots ranging from 0 to
255, for example, 172.16.254.1. Each component represents an 8-bit (octet)
address group. IPv4 addresses can be provided in different hexadecimal,
octal, or binary representations in some specialized writing.

History of Subnetting
During the early stages of Internet Protocol development, the network
number was always the highest order octet (most significant eight bits).
Since this approach only allowed for 256 networks. It quickly proved
insufficient when new networks emerged independently of the existing
networks already designated by a network number. With the
implementation of classful network architecture in 1981, the addressing
specification was updated. [2] Formalized paraphrase
Classful network architecture allowed more individual network
assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design. The class of an IP address
was specified as the first three bits of the most important octet. Three
classes (A, B, and C) were specified for universal unicast addressing.
Depending on the class, the network recognition depended on the entire
address's octet boundary segments. Each class used an increasing number
of octets in the network identifier, decreasing the available number of hosts
in higher-order classes (B and C). The table below provides an outline of
this now-defunct scheme.

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Historical Classful Network Architecture

number bit field

Size of network

addresses per

Start address
Leading bits

End address
Size of rest

Number of
Number of
networks

network
bit field
Class

167772 0.0.0. 127.255.

A 0 8 24 128(27)
16 (224) 0 255.255
16384 65536 128.0. 191.255.
B 10 16 16
(214) (216) 0.0 255.255
Classy network architecture served its function during the Internet's
early days. However, it lacked scalability in the face of the 1990s'
exponential proliferation of networking. In 1993, the address space's
hierarchy structure was replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR). CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to
make allocation and routing based on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today,
fragments of classful network principles serve mainly in a small capacity as
the default configuration parameters of certain network software and
hardware components (e.g., netmask) and technical terms used in network
administrator discussions.

Private Addresses
When universal end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for
communications with all Internet hosts, IP addresses were meant to be
internationally exclusive. However, as private networks grew and public
address space needed to be conserved, it was discovered that this was not
always possible.
Computers that are not wired to the Internet, such as factory machines
that communicate only through TCP/IP, do not need globally specific IP
addresses. Today, such private networks are common, and they usually link
to the Internet through network address translation (NAT) when necessary.
Three non-overlapping IPv4 address ranges are reserved for private
networks. [8] Formalized paraphrase Since these addresses are not
accessible on the Internet; their use would not require coordination with an

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IP address registry. Any person is free to use the reserved blocks. A

network administrator will typically split a block into subnets; for example,
many home routers have a default address range of 192.168.0.0 to
192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24). Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the
successor to IPv4. The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) created
IPv6 to solve the long-awaited issue of IPv4 address depletion. IPv6 was
designated as a Draft Standard by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) in December 1998. It was adopted as an Internet Standard on July
14, 2017. IPv6 employs a 128-bit address, allowing for 2128, or roughly
3.41038 addresses.
The address size in IPv6 was expanded from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128
bits, allowing for up to 2128 (approximately 3.4031038) addresses. This is
thought to be adequate for the near future.

The goal of the new design was not only to have a sufficient number of
addresses but also to reinvent Internet routing by enabling a more effective
aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This slowed the development
of routing tables in routers. The smallest individual allocation available is a
subnet for 264 hosts, which is the square of the whole IPv4 Internet. Real
address consumption ratios on any IPv6 network segment would be poor at
these stages. The new architecture also allows for separating a network
segment is addressing infrastructure, i.e., the local management of the
segment's usable capacity, from the addressing prefix used to redirect
traffic to and from external networks. If the global connectivity or routing
strategy changes, IPv6 has facilities that instantly adjust the routing prefix
of whole networks without requiring internal overhaul or manual
renumbering. Because of the vast IPv6 addresses available, large blocks
may be allocated for specific purposes and aggregated for efficient routing.
There is no need for complicated address conservation approaches like
CIDR with a huge address space.

Private Addresses
IPv6 addresses are reserved in the same way as IPv4 addresses for
private networks. In IPv6, these are known as special local addresses
(ULAs). This block has the routing prefix fc00::/7 reserved for it,[9] and is
separated into two /8 blocks of separate implicit policies. The addresses
contain a 40-bit pseudorandom integer, which reduces the possibility of
address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.

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For this reason, early practices used a separate block (fec0::), which
was called site-local addresses.
[10] Formalized paraphrase; however, the concept of what constituted
a location remained vague. The ill-defined addressing strategy generated
routing ambiguities. This address form has been deprecated and can not be
used in modern systems. [11] Formalized paraphrase
Link-local addresses begin with fe80::, are allocated to interfaces for
communication over the attached link. The operating system produces
addresses for each network interface automatically. This allows for
immediate and automated communication between all IPv6 hosts on a link.
This functionality is used in IPv6 network administration's lower layers,
such as the Neighbor Discovery Protocol.

Private and link-local Address Prefixes are not Permitted to be Routed

on the Public Internet.
IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks is abbreviated
to 6LoWPAN. 6LoWPAN is a completed IETF working group in the
Internet region. This protocol enables even the smallest devices with
minimal computing power to transfer data wirelessly using an internet
protocol. 6LoWPAN can connect with 802.15.4 devices and other types of
devices through an IP network connection, such as WiFi.
IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks is abbreviated to
6LoWPAN.
The principle of 6LoWPAN arose from the belief that “the Internet
Protocol might and should be extended even to the smallest devices” and
that low- power devices with minimal computing capacities should be able
to engage in the Internet of Things.
The 6LoWPAN group has established encapsulation and header
compression mechanisms that allow IPv6 packets to be sent and received
over IEEE 802.15.4 networks. IPv4 and IPv6 are the workhorses for data
transmission in local-area and wide-area networks like the Internet.
Similarly, IEEE 802.15.4 devices provide sensing communication in the
wireless domain. The two networks' underlying characteristics, however,
vary.
The IPv6 offers a simple transport mechanism to generate complex
control systems and cost-effectively communicate with devices through a
low- power wireless network, making the 6LoWPAN suitable for home or
building automation. The following are the most popular applications for it:
It is possible to achieve distinct advantages over other IoT platforms by
connecting smart home devices via IPv6. The Thread initiative was
developed to standardize a protocol that runs over 6LoWPAN to allow

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home automation. Moreover, OpenThread makes it easier for developers to

start with Thread and build smart home solutions.
Smart Agriculture: allowing all types of sensors used in agriculture and
farming by linking devices far apart in remote areas. This protocol's
possibilities for creating mesh networks make it just the right one for this
kind of use. Industrial IoT: Automated factories and industrial plants
provide a tremendous opportunity for 6LoWPAN, and using automation
will result in considerable savings. The potential of 6LoWPAN to bind to
the cloud opens up a wide range of possibilities for data monitoring,
analysis, and predictive maintenance. 6LoWPAN is the newest ZigBee
competitor. What exactly is ZigBee? Like 6LoWPAN, ZigBee is intended
for low-data-rate and battery-powered applications. ZigBee is currently the
most common, low-cost, low-power wireless mesh networking standard on
the market and the more advanced technology of the two (ZigBee,
6LoWPAN). It is commonly used in personal or home-area networks or
wireless mesh networks for networks that run over longer distances.
The ZigBee IP is based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, but, unlike
6LoWPAN, it cannot interface with other protocols easily. However, one
advantage of ZigBee is that nodes can remain in sleep mode most of the
time, significantly extending battery life. M2M/IoT Implementations for
ZigBee Wireless Light Switches are a kind of switch that allows you to turn
on and off the lights Meters for electricity (Smart grid, demand response,
etc.) Monitoring of Industrial Equipment
The name is derived from the wiggly dance performed by honey bees
on their way to deposit honey. Data in a ZigBee network, like those wild
bees, "hops" through a mesh of transceivers before a route to the host
(usually the internet) is discovered. It runs at a fixed data rate of 250 kbit/s
and is based on the IEEE 802.15 protocol. Because of this speed and poor
transmit capacity, ZigBee has a limited range. Repeaters and a dense
network of nodes are often needed to achieve the desired coverage.

1.9.2.3 Transport Layer

This layer handles error management, segmentation, flow control, and
congestion control. As a result, these layer protocols allow end- to-end
message transmission independent of the underlying network.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) is a network protocol that specifies how to create and manage a
network conversation in which application programs can share data. TCP
communicates with the Internet Protocol (IP), which determines how
computers transmit data packets to one another. TCP and IP are the

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fundamental principles that define the Internet. TCP is defined by the

Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in Request for Comment (RFC)
standards document number 793.
UDP is a Transport Layer protocol that stands for User Datagram
Protocol. UDP is a component of the Internet Protocol suite, also known as
the UDP/IP suite. It is an insecure and connectionless protocol, as opposed
to TCP. As a result, there is no need to communicate prior to data
transmission.

1.9.2.4 Application Layer

Application layer protocols describe how systems communicate with
lower layer protocols to transfer data over a network.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is an application-layer protocol
used to distribute hypermedia documents such as HTML. It was created to
facilitate communication between web browsers and web servers. However,
it can also be used for other purposes. HTTP follows the traditional client-
server model. A client opens a connection to make a request and then waits
for an answer. HTTP is a stateless protocol, which means that the server
does not store any data (state) between requests.
RFC 7252 defines CoAP-Constrained Application Protocol as a
specialized Internet Application Protocol for constrained devices. It allows
devices to connect over the Internet. The protocol is designed specifically
for restricted hardware such as 8-bit microcontrollers, low-power sensors,
and other devices that cannot run HTTP or TLS. WebSocket Protocol: The
WebSocket Protocol allows two-way communication between a client
running untrusted code in a managed environment and a remote host who
has agreed to receive messages from that code. The origin-based protection
paradigm, widely used for web browsers, was used.
MQTT is a machine-to-machine (M2M)/Internet of Things (IoT)
connectivity protocol. It was created as an incredibly lightweight
publish/subscribe messaging transport that can be used for communications
with remote locations where a minimal code footprint is needed, and there
is limited network capacity.
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is an XML-
based communication protocol for message-oriented middleware
(Extensible Markup Language). It facilitates the sharing of organized and
extensible data between two or more network entities in near- real-time.
The Object Management Group® (OMG®) Data Distribution Service
(DDSTM) is a middleware protocol and API standard for data-centric

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connectivity. It connects device elements, offering low-latency data

connectivity, extreme stability, and a modular infrastructure needed by
enterprise and mission-critical Internet of Things (IoT) applications.
AMQP: The AMQP – IoT protocols comprise a collection of
components that route and save messages within a broker carrier and a set
of policies for connecting the components. The AMQP protocol allows
patron systems to communicate with the dealer and interact with the AMQP
model.

1.10 IoT Conceptual Architecture

In this post, we will look at the logical nature of the Internet of Things.
The conceptual architecture of an IoT framework refers to an abstract
representation of the entities and processes without delving into the low-
level implementation requirements. We define the words below to help you
visualize the Logical Design of IoT.
Functional Blocks for IoT Models of IoT Communication APIs for IoT
Communication

1.10.1 Internet of Things Functional Blocks

An IoT device comprises various functional blocks that enable the
system to perform functions such as recognition, sensing, actuation,
communication, and management.

The following are practical blocks:

An IoT system comprises devices that perform sensing, actuation,
monitoring, and control.
Communication: Manages the IoT system's communication. Resources
provide device monitoring services, device regulation services, data
publication services, and device exploration services.
Management: This block includes several roles for governing the IoT
system. Protection: This block protects the IoT device by providing
authentication, authorization, message and information integrity, and data
security.
Application: An GUI from which users can access and manage
different facets of the IoT framework. Users may also monitor the device
status and view or evaluate the generated data using the application.

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FIG1.13 IoT Functional Blocks

1.10.2 IoT Communication Models

Model of Request-Response
The request-response model is a communication model in which the
client sends requests to the server, and the server replies. When a request is
sent, the server determines how to respond, retrieves the data, retrieves the
resource representation, prepares the response, and then sends the response
to the client. Request-response communication is a stateless model in which
each request-response pair is independent of the others.
HTTP is a request-response protocol that links a client and a server.
The client could be a web browser, and the server could be an application
running on a device that hosts a web.
Example: A client (browser) sends an HTTP request to the server, and
the server responds with a response. The response includes request status
information as well as the requested material.

FIG 1.14 Request –Response Communication Model

Publish-Subscribe Model
Publish-Subscribe is a communication model involving authors,
brokers, and customers. Data were gathered from publishers. The
publishers send the data to the topics handled by the broker. Publishers are
ignorant of their clients. Consumers subscribe to the issues that the broker
manages. When the broker receives data for an issue from the publisher, it
distributes it to all subscribers.

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FIG 1.15 Publish-Subscribe Model Push-Pull Model

Push-Pull is a communication model in which data suppliers push data

to queues, and users pull data. Take data from the Queues. Producers are
not expected to be aware of their clients. Queues aid in the separation of
messaging between producers and consumers. Queues often act as a buffer,
which is useful for a difference between the rate suppliers push data and the
rate at which consumers pull data.

FIG 1.16 Push-Pull Model

Exclusive Pair Model

Exclusive Pair is a bidirectional, entirely duplex communication model
that relies on a continuous link between client and server. When a link is
created, it stays open until the client sends a request to close the connection.
After the connection is established, the Client and server can send
messages. Exclusive pair is a stateful communication model in which the
server is aware of all open links.

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FIG 1.17 Exclusive Pair Model

1.10.3 IoT Communication APIs

For IoT communication, we usually use two APIs. These are the IoT
Communication APIs: REST-based Communication APIs
APIs for WebSocket-based Communication
Communication APIs based on REST
Representational state transition (REST) is a collection of architecture
standards that can be used to design Web services and Web APIs that rely
on the properties of networks and how resource states are handled and
transmitted. The rest of the architectural restriction applies to the modules,
connectors, and data elements within a distributed hypermedia system that
uses REST APIs to implement the request-response communication model.
Below are the remaining architectural constraints:
Client-server architecture – The division of interests is the driving
theory behind the client-server constraint. Clients, for example, need not be
concerned with data management, which is the provider's responsibility.
Similarly, the server should not be concerned with the user interface, which
is the client's responsibility. Separation enables client and server to be
created and updated separately.
Stateless – Each request from the client to the server must contain all
of the information required to interpret the request and cannot make use of
any server-stored context. The session state is completely stored on the
client.
Cache-able – Cache constraints demand that the data in response to a
request be leveled as cache-able or non-cache-able, either implicitly or

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directly. If a response is cache-able, a client cache is allowed permission to

reuse the response data for future, similar requests. Caching will reduce or
delete certain orders, improving performance and scalability.
Layered system constraints – layered system constraints limit the
action of components. They cannot see past the immediate layer in which
they are communicating. E.g., the client does not know if it is linked
directly to the end server or by an intermediary. Allowing intermediaries to
respond to requests instead of the end server improves system scalability
without requiring the client to do anything different.
Uniform interface – Uniform interface constraints demand that the
mode of communication between client and server be uniform. Resources
are defined in requests (via URIs in web-based systems). They are distinct
from the representations of the data returned to the client. When a client
owns a resource representation, it includes all of the information needed to
update or uninstall the resource (provided the client has the required
permissions). Each communication contains sufficient information to
explain how to process the message.
Code on demand – Servers may have executable code or scripts for
clients to run in their context. This is the only restriction that is
discretionary.
A RESTful web service is a “Web API” built with HTTP and REST
concepts. REST is one of the most commonly used IoT communication
APIs.

Uniform Resource DEL

GET PUT PATCH POST
Identifier (URI) ETE
Collection, such as Replace Not Create Delete
List the URIs
https://api.example the gender a new the
.com/resources/ and perhaps e entire ally used entry entire
other details collection in the collect collection
of the with ion. The new .
collection’s another entry’s URI
members. collection. is assigned
automatically
and is
usually
return ed by
the
operation.

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Retrieve a Replace Update Not Delete

representation the the generally the
of the addressed addressed used. Treat addressed
addressed member member the addressed member
collection of the of the member as a of the
member, collection, collection collect ion in collection
expressed in or create . its .
an it if it own right
appropriate does and create
Internet not exist. a new entry
media type. within

Http Methods
Websocket Based Communication API
Websocket APIs allow full-duplex bidirectional communication
between clients and servers. Websocket APIs use the exclusive pair
communication model. Unlike the request-response model used by REST,
WebSocket APIs support complete duplex communication and do not
require a new link to be formed for each message sent. The client sends a
link configuration request to the server, initiating websocket
communication. The request (known as a websocket handshake) is sent
over HTTP and is treated by the server as an update request. The server
responds to the websocket handshake answer by whether it accepts the
websocket protocol. After the link is established, the client and server can
send data and messages in full duplex mode. Since there is no overhead for
link setup and termination demands for each packet, the Websocket API
eliminates network traffic and letency. Websockets are ideal for IoT
applications that require low latency or high throughput. As a result, Web
sockets are the perfect IoT communication APIs for IoT systems.

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FIG 1.15 Websocket Protocol

1.11 IOT Communication Protocols

Various communication protocols and technologies are used on the
Internet of Things. Bluetooth, USB, Radio Protocols, LTE-A, and WiFi-
Direct are some of IoT innovations and protocols (IoT Communication
Protocols). These IoT communication protocols are designed to cater to and
satisfy the basic functional requirements of
an IoT framework.

FIG 1.16 IoT Technologies and Protocols

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A Bluetooth a.
A vital short-range IoT communication protocol/technology,
Bluetooth, which has grown in popularity in the computer and consumer
goods industries, is supposed to be critical for wearable devices in
particular, which would once again be bound to the IoT, but most likely
from a smartphone in many situations. The new Bluetooth Low-Energy
(BLE) – or Bluetooth Smart, as it is now called –is critical for IoT
applications. Importantly, although it has a similar range to Bluetooth, it
has been built to use less power.

Zigbee Wireless Technology.

ZigBee, similar to Bluetooth, is mainly found in commercial
environments. It has major advantages in complex systems, such as low-
power operation, high security, robustness, and high efficiency. It is well
placed to take advantage of wireless control and sensor networks in IoT
applications. The most recent version of ZigBee is 3.0, which effectively
unifies the different ZigBee wireless protocols into a single standard.

Z-Wave
Z-Wave is a low-power RF communications IoT technology designed
specifically for home automation products such as lamp controllers and
sensors, among many other applications. Z-Wave uses a simpler protocol
than most, making for quicker and smoother development. However, the
only producer of chips is Sigma Designs, instead of numerous sources for
other wireless technologies such as ZigBee and others.

Cellular Internet (Wi-Fi)

WiFi connectivity is a common IoT communication protocol that is
always an obvious option for many developers, particularly given the
availability of WiFi within the home environment and within LANs.
Conclusion: there is a strong current system and fast data transfer and the
capacity to process large volumes of data. The most popular WiFi protocol
currently found in households and many enterprises is 802.11n, which
provides a spectrum of hundreds of megabits per second, which is good for
file transfers but could be too power-consuming for many IoT applications.

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Molecular
Any IoT program that needs service over longer distances can use
GSM/3G/4G cellular communication features. Although cellular
technology can transmit significant data, especially for 4G, the cost and
power usage would be prohibitively expensive for many applications.
However, it could be suitable for sensor-based low-bandwidth data ventures
that transmit very small volumes of data across the Internet.

NFC
NFC (Near Field Communication) is an Internet of Things (IoT)
technology. It enables easy and secure communication between electronic
devices, especially smartphones, enabling consumers to conduct
transactions without physically being present. It allows the user to attach
mobile devices and view digital information. It expands the capability of
contactless card technologies by allowing devices to exchange information
at less than 4 cm.
LoRaWAN LoRaWAN is a popular IoT technology aimed at wide-area
network (WAN) applications. LoRaWAN was created to provide low-
power WANs with features directly needed to enable low-cost mobile
secure communication in IoT, smart city, and industrial applications. It
meets low- power consumption standards and serves vast networks of
millions of users, with data speeds ranging from 0.3 kbps to 50 kbps.

Embedded Devices (System) in the IoT

It is important to understand embedded devices when learning about
the IoT or developing IoT projects. The objects that make up the one-of-a-
kind computer machine are embedded systems. This system may or may
not provide Internet access.
In most instances, an embedded device framework operates as a single
program. On the other hand, these devices can connect to the internet and
communicate with other network devices.

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FIG 1.17 Embedded System Hardware

The embedded device may be of the microcontroller or microprocessor

variety. An integrated circuit is present in each of these forms (IC).
A RISC family microcontroller, such as the Motorola 68HC11, PIC
16F84, Atmel 8051, and others, is a vital part of an embedded device. The
most critical aspect that separates these microcontrollers from
microprocessors such as the 8085 is their internal read and write memory.
The following parts identify the vital embedded computer modules and
system design.

FIG:1.18 Basic Embedded System

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Software for Embedded Systems

The embedded architecture that uses devices for the operating system
is based on the language platform and is essentially where real-time
operations are conducted. Manufacturers create embedded applications for
electronic devices such as automobiles, telephones, modems, appliances,
etc. Lighting controls run on an 8-bit microcontroller can be used as
embedded system applications. There may also be sophisticated
applications for missiles, process control systems, and aircraft, among other
things.

1.12 Levels of the Internet of Things

The elements of the IoT architecture differ depending on the
programme. Based on this fact, different levels of the IoT framework have
been identified. Let's take a look at these IoT levels and their modules and
several explanations of how they can be used. Consider an air conditioner,
which must be kept at a certain temperature to understand how the Internet
of Things works.

IoT at the first level

This level has an air conditioner, a temperature sensor, a data
collection and interpretation app, and an app that can be used to control and
track things. The sensed data is saved locally.
❖ The data collection is carried out at a territorial level.
❖ Monitoring and control were accomplished by using a mobile app or a
web app.
❖ The amount of data produced by this level of application is not large.
All control activities are carried out via the internet.
❖ For example, a temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature
of a room, and the data is stored and analysed locally. Smartphone
apps may be used to start a control operation, or they may keep track of
how things are going.
❖ IoT at Level 2
❖ This level includes an air conditioner, a temperature sensor, big data
(larger than level-1, with data processing performed here), a cloud, and
a control and monitoring app.
❖ This level-2 is more complicated than level 1. Furthermore, the rate of
sensing is higher than at level 1.
❖ The data at this level is very large. As a consequence, cloud computing
is used.

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❖ Data collection is done at a local level. The cloud is mainly used for
computing.
❖ A control operation is initiated using a web interface or a smartphone
app. Based on data analysis.

IoT at the Third Level

The figure shows that this level contains an air conditioner, a
temperature sensor, large data storage (larger than level 1), a cloud (for data
analysis), and a control and tracking app.
The data in this case is massive, i.e., huge data. The data sensing
frequency is huge, and the gathered sensed data is processed on the cloud
since it is massive.
A smartphone app or a web app can be used to start control actions
based on the results of an analysis. The data processing takes place in the
cloud.
Examples cover agricultural systems, odour sensor-based space
freshening technologies, etc. IoT at the fourth level
This level has a lot of sensors, data processing, and an app that lets you
control and track things.
At this level, multiple sensors independent of one another are used.
The data obtained by these sensors is uploaded to the cloud in its own
right. Cloud storage is used at this level instead of the need for large
amounts of data computing.
A web interface or a smartphone app can be used to control the actions
taken based on the data collected.
Level 5, IoT
This level has sensors, a coordinator node, data collection and
interpretation, and an app that lets you control and track things.
This level is close to level 4, which also has many data. As a result, it
is sensed by many different sensors at a much faster rate and all at the same
time.
Data processing and analysis were carried out in the cloud.
The control operation is carried out through a smartphone app or a web
app based on the study.

1.13 Architecture of the Internet of Things

There is no commonly established special or normative agreement on
the Internet of Things (IoT) architecture. The IoT architecture differs in
terms of functional areas and solutions. The IoT architecture technology, on
the other hand, is mostly made up of four main parts:

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Elements of IoT Architecture

Sensors and Devices Networks and Gateways Cloud/Management
Service Layer The Application Layer

FIG 1.19 IOT ARCHITECTURE

The architecture of IoT Solutions in Stages
Multiple layers of IoT are based on the capability and performance of IoT
components to deliver the right approach to business organizations and end-
users. The IoT architecture is a foundational approach for constructing the
different components of IoT so that it can distribute services over networks
to satisfy future needs.
The primary stages (layers) of IoT that provide IoT architecture
solutions are as follows.
1. Sensors/Actuators: Sensors and actuators are devices that can transmit,
retrieve, and process data over a network. These sensors or actuators
can be linked through wired or wireless connections. GPS,
electrochemical, gyroscope, RFID, and other technologies are
included. The majority of sensors need communication through sensors
gateways. Sensors and actuators may be connected using a Local Area
Network (LAN) or a Personal Area Network (PAN).
2. Gateways and Data Acquisition: Since these sensors and actuators
generate a vast amount of data, high-speed Gateways and Networks are
needed to process the data. This network may be of the Local Area
Network (LAN) variety (such as WiFi, Ethernet, and so on), or it may
be of the Wide Area Network variety (WAN such as GSM, 5G, etc.).
3. Edge IT: The hardware and software gateways that evaluate and pre-
process data before moving it to the cloud are referred to as the edge in
the IoT Architecture. If the data read from the sensors and
gateways is not changed from its previous reading value, it does not
pass to the cloud, saving the data.

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4. Data center/Cloud: The Data Center or Cloud is a Management Service

that processes information through analytics, system management, and
security measures. Aside from security controls and system
management, the cloud transfers data to end-user applications such as
Retail, Healthcare, Emergency, Environment, and Energy.

FIG 1.20 IoT Solutions Archtechture

1.14 Advantages of IoT

Below are the key advantages of IoT technology:
❖ Technological Optimization: IoT technology leads greatly to the
advancement and development of technologies. For example, a
manufacturer may collect data from different car sensors using IoT.
The manufacturer analyses them to enhance their design and make
them more effective.
❖ Enhanced Data Collection: Conventional data collection has drawbacks
❖ and is structured for passive use. IoT allows for quick action on data.
❖ Less Waste: IoT provides real-time information, allowing for more
efficient decision-making and resource management. For example,
suppose a manufacturer discovers a problem in several car engines. In
that case, he will monitor the production plan of such engines and
resolve the problem using the manufacturing belt.
❖ Improved Customer Engagement: IoT helps you enhance customer
service
❖ by identifying challenges and enhancing processes.

1.15 IoT Disadvantages

Now, in this Internet of Things guide, let us look at some of the
drawbacks of IoT:

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❖ Security: IoT technology produces a network of interconnected

devices. However, the device can have little authentication control
despite adequate security precautions during this phase.
❖ Privacy: IoT reveals a large volume of sensitive data in extreme
detail
❖ without the user's direct consent. This raises a slew of privacy
concerns.
❖ Flexibility: The flexibility of an IoT system is a big problem. It is
mostly concerned with integrating with another system since
several systems are involved.
❖ Complexity: The IoT system's architecture is often very difficult.
Furthermore, deployment and servicing are difficult.
❖ Compliance: The Internet of Things has its collection of rules and
regulations. However, owing to its complexity, the task of
compliance is very difficult.

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CHAPTER 2
SMART OBJECTS

2.1 Smarts Objects In IoT

IoT uses the term "smart" to describe physical objects that are
interactive, digital, networked, somewhat autonomous, reconfigurable, and
have local resource control. Energy, data storage, etc. are necessities for
smart objects.
An object that enhances interaction with both people and other smart
objects is referred to as a smart object. The world of Things (IoT) is a
network of uniquely addressable, standard communication protocol-based
heterogeneous objects (such as smart devices, smart objects, sensors,
actuators, RFID, embedded computers, etc.).
People regularly use a variety of devices with internet, wireless, or
wired connections. like as
❖ Smartphone
❖ Tablets
❖ TV, computer
No matter the circumstance, home, accessibility to a sensor, size,
scenario, or hazard risk, these objects may be connected to one another and
make our everyday lives easier (smart homes, smart cities).

Fig 2.1 Smart Objects

The Internet of Things (IoT) technologies are extensively used to
transform the physical environment around us into a digital one. A smart
object is equipped with application logic building elements that are sensible
for their environment and communicate with users. A smart object can
detect, occurrence, interpret, interact with other smart objects, and share
information with people. They can also record events that happen to them
and in their environment.

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The work of the smart object has been focused on technical elements
(such as software infrastructure, hardware platforms, etc.) and application
scenarios. Supply-chain management, corporate applications (for the home
and hospital), healthcare, and workplace assistance in industry are just a
few examples of application fields. The environment is only beginning to
pay attention to smart object technologies' human interface features.

Smartphone
Up to 10 sensors may be found in a contemporary smartphone, which
makes it possible to record anything from location to device orientation to
lighting conditions. Together, these sensors generate a considerable
quantity of data, both organised (like GPS or acceleration data) and
unstructured (like images or movies). With the popularity of wearables like
the Apple Watch and Android Wear, your smartphone plays an even bigger
part. Given the storage and communication capabilities of the smart phone,
this new role may be referred to as the "brain" of your Body Area Network
(BAN). Last but not least, thanks to technologies like Near Field
Communications (NFC), a growing number of smartphones may function
as actuators, triggering things like payments or controlling other things like
TVs and cars, in addition to being sensors.
Here are the four IoT application areas and where smartphones may or
have been utilised in an IoT setup:
We see an increase in the number of fitness and health-related services
in the Personal IoT. Then there are a number of devices designed to help
with jobs and issues encountered every day, such as Tile, which lets you
use your phone to locate things, and NFC rings, which can be used to
unlock your phone.
Smart phones are useful for a number of Group IoT applications,
including connected automotive applications that use them to control or
check system status. The same is true for smart homes, a subject we shall
go into more depth about in a later piece.
Smart phones are essential for the Community IoT; for additional role,
check the prior blog article on smart cities. For instance, residents may
contribute to a smart city using crowd-sourcing applications.
Smart phones are utilised for B2C reasons in the context of Industrial
IoT applications, such as giving contextualised and tailored suggestions in
real-time and vouchers. Additionally, solutions for client 360-degree views
are emerging in the retail sector, and the insurance services sector may
profit from employing smart phones and Internet of Things applications

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(think: adaptive policies that take place, time or type of travel into account).
I recommend reading through the following sites if you want to learn
more about the IoT applications available or maybe want to get ready with
regard to tooling:
IoT applications, both current and planned, are listed on iotlist.
An good sandbox environment is provided by the Eclipse Foundation
IoT.
It is possible to use a number of development frameworks, including
AllJoyn, thethingsystem, or smartthings.
Web APIs and services such as freeboard.io, wit.ai, and dweet.io
Televisions and the Internet of Things Since they are connected
devices, TVs—at least smart TVs, which account for the majority of those
sold today—are already a component of the Internet of Things. A wide
number of practical applications currently exist for smart connected TVs.
For instance, a Smart TV may now be used as a video calling device,
allowing families to converse while seeing one other in all their splendour.
Up until now, the major uses of Smart TVs have been for Internet
content streaming or showing private images and movies. In internet, more
and more people are watching TV online via streaming. Nowadays, a lot of
Smart TVs will pick up on your favourite programmes and suggest new
programmes you should watch out based on that information. There is no
reason why a Smart TV can't also be utilised as a control platform, even if
the majority of IoT devices normally use Smartphones and tablets for their
controls since such applications are very simple to install.
The Internet of Things in the home has just recently begun, particularly
when compared to its potential. It is yet unclear what role the TV will
eventually serve in comparison to a computer or a mobile device, but it is
possible that it will play a significantly larger role. For instance, all of your
home's sensors may be connected and shown on a large screen, saving you
from having to goggle at your smartphone. While you are eating breakfast,
the TV may converse with you using speech recognition, informing you
what it thinks is the best course of action for the day based on the weather,
your calendar, your body monitor, etc.
Then there is software that you might utilise on a Smart TV, such as
IFTTT (If this, then that). You want to unwind and watch your favourite
programmes, but you need to wait for a call or an email from your parents,
your work, or someone else. Using IFTTT, you can automatically pause
your programme (and start recording it on your PVR) and show the email
or connect the important phone call you are waiting for while still allowing

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you to continue waiting your favourite shows.

Given the enormous prospects, the connected TV will surely play a
significant role in the future of the IoT. Future TVs could have a lot more
storage space so they can manage your music and movie collection and/or
gather information from your home's sensors. It could also have more
powerful processors so that it can control your lighting and temperature
systems, monitor your security system, and alert you to any unusual
behaviour. Keep an eye out as the Internet of Things develops every day.
The Internet of Things (IoT) technologies are extensively used to
transform the physical environment around us into a digital one.
A smart object is equipped with application logic building elements
that are sensible for their environment and communicate with users. A
smart object can detect, occurrence, interpret, interact with other smart
objects, and share information with people. They can also record events
that happen to them and in their environment.
The work of the smart object has been focused on technical elements
(such as software infrastructure, hardware platforms, etc.) and application
scenarios. Supply-chain management, corporate applications (for the home
and hospital), healthcare, and workplace assistance in industry are just a
few examples of application fields.
The environment is only beginning to pay attention to smart object
technologies' human interface features

FIG 2.2 IoT Process With Smart Devices

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2.2 The "Things" in the Internet of Things (IOT)

Tractors, thermostats, and shipping containers are just a few examples
of the "things" that make up the burgeoning "Internet of Things." The
introduction of computers to the internet and the subsequent arrival of
smartphones both revolutionised world. Imagine the possibilities once the
other 99 percent of objects that are present in our daily lives are connected.

FIG 2.3 IoT for all

You could be knowledgeable about how the internet operates.
Additionally, you've definitely heard about how the "Internet of Things,"
sometimes known as "IoT," is sparking the subsequent industrial
revolution. However, you may be wondering what "things" in the Internet
of Things really mean. What distinguishes these "things" from, say, an
internet-connected computer or smartphone?
What Do the "Things" in the Internet of Things Stand for?
Here's your response: the "things" in the Internet of Things can be
anything from farming equipment (a tractor, an irrigation system, a drone)
to the thermostat on your wall, to your "connected car," to a freight
container with a connected temperature sensor inside it that transmits data
to a logistics coordinator.

Agriculture
Healthcare IoT: Our Bodies as Internet-connected "Things"
IoT "things" may also be "wearables" with medical applications.
Devices that continuously track your body's systems and functions may
serve as an early warning system for health problems and a tool for you to
hold yourself responsible for achieving your health objectives.

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FIG 2.4 Sensors Magazine

Preventive care may considerably lower hospitalisation and acute care
costs using streaming information, according to Lalit Panda in What Is the
Internet of Medical Things (IoMT)? The major risk of mishaps and misuse
that comes with connecting our bodies to the internet is, however,
highlighted by both Panda and Kristina Podnar in her article. Our physical
bodies would be a "thing" in the Internet of Things for healthcare.

2.3 Iot For Logistics: Packages and Containers as “Things” Connected

To The Internet
Moving things from point A to point B is the main focus of supply
chain management and logistics. In a perfect world, keeping track of those
things isn't really difficult. You know everything will be OK when you
transfer cargo X from warehouse Y to client Z, right? Wrong! The world is
chaotic, fluid, and dynamic. There are things. Global maritime lines may be
impacted by everything from weather catastrophes to piracy, which can
lead to delays and monetary losses. Additionally, sometimes losses and
delays are just the result of innately present inefficiencies.
A report described the supply chain inefficiencies that contributed to
losses of over $2B in the UK alone in 2018 as "a game of Chinese
whispers" as parcels zigzagged across the world. "Supply chain actors are
connected—just not to each other or at the correct time," said Ericsson in a
recent article on IoT For All.
The Internet of Things can help with that. Cargo containers, vehicles,
port utility equipment, and, most significantly, data pipelines and digital
ledgers for securely monitoring shipments as they travel the world and
change hands are "things" in IoT for logistics and supply chain
applications.

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FIG 2.5 All Things Supply Chain

IoT for Agriculture: “Things” as Tractors, Soil Sensors and Irrigation

Systems
Tractors, soil sensors, and irrigation systems: IoT for Agriculture We
have been modifying how we produce and collect food for thousands of
years, whether it is via irrigation, crop rotation, fertilisation, or genetic
manipulation. Farms have evolved from being tiny, family- or community-
run businesses to huge conglomerates spanning thousands or perhaps
millions of acres. In order to satisfy rising needs, farmers have resorted to
technology as populations have increased over the 20th century. Farmers
continue to come up with creative solutions to satisfy the world's growing
supply for food in an interconnected and unpredictable environment in the
twenty- first century.
A wide range of agricultural improvements are made possible via IoT.
Farmers are beginning to employ IoT, drones, and AI to "improve the
quantity and quality of products while optimising the human labour needed
by manufacturing," according to SciForce's article on IoT For All.
The image below demonstrates how a remote, large-scale soil
monitoring system called "CropX" is being used to assist farmers better
understand which fields require irrigation when and how soil conditions
change over time.

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FIG 2.6 Smar zero

Everything was unconnected in the distant past. Then the telephone
appeared, allowing us to link people and spaces across distances of
hundreds, then thousands. Then, in addition to our voices, we began
transmitting papers, photographs, movies, and other types of data across the
line. But we couldn't stop with merely connecting things to the internet,
such as laptops and smartphones. So why end there? Our current emphasis
is on connecting the many additional items and locations we use for daily
living and commercial operations to the internet so that we may get
information about our surroundings and communicate with our "things"
remotely and on a grand scale.

2.4 Sensors and Actuators in Iot | Enabling Industrial\ Automation

FIG 2.7 Sensor Actuator Flow

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The new Data Economy greatly benefits from the Internet of Things.
When it comes to automation, for instance, the value of an IoT system
expands beyond its initial use case. This is due to the fact that an IoT
system's intelligence has additional value. IoT data is generated by sensors.
Additionally, IoT sensors and actuators may work to allow automation on
an industrial scale. Finally, over time, analysis of the data generated by
these sensors and actuators might provide insightful business information.
Sensor technology is developing at an ability never before seen, driven
by advances in materials science and nanotechnology. As a result, it is
becoming more accurate, smaller and less expensive, and able to measure
or detect things that weren't before feasible. In fact, in a few years we'll see
a trillion new sensors deployed yearly since sensing technology is
developing so quickly.

Sensors
A transducer is a more appropriate name for a sensor. Any physical
device that converts one kind of energy into another is referred to as a
transducer. As a case, for a sensor, the transducer converts a physical
phenomena into an electrical impulse that determines the reading. A
microphone is a sensor that converts sound waves from vibrational energy
to electrical energy in an usable fashion so that other parts of the system
may link the electrical energy back to the original sound.

Actuators
Actuator is another type of transducer that is used extensively in IoT
systems. Simply said, an actuator works the opposite way from a sensor. It
transforms an electrical input into physical movement. Actuators come in a
variety of forms, such as electric motors, hydraulic systems, and pneumatic
systems.

Controller
A sensor may gather data and send it to a control centre in a
conventional Internet of Things system. There, the judgement is governed
by previously established rationale. As a result, the perceived input causes a
matching instruction to control an actuator. As a result, with the IoT,
sensors and actuators collaborate from opposing ends. We'll talk more
about the location of the control centre inside the larger IoT system later.

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IoT Variety Is Key

In an IoT system, there are several types of sensors. The list of sensors
includes flow sensors, temperature sensors, voltage sensors, humidity
sensors, and more. There are other methods to measure the same thing as
well. One instance to measure airflow is using a little propeller, like the one
on a weather station. This approach, however, wouldn't work in a moving
car. Vehicles may also measure airflow by heating a tiny element and
measuring how quickly it cools.
Different approaches of measuring the same thing are required for
different applications. Several actions might be started by the same variable
at the same time. As a result, the IoT's sensors and actuators need to work
well together.

The Value of Reliable Sensors

Consider that you are the owner of a bar and that you want to measure
the amount of beer from one of your taps. Installing a sensor along the line
connecting the beer keg to the tap is one line of doing this. Most likely, this
sensor would have a little impeller. Like the propeller on a weather station,
the impeller would spin as the beer passed by the sensor.
A computer will receive a stream of electrical signals while the
impeller rotates. To determine how much beer is pouring through, the
computer will interpret the impulses. Sounds easy, doesn't it?
Sensors become interesting at this point. If you read our explanation
again, you'll see that we never calculated the amount of beer that was
passing through the sensor; instead, we inferred it from a stream of
electrical impulses. That implies that we first need to determine how to
interpret it.

Sensor Calibration
We would need to use a container with a known carrying capacity,
such as a pint glass, to calibrate the sensor. Then, in order to determine
what the electrical pulse signal looked like, we would have to fill the
container under a number of circumstances. Then, keep an eye on the
actuator that controls the other end's flow by turning it on and off.
For instance, the initial pour from a fresh keg could have a tendency to
have more froth, which would affect how it reads in comparison to a pour
from the centre of the keg that had just beer. We can only be certain that we
can interpret the data after many trials and a large amount of data. IoT
sensors and actuators can work to automate tasks like filling bottles.

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Why Accurate Calibration Is Important

A methodology can guarantee the sensor is reading accurately at all
times after this correlation has been found. This is a calibrating procedure.
Reputable producers will provide properly calibrated devices and include
instructions on how to recalibrate to check sensor accuracy.
Since you will rely mission-critical judgments on subsequent analysis
of the data, which will be of little value if the data is incorrect, the quality
of sensed data is crucial.

2.5 Classification of Smart Objects

A smart object is one that facilitates communication not just with
people but also with other smart objects. They are products, assets, and
other things embedded with processors, sensors, software, and connectivity
that help in enabling information to be exchanged between the product and
its environment, as well as other products and systems. These products are
also known as smart connected products or smart connected things (SCoT).
Additionally, connectivity enables part of the product's capabilities to
be seen outside of the physical device, in what is known as the product
cloud. The information acquired from these products' records may then be
examined to help with decision-making, facilitate operational efficiency,
and continuously improve the product's overall performance.
Grouping of intelligent objects:
These are the types of "smart" objects: Static or Mobile? Whether the
"thing" should move or remain in the same place at all times determines
this classification. An additional fact that a sensor is a cell is when it is
transferred from one object to another (for fact, a viscosity sensor in a
chemical plant that is moved from batch to batch) or when it is connected to
an object that is moving (Example, an area sensor on transferring items in a
warehouse or manufacturing unit floor).
Additionally, the movement's frequency might change, ranging from
infrequent to constant. The potential power source is often determined by
the mobility range (from a few inches to miles distant).

High or Low Reporting Frequency -

This classification is mostly based upon how often the object must
submit monitored metrics. Additionally, a rust sensor has a reporting time
of up to one month. Several hundred times per second, a motion sensor may
also detect acceleration.

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Higher frequencies need more object consumption, which might limit

the available power supply (and hence the mobility of the objects) as well
as the transmission range.

Power-Connected or Battery-Powered -
Whether or whether an object includes its own energy source or
continuously draws electricity from an external source determines how it is
classified. Objects powered by batteries can be transported more easily than
things powered by lines.
Riding transmission fluctuates in frequency because batteries limit the
amount of power and longevity that the object may use.
Rich or Simple Data?
This classification is entirely based on the volume of records
transferred throughout each reporting cycle. While an engine sensor may
also record many characteristics, such as temperature to pressure,
compression speed, carbon index, etc., a humidity sensor in a specific area
may also produce an easy daily index value (on a binary scale from zero to
255). Richer records often result in higher energy use.
The object information throughput is often determined by combining
this classification with the previous (low throughput to excessive
throughput). A medium-throughput object may also convey successful
information at a low frequency instead of a high frequency (in which case
the glide shape seems continuous) (in which case the flow shape appears
bursty).

Object of Objects Per Cell

This classification is entirely based on the number of smart objects
connected to the same gateway in a specific area that have a similar
demand for communication. A single sensor placed strategically every few
miles along an oil pipeline is another option.
In contrast, a tiny area is covered by hundreds or even thousands of
mirrors in a telescope like the SETI Colossus at the Whipple Observatory,
each of which has many gyroscopes, gravity sensors, and vibration sensors.
Reporting Range
This classification is mostly based upon the distance from the gateway.
For instance, your fitness band has to be no more than a few metres from
your phone in order to speak with it. The idea is that you must be able to
view your smartphone in order to consult the records shown on the screen
for guidance. If the phone is far away, you probably won't use it, and it's no

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longer required to report band data to the phone. On the other hand, a
moisture sensor embedded in a street's asphalt may likewise want to speak
with its reader hundreds of metres or even miles distant.

FIG 2.8 Reporting Range

2.6 Wireless Sensor Network In IoT

An infrastructure-less wireless network called a "wireless sensor
network" is used in the Internet of Things to install a large number of
wireless sensors that monitor system, physical, and environmental factors.
If you're wanting to integrate WSN into your business, our highly driven
and experienced engineers can provide you an all-encompassing solution.

Networks Connecting Wireless Sensors

A communication protocol is used to link Sensors that are built into
IoT devices. These IoT devices can communicate over great distances
thanks to a type of wireless network called an LPWAN, or low-power
wide-area network. It is common to utilise a wireless sensor network based
on Lora. Data gathered from this sensor network may be delivered to the
cloud through cellular networks such as NBIoT, LTE-M or wifi, among
others, and sub-1 GHz, Zigbee, Thread, etc. are also used to link sensor
networks and gateway.

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FIG 2.9 Networks Connecting Wireless Sensors

2.7 Communications Criteria

In the present market research trend, executives from a variety of IoT
industries are establishing patterns for how and when businesses might
begin adopting IoT. IBM, PTC, GE, Microsoft, and Amazon Web Services
are among the industry leaders in the Internet of Things platform space at
the moment. How do you choose the right platform for your business?
Think about these standards:
The ability to build and provide administration for communication
from a device to the platform is known as connectivity. Consider the
categories of communication that the IoT platforms offer, which may be
categorised into the following groups:
Long Range: Devices might communicate over the air using low power
radio waves, cell networks, or satellites.
Close Range: WiFi, Bluetooth, Z-Wave, etc.
MQTT, CoAP, and XMPP are specialised protocols.
Security: IoT is always under strain due to security issues and leaks
from all directions. There have been countless posts describing how
communications are being recorded or how devices are being hacked. A top
concern is protecting the lines of communication between the device and
the backend. IoT systems are combining security elements such as network

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connectivity, authentication, identity management, data loss prevention,

and device management to assure protection.
Manageability: Platforms take into account an IoT device's ability to be
operated, provisioned, and maintained. A platform will need to have the
ability to manage and scale to these devices when there are hundreds or
even thousands of devices to manage the connection and incoming data. A
crucial component of IoT platform solutions is the ability to monitor, use
testing, upgrades, and troubleshooting as a single solution.
Analytics: The ability to analyse and transform sensor data that has
been gathered in real time is a rare commodity on today's market. IoT
Analytics should provide the tools necessary for users to quickly collect
and view this data. Suppliers like IBM Watson and Amazon provide
predictive analysis for data being recorded, offering even more knowledge
about consumers or the status of assets like machines that have been
acquired.
Development: As an IoT platform gets more diverse, the ability to
integrate all of its features into a single application for internal or external
usage becomes a key factor in determining how to offer analytics and data.
A major component of any offering for IoT platforms is the ability to make
it simple for developers to create code, create business rules, and manage
data for the criteria we reviewed today. A complete solution for IoT may be
achieved by combining development tools and API management tools to
connect to your internal enterprise applications, such as CA, Mulesoft,
Apigee, IBM, or Amazon, via a single platform.
There are several radio technologies including licenced and unlicensed
spectrum that are used for IoT access technology.
These access may be divided into two groups at high: Alternative
Technologies

Cellular Technologies
An overview of these technologies is provided below.

There are benefits and drawbacks to each of the IoT connectivity

technologies that are now available. However, because to the vast range of

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technical and commercial IoT connectivity needs, cellular technologies

may provide obvious advantages in a wide range of applications. The
following requirements should be considered into account while picking
technology.
It should be Global in Scope Developed Ecosystem Various and
Secure
scalable and supporting QoS
Affordable Total Cost of Ownership (TOC)

Considered all above requirements regarding access network the best

option is the Cellular Network Technologies.In terms of global reach,
cellular networks already cover 90 percent of the world’s population.
WCDMA and LTE are catching up, but GSM will offer superior coverage
across the Globe. Cellular networks have been developed and deployed
over three decades, and they will be around for the foreseeable future. The
cellular mobile industry represents a huge and mature ecosystem,
incorporating chipset, device and network equipment vendors, operators,
application providers and others.
The global cellular ecosystem is governed by the 3GPP standardization
forum, which guarantees broad industry support for future development.
When it comes to scalability, cellular networks are built to handle massive
volumes of mobile broadband traffic; the traffic from most IoT applications
will be relatively small and easily absorbed. Operators are able to offer
connectivity for IoT applications from the start-up phase and grow this
business with low TCO and only limited additional investment and effort.
Cellular connectivity offers the diversity to serve a wide range of
applications with varying requirements within a network. QoS mechanisms
is essential for many IoT applications and cellular systems have mature
QoS functionality, and this enables critical IoT applications to be handled
together with traffic from sensors, voice and mobile-broadband traffic on
the same carrier.
Traditionally, the security mechanisms of cellular networks have been
based on a physical SIM attached to the device, referred to as a Universal
Integrated Circuit Card (UICC). This has also enabled roaming between
operators, which has been one of the main factors behind the huge success
of mobile networks. The SIM will also be essential in future IoT

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applications, with SIM functionality embedded in the chipset (eUICC) or

handled as a soft-SIM solution running in a trusted run-time environment of
the module. One network connecting the whole diversifying IoT market
will guarantee the lowest possible TCO as well as fast time to market.
•Consumers’ market adoption:•The main consumer devices range from
smart phones to tablets and PCs. •The common protocol that links IoT in
the consumer space to these devices is IP.•The innovation factor:•IP is the
underlying protocol for applications ranging from file transfer and e-mail to
the World Wide Web, e-commerce, social networking, mobility, and
moreCellular networks currently reach 90% of the world's population on a
worldwide scale. Although WCDMA and LTE are coming up, GSM will
have better global coverage. Over the last three decades, cellular networks
have been created and implemented, and they will continue to exist for
some future. The cellular mobile sector is made up of a vast and developed
ecosystem that includes operators, application providers, and manufacturers
of chipset, device, and network equipment.
The 3GPP standards forum oversees the whole cellular ecosystem,
ensuring wide industry support for future development. The traffic from the
majority of IoT applications will be very little and readily absorbed since
cellular networks are built to manage enormous amounts of mobile
broadband traffic. Operators are able to provide connectivity for IoT
applications right from the start and expand this business with no extra
investment or work and a low TCO.
Within a network, cellular connectivity provides the diversity needed
to support a range of applications with various needs. For many Internet of
sensors (IoT) applications, quality of traffic (QoS) techniques are essential.
Cellular systems have handled QoS capabilities, allowing for the
management of key IoT applications alongside phone, mobile broadband,
and sensor traffic on the same carrier.
The security measures of cellular networks have historically been
based on a physical SIM that is connected to the device, also known as a
Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC). Additionally, this has made it
possible for users to roam between carriers, which has been a major
contributor to the enormous success of mobile networks. Future IoT
applications will also depend on the SIM, which will either be handled as a
soft-SIM solution operating in an essential run- time environment of the
module or as SIM functionality incorporated in the chipset (eUICC). The
lowest TCO and quickest time to market are guaranteed by a single network
that connects the whole, diversifying IoT industry.

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Adoption by consumers: The primary consumer electronics are tablets,

PCs, and smart phones. IP is the standard protocol that connects consumer
IoT to these devices. • •IP is the foundational protocol for a wide range of
applications, including file transmission and email as well as the World
Wide Web, e- commerce, social networking, mobility, and more.

2.9 Connecting all the Things in the Internet of Things

IoT devices may communicate with other IoT devices, cloud-based
applications, and services thanks to networking technologies. The internet
depends on defined protocols to provide safe and dependable
communication between diverse devices. Standard protocols define the
networks and formats that devices must follow in order to create, maintain,
and transfer data across networks.
A "stack" of technologies is how networks are built. At the bottom of
the stack is a technology called Bluetooth LE. Others, such as IPv6
technologies, are located higher up the stack and are in charge of logical
device addressing and network traffic routing. Applications that are
executing on top of such layers leverage technologies at the top of the
stack, such as message queuing technologies.
Additionally, it offers recommendations for selecting one network
protocol over another. The following section examines the important
factors and difficulties associated with IoT networking, including range,
bandwidth, power consumption, sporadic connectivity, interoperability, and
security.

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CHAPTER 3
IOT LAYERS

3.1 Networking Standards and Technologies In Iot

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a stack of seven
protocol layers that is an ISO-standard abstract model. They are
application, presentation, session, transport, network, data connection, and
physical, listed in order of decreasing top. The foundation of the internet is
TCP/IP, or the Internet Protocol suite, which offers an abridged concrete
implementation of these layers in the OSI model.

Figure 3.1. Osi And Tcp/Ip Networking Models

Only four layers make up the TCP/IP model, which combines certain
OSI model layers:
Physical and Network Access Layer
The OSI layers 1 and 2 are combined into one TCP/IP layer. The
physical (PHY) layer (Layer 1 of the OSI model) specifies how each device
is physically connected to the network via hardware (such as an optical
cable, cables, or radio for wireless networks like IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n).
Devices are identified by MAC addresses at the link layer (Layer 2 of the
OSI level), where protocols are concerned with physical addressing, such as

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how switches transmit messages to devices on the network. Internet Layer

This layer corresponds to OSI Layer 3. (network layer). The third OSI
layer deals with logical addressing. This layer's protocols specify how
routers transmit data packets between IP-identified hosts at the source and
destination. Commonly used for IoT device addressing is IPv6.
Transport Layer End-to-end communication is the primary emphasis of
the transport layer (Layer 4 in the OSI model), which offers characteristics
like reliability, congestion avoidance, and the assurance that packets will be
delivered in the same order as they were received. Due to its performance,
UDP (User Datagram protocol) is frequently used for IoT transmission.
application App Layer
Application-level communications is covered by the application layer
(Layers 5, 6, and 7 in the OSI model). An example of an application layer
protocol that is often used on the internet is HTTP/S.
Despite the fact that the TCP/IP and OSI models implement you
valuable abstractions for talking about networking protocols and the
particular technologies that each protocol uses, certain protocols don't fit
nicely into these layered models and are unsuitable. For instance, the
Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol, which employs encryption to
operate network traffic's privacy and data integrity, may be considered of as
operating across OSI layers 4, 5, and 6.

3.2 IoT Networking Protocols

Some of the networking protocols that are widely adopted within IoT
and where they fit within the TCP/IP layers are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. IoT network protocols mapped to the TCP/IP model
The Internet of Things (IoT) market is seeing the adoption of several
new and competing networking technologies. Numerous technologies from
various manufacturers provide different implementations of the same
standard protocols and are aimed at various vertical markets, such as
industrial IoT, healthcare, or home automation. For instance, IEEE
802.15.4, which is implemented by a number of competing technologies
like as ZigBee, Z-Wave, EnOcean, SNAP, and
6LoWPAN, specifies the operation of low-rate wireless personal area
networ ks (LR-WPANs).

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Figure 3.2. Osi and Iot Protocols

The IoT may make use of technologies like Ethernet that are utilised
for internet connectivity. You encounter additional challenges that are
unique to IoT devices and IoT settings as you go down the stack toward
physical transmission technologies.
The topology of a network refers to its physical layout. Star and mesh
topologies are the most often used network topologies in the IoT. Each IoT
device in a star topology is directly connected to a central hub (gateway)
that communicates with data from the connected devices upstream. Devices
connect to other devices within range in mesh topologies. The network's
nodes can act as straightforward sensor nodes. Gateway nodes can route
traffic just like sensor nodes. In comparison to networks with star topology,
mesh networks are more sophisticated. Since they are not dependent on a
single central gateway, they are less prone to failure.
Access to the network and physical layer IoT network technologies
Cellular, wifi, and Ethernet are examples of IoT network technologies to be
aware of towards the bottom of the protocol stack, along with more
specialised options like LPWAN, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), ZigBee,
NFC, and RFID.
According to Gartner, NB-IoT is becoming into the industry standard
for LPWAN networks. Find out more about NB-IoT in this article from IoT
for All.

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The network technologies listed below each have a short description.

LPWAN
A group of technologies designed (Low Power Wide Area Network)
are made for low-power, long-distance wireless communication. They are
ideal for widespread IoT deployments of low-power devices like wireless
sensors. LPWAN technologies include LTE-M, NB-IoT, Haystack, SigFox,
and LoRa (LongRange Physical Layer Protocol) (Narrow-Band IoT).

Cellular
Low-power, low-cost IoT communication methods using current
cellular networks are addressed by the LPWAN NB-IoT and LTE-M
standards. The newest of these standards, NB-IoT, is focused on long-range
communication between a significant number of devices, mostly indoor
ones. Although current cellular technologies are frequently used for long-
range wireless communication, LTE-M and NB-IoT were adopted
expressly for IoT. In addition to 2G (GSM), which is now being phased out
in older devices, and CDMA, which is also being retired or phased out, 3G
is also being phased out quickly, with numerous network operators retiring
all 3G devices. Up until the time when 5G is completely implemented and
available,
4G will continue to be in use.

Low Energy Bluetooth (BLE)

The well-known Bluetooth 2.4 GHz wireless communication protocol
has a low-power variant called BLE. It is designed for short-range
communication (no more than 100 metres), typically in a star arrangement,
with one major device controlling several subsidiary devices. Both layers 1
(PHY) and 2 (MAC) of the OSI model are supported by Bluetooth. Devices
that transmit brief bursts of small amounts of data are best suited for BLE.
When they aren't sending data, devices are designed to sleep and save
power. BLE is frequently used by personal IoT devices, such as monitors
for fitness and health.

ZigBee
On the 2.4GHz wireless communication frequency, ZigBee runs. Its
range is up to 100 metres longer than BLE's. Additionally, compared to
BLE, it offers a little lower maximum data rate (250 kbps as opposed to
270 kbps). A mesh network protocol is zigbee. Not all devices can sleep in
between bursts, unlike BLE. Their location inside the mesh and whether

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they must act as controllers or routers within the mesh will both have a
significant impact. ZigBee was designed for applications in home and
building automation. The Z- Wave technology, which is likewise based on
IEEE 802.15.4, is a near relative of ZigBee. For home automation, Z-Wave
was designed.

NFC
In order to hold an NFC card or tag adjacent to a reader, for example,
the near field communication (NFC) protocol is used for extremely short
range communication (up to 4 cm). NFC is frequently utilised in payment
systems, but it is also beneficial in check-in systems and asset monitoring
using smart labels.

RFID
Radio Frequency Identification is referred to as RFID. Identifiers and
data are stored on RFID tags. An RFID reader reads the tags after they have
been affixed to devices. RFID typically has a range of less than one metre.
Active, passive, or assisted passive RFID tags are all possible. Since the
reader reads the ID passively, passive tags are ideal for battery-free devices.
While aided passive tags become active when an RFID reader is available,
active tags periodically broadcast their ID. Dash7 is an active RFID-based
communication protocol designed for Industrial IoT applications that need
secure long-range
communication. Similar to NFC, monitoring inventory goods in retail
and industrial IoT applications is a popular use case for RFID.

Wifi
Based on IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n standards, WiFi is a standard for
wireless networking. IoT devices could only utilise 802.11b or g in order to
save power as 802.11n has the best data speed but also the highest power
consumption. Although many prototype and current- generation IoT
devices use wifi, it is expected that lower-power alternatives may
eventually replace wifi as longer-range and less- powerful options become
more accessible.

Ethernet
Ethernet implements the IEEE 802.3 standard for wired connectivity
inside local area networks. Not all Internet of Things (IoT) devices have to
be wireless. For instance, wired networking technologies like Ethernet may

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be used by sensor units that are installed into a building automation system.
An alternative hard-wired method called power line communication (PLC)
substitutes pre-existing electrical wiring for specialised network lines.

3.3 Introduction of 5g Networks in IoT

The next generation of wireless networks is called 5G. The
infrastructure for 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is built. The bandwidth
has increased noticeably. But so too are the wireless service's capacity and
reliability.
In order to meet the increased data and communication needs brought
on by the billions of connected devices that will make up the Internet of
Things, 5G is ideal (IoT). Additionally, it helps with the very low latency
needed for real-time communications. It is a device-new data pipeline that
acts as the plumbing for all signals coming from all Internet-using devices.
Dense data can be handled.
The user may download a film, for example, in only 17 seconds thanks
to its speed, which is nearly twenty times quicker than 4G. It is a connected
development for the world of Things (IoT) and for what it can do in the
future.
The introduction and complete implementation of 5G are still in the
early stages; shortly, they will be outdated. Rest certain that as data travels
in bigger quantities and more quickly than ever, it will improve our world,
our lives, and make the benefits of technology to shine with a little bit more
brilliance than before.
IoT network technologies at the Internet layer
Technologies in the OSI Layer 3 of the Internet Layer are used to
locate and route data packets. This layer contains several commonly used
IoT technologies, including IPv6, 6LoWPAN, and RPL.
IPv6
Devices are identified by IP addresses at the Internet layer. As opposed
to IPv4, IPv6 is typically used for IoT applications. Compared to the
present number of connected IoT devices, IPv4 is restricted to 32-bit
addresses, which only supply around 4.3 billion addresses overall. By
contrast, IPv6 utilises 128 bits and offers 2 128 addresses, which amounts
to over 3.4 10
38 or 340 billion billion billion billion addresses. IoT devices don't
always all need public addresses in real practise. Many of the tens of
billions of IoT-connected devices that are anticipated over the next years
will be installed in private networks with private address ranges and will

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only be able to communicate with other devices or services on external

networks through gateways.
6LoWPAN
Using IPv6 over 802.15.4 wireless networks is possible thanks to the
IPv6
Low Power Wireless Personal Area Network (6LoWPAN) standard.
The Thread protocol for home automation devices also utilises 6LoWPAN,
which is frequently used for wireless sensor networks.
RPL
Routing is covered by the Internet Layer. The IPv6 Routing Protocol
for Low- Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is designed to route IPv6
traffic across networks implemented by low power sources, such as
6LoWPAN networks. RPL, which is pronounced "ripple," is designed for
packet routing in restricted networks like wireless sensor networks, where
not all devices are always available and there is significant or unexpected
packet loss. By building a graph of the network's nodes based on dynamic
measurements and constraints, such as reducing latency or energy usage,
RPL may determine the best route.

IoT Network Technologies at the Application Layer

RESTful HTTP and HTTPS interfaces are commonly used in IoT,
while HTTP and HTTPS are widely used throughout internet applications.
CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol), which resembles a simplified
version of HTTP, is frequently used with 6LoWPAN over UDP. MQTT,
AMQP, and XMPP are three messaging protocols that are frequently used
in Internet of Things applications:

MQTT
The publish/subscribe-based messaging protocol Message Queue
Telemetry Transport (MQTT) was designed for use in low bandwidth
scenarios, notably for sensors and mobile devices on unreliable networks.

AMQP
Message-oriented middleware uses the Advanced Message Queuing
Protocol (AMQP), an open standard messaging protocol. In particular,
RabbitMQ implements AMQP.

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XMPP
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) was first
designed for instant messaging and other forms of real-time human-to-
human communication. To implement lightweight middleware and to route
XML data for machine-to-machine (M2M) communication, this protocol
has been adapted. Smart appliances are where XMPP is most often utilised.
The exact application needs of your IoT project will determine the
technologies you use for this layer. For instance, MQTT would be a wise
choice for a low-cost home automation system with several sensors since
the protocol is easy to implement and lightweight, making it ideal for
messaging on devices with limited storage or processing power.

3.4 IoT Networking Considerations and Challenges

Adopt the following limitations in mind when you decide which
networking technologies to use for your IoT application:
Range Bandwidth Power use
Sporadic connectivity Interoperability Security
Range
The distances that IoT devices transmitted to a network typically
transmit data across may be used to characterise networks:
PAN (Personal Area Network)
PAN has a limited range and allows for measurements in metres, such
a wearable fitness tracker that uses BLE to connect to an app on a mobile
device.
LAN (Local Area Network)
LAN refers to short- to medium-range networks, where the distances
between devices may reach hundreds of metres or more. Examples include
home automation systems or sensors installed within a factory production
line that communicate through wifi with a gateway device installed inside
the same building.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
MAN is long-range (city-wide), where distances are measured up to a
few kilometres, such as smart parking sensors installed all over a city and
connected in a mesh network architecture.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
Long-range networks, or WANs, may monitor across distances that can
be measured in kilometres. An example of this would be agricultural
sensors installed throughout a large farm or ranch to track localised climatic
conditions known as microclimates.

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The IoT devices should provide data to your network, which should
then transmit it to the correct location. An appropriate network protocol
must be required for the range. For a WAN application, for instance, that
has to operate over a range of many kilometres, avoid using BLE. Consider
edge computing if sending data across the required range is difficult.
Instead of using data from a far-off data centre or somewhere else, edge
computing examines data that is straight from the devices.
Bandwidth
The volume of data that may be sent during a transmitted amount of
time is known as the bandwidth. It restricts the amount of data that may be
transmitted from IoT devices and sent upstream. There are several factors
that impact bandwidth, including:
The volume of data that each device collects and sends
The number of deployed devices
Whether data is being transferred continuously or in short bursts, and
whether there are any particularly busy times.
The networking protocol's packet size should correspond to the volume
of data that is typically transmitted. Sending packets padded with useless
data is inefficient. In contrast, there are costs associated with dividing
bigger data amounts across too many little packets. Not all data
transmission speeds are symmetrical (that is, upload rates might be slower
than download rates). Data transmission must thus be taken into
consideration if there is two- way communication between the devices.
Because cellular and wireless networks typically have little bandwidth,
think carefully before deciding if a wireless technology is the best choice
for high- volume applications.
Think about whether or not all raw data has to be transmitted. Reduce
the amount of data that is collected by sampling less frequently as one
option. As a result, you'll record fewer variables and could filter the
device's data to eliminate irrelevant information. The volume of data
transmitted is decreased if the data is aggregated before being transmitted.
However, the granularity and flexibility of the upstream analysis are
impacted by this procedure. Time- sensitive or latency-sensitive data may
not always be suited for aggregation or bursting. All of these methods raise
the IoT device's storage and data processing needs.
Power use
Power is used when a device transmits data. In comparison to small
ranges, long range data transmission demands greater power. A device's
power source, such as a battery, solar cell, or capacitor, as well as its whole

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lifespan, must be taken into account. A lengthy and robust lifespan will
increase reliability and save operating costs. Longer power supply
lifecycles may be achieved with the aid of actions. For instance, you may
put the device in sleep mode while it is inactive to increase battery life. To
make sure that the device's power supply and storage capacity correspond
with the power required to transmit the necessary data using the networking
technologies you adopted, it's also a recommended practise to model the
energy consumption of the device under various loads and network
circumstances.
Sporadic connectivity
The Internet of Things (IoT) devices are not always connected.
Devices may sometimes be designed with periodic connections in mind.
However, sometimes a faulty network may result in devices ceasing to
function as a result of connectivity problems. On a wireless network using
shared spectrum, there may sometimes be quality of service problems, such
as dealing with interference or channel congestion. If intermittent
connectivity is a key consideration in the design of the IoT landscape,
designs should take that into account and look for any solutions that can
guarantee continuous service.
Interoperability
Devices are interoperable; they can operate with other devices,
machinery, systems, and technology. Interoperability may be difficult with
the IoT since there are so many different types of connected devices. The
usual method for preserving interoperability on the Internet has been to
adopt standard protocols. Industry participants have established standards
that prevent the use of several unique designs and approaches.
Interoperability problems may be avoided with appropriate standards and
people who agree to them.
However, standardisation procedures often find it difficult to keep up
with innovation and change in the IoT. They are created and based in
accordance with standards that are currently under development and may
change. Take into account the technological ecosystem: Are they often
used? Are they proprietary or open? How many different implementations
are there?
These planning questions might help you create IoT networks with
improved interoperability and greater strength.
Security
Priority one is security. It is essential to use networking technologies
that implement end-to-end security, including open port protection,

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authentication, and encryption. Access control, message integrity, message

secrecy, and replay protection are among the security characteristics offered
by the IEEE 802.15.4 security model, which is implemented by
technologies based on this standard like ZigBee.
To build a secure and reliable IoT network, take into account the
following factors:
Authentication
Adopt authentication for devices, gateways, users, services, and
applications by implementing secure protocols. For device authentication,
take into account implementing the X.509 standard.
Encryption
Use Wireless Protected Access 2 (WPA2) for wireless network
encryption if you're utilising wifi.
A Private Pre-Shared Key (PPSK) strategy is another option. Adopt
TLS or Datagram Transport-Layer Security (DTLS), which is based on
TLS but adapted for unstable connections that operate over UDP, to secure
privacy and data integrity for communication between applications.
TLS protects the integrity of application data by encrypting it.
Port security
Only the ports necessary for communication with the gateway or
upstream applications or services are required accessible to external
connections thanks to port protection. All other ports need to be closed or
firewalled off. Exploiting Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) vulnerabilities
may expose device ports. So, the router's UPnP function has to be disabled.

3.5 The Business Case for the Internet of Things

Much of the technology needed for the Internet of Things (IoT) has
been available for some time, but connecting a world’s worth of devices to

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th...The IoT; intelligent systems; surround computing. Whatever you

choose to call it, the big buzz in embedded over the last couple of years has
been around ubiquitous computing and how connecting edge devices to the
cloud will change our perceptions of data. However, once you get beyond
the buzzwords, the potential, and even the technology, the IoT is nothing
more than a concept unless it addresses the business models and use cases
of the enterprise and carrier networks.
In the context of the IoT, both carriers and the enterprise face
significant deployment challenges, with businesses having to
consider how to integrate new and existing devices into a “system of
systems” approach, and network operators needing to respond to the data
traffic produced by billions of sensors. Both must also determine how to
move data northbound to the cloud for analysis and then back southbound
to execute on gained intelligence, and how to manage it along the way
(Figure 1). Until recently, these setbacks were the result of a lack of
technology. But with the advent of Software-Defined Networking (SDN),
Network Intelligence (NI), and manageability tools, the discussion turns to
how companies can incorporate these technologies to use the IoT to their
advantage.

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Figure 3.3 : The IoT relies on a North/South concept with multiple

components to ensure that data moves from the device to the cloud and
back again in a secure and efficient manner. Graphic courtesy Wind River.
“The technology ingredients are there today [for the IoT], but not
necessarily the business models and supply chains,” says Gareth
Noyes, Chief Strategy Officer, Wind River. “We are going to need to
deploy infrastructure at multiple levels – whether it is at the edge, gateway,
sensor hubs, or the cloud – that is scalable, both in terms of performance,
price, and other things. One of the reasons why the embedded space is so
fragmented is that we are dealing with price points, different business
models, different technology demands. That leads to us having to be very
scalable in that approach.”
“You have to identify where the pain points are on the carrier side and
the enterprise side,” says Jim Douglas, Chief Marketing Officer, Wind
River. “The starting point is, ‘what value is the IoT going to create?’ The
IoT is a big concept, but if you break it down in its simplest form, it is all
about trying to unlock the value of your assets and business processes;
trying to make them perform better; trying to make sure they are more
sustainable; trying to ensure there is no disruption.”
The business case for connecting “everything”
As mentioned, the business case for the IoT is that it allows carriers
and the enterprise to make better use of existing infrastructure. For carrier
networks, the IoT presents the opportunity to provide tiered services for
data that is more or less critical. This can be achieved through software
solutions that enable new revenue streams and also limit additional
overhead.
“From the carrier side, the question is not how will the networks be
able to handle the IoT, but how the carriers will get paid,” says Douglas.
“How do they quickly drive down Operating Expenditures (OPEX) but
make money at the same time? It is an issue of effectively accelerating
information through data pipes, which is a lot more effective with data
acceleration engines. Content inspection also allows you to look for bad
actors, as well as implement some flow analysis and traffic shaping. This
enables you to see what is going through the pipes, then manage, analyze,
and monetize it.”
“If you do not have enough physical bandwidth in your pipe, or the
data volume is too high on your device, you are going to need some
intelligence to throttle that in an intelligent way,” Noyes explains. “Unless
you own all of the infrastructure, you do not have control over the latency

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and data paths. Today you are leveraging either public infrastructure or
leased infrastructure. That does not necessarily give you the underlining
performance that you need.
That is probably going to be a business opportunity for service
providers – to provide different classes of infrastructure. You may pay
more for something that has low latency or high determinism, and there are
services that have adapted to the ‘good-enough’ model – video streaming as
an example. On the other hand, in a lot of end- user applications, where you
have maybe security or safety-critical applications, ‘good-enough’ is not
good enough.
“The concept here is if you are providing different types of traffic over
a single IP pipe – if you are transmitting video, monitoring data, tweets, e-
mails, and a bunch of things all over one pipe, you are probably going to
want to have a better quality of service with protocol data,” Noyes
continues. “What the Intelligent Network Platform allows you to do is look
at different flows and on a packet- by-packet basis, determine what you
want to do with the packet (Figure 2). You can make it high priority or
more critical.”

Figure 3.4: The Wind River Intelligent Network Platform integrates

application acceleration engines, content inspection, and flow analysis that
give Network Service Providers a business incentive for the IoT.
Intelligent networking enables the IoT business case for service
providers and, when combined with SDN technology, helps facilitate the
northbound/southbound flow of information. On the device side, the IoT
will provide enterprise businesses with actionable intelligence about their
resources, allowing data to be extracted from the edge, analyzed, and

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returned. However, executing on this process requires that intelligence is

applied at the bottom layers of the cloud so that information can be
retrieved from disparate devices in a secure and digestible fashion. As
many existing devices were deployed without regard for the IoT, gateway
architectures can be layered in to preclude extensive field upgrades on
legacy systems.
“We have devices everywhere, and a lot of these were purpose built to
be safe and secure,” Douglas says. “The way they accomplished that was
by being isolated from things like enterprise networks where nasty things
happen. A lot of high-reliability systems in Aerospace and Defense and
carrier networks have taken the network out of the question, and many apps
have tried to stay off the Internet. This results in no leverageable data. This
data can be used for predictive maintenance for remote repairs, to get
information from a lot of devices to reduce OPEX, and for adaptive
analytics so you can adjust elements to make everything more optimum.”
“You cannot have a closed, proprietary, non-API for this
infrastructure,” Noyes explains. “It is going to be based on interoperable
building blocks, standards, compatibility, well-defined structures, and APIs.
We have a platform called the Intelligent Device Platform that is
architected specifically around an open operative environment that caters
for different management protocols, whether it is OM, OSGI, OMDA, and
other protocols on the management side (Figure 3). On the communications
side, there are things like ZigBee, Bluetooth, and other things. We are
already architecting programs like the Intelligent Device Platform that have
the building blocks, and we can fully expect to incorporate others. That is
on the edge side facing down to the devices.”

3.6 Network Optimization For Iot Devices

IoT is experiencing rapid development, which is leading to challenges
for network operators. Learn how IoT device intelligence can help
overcome these challenges.
The internet of things (IoT) is developing at a rapid pace. Gartner
forecasts that, in the enterprise and automotive IoT market, there will be 5.8
billion
IoT endpoints in use by the end of 2020. This represents a 21%
increase from 2019, which was already up 21.5% compared to 2018.
Additionally, Statista notes that there will be an estimated 50 billion
IoT connected devices in use around the world by 2030.

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The vast number of devices and rapid adoption rate demonstrates that
businesses are increasingly leveraging the opportunities enabled by IoT.
This is resulting in increased challenges for network operators and service
providers.

Network Optimization Challenge

With the rate of growth and diversity of connected devices, the
challenge for operators is to understand the implications for their networks
to help ensure optimal performance. Operators need deeper insight into the
nature and capabilities of the terminals (e.g. cameras, data collection
terminals, wireless hotspots, etc.).
Many of the new classes of terminal have very different behaviours on
the network compared with the traditional voice and data capable cell
phone. As a result, operators need to be able to reliably segment traffic to
understand the patterns and trends of network usage. This is important for
many reasons, including overcoming the following specific challenges.

Example problems that need to be solved:

1. Capacity has to be reserved at a cell tower level for IoT devices.
Operators must be able to measure IoT activity levels on a per-cell
basis, to assess whether the capacity reservations are optimal, as both
under- reserving and over-reserving cause inefficiencies;
2. Rate plan misuse. Since different data rate plans are provided for IoT
devices and consumer devices, the operator needs to be able to
monitor whether the device in use is aligned with the plan; and
3. Limited understanding of device capabilities on a network. Limited
insight into subscriber device capabilities, and their changes over
time, makes planning network enhancements, to meet demand, more
difficult. Enabling Network Optimization With Enriched Device
Intelligence
Device Map, developed in partnership with the GSMA, is the
authoritative source of device intelligence for the mobile ecosystem.
Device Map combines the GSMA issued TAC with detailed device
capabilities to deliver rich IoT and non-IoT device insights, that enable
mobile network operators and related service providers to make more
informed business decisions.

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IoT Device Intelligence

As mentioned, operators need deeper insight into the nature and
capabilities of terminals. Device Map provides this.
There are now over 20 device classifications in Device Map, providing
full granularity into diverse traffic sources such as geolocation trackers,
embedded network modules, digital home assistants, meter hubs and
security hubs, along with the above-stated cameras, data collection
terminals, and wireless hotspots.
Additionally, Device Map includes a set of properties to classify IoT
devices. These property details are as follows:
Property Name Property Description Example
IoT Endpoint Sensor and/or actuator, with cellular connectivity
Camera, Data Collection Terminal, Geolocation tracker
IoT Enabler Provides cellular connectivity to otherwise unconnected
devices Embedded network module, Modem
IoT Controller Data receiver and aggregator, command/control of
remote and/or local IoT devices Digital home assistant
To further support the optimization of networks for IoT devices,
Device Map also includes the following protocol properties:
Property Name Property Description
NB-IoT The device is capable of connecting to the specific type of
narrow- band Low Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) using radio
technology standard specified in 3GPP Release 13.
LTE-M The device is capable of machine – to –machine
communication through connecting to the specific type of Low Power Wide
Area Network (LPWAN) using radio technology standard specified in
3GPP Release 13.
NB-IoT and LTE-M are communication protocols designed to support
IoT applications. Their lower data bandwidth and low power consumption
are more appropriate for IoT applications. NB-IoT tends to be used for very
low data volume applications, such as simple sensors that may make hourly
or daily updates. Whereas, LTE-M supports larger data volumes,
appropriate for continuous monitoring or surveillance.
To leverage and enable IoT opportunities, operators need to make NB-
IoT and/or LTE-M support decisions. Many factors can impact support
decisions, such as if an operator already has LTE networks - LTE-M may
be lower cost to roll out, but is less efficient for very low data volume
applications. Additionally, device capabilities on a network (specifically,
the level of devices that are NB-IoT and LTE-M capable) and the change
over time are considerable factors.

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Device Map enables operators to understand whether devices on their

network support these technologies, which can have significant benefits.
Benefits Of These Properties
Operators and relevant service providers can leverage the above
Device Map properties to overcome many network optimization challenges.
Specific benefits of the properties include:
❖ Simplified analysis and comparison of traffic types, to permit
accurate capacity allocation in the network;
❖ Facilitates measurement of trends of IoT traffic, including levels
of rate plan misuse;
❖ Understand whether devices on a network support specific
technologies and, based on the scale and trends, plan network
enhancements accordingly; and
❖ Permits distinguishing between traffic which is 100% IoT (IoT
Endpoints) and traffic which may represent a mix of IoT and non-
IoT traffic (IoT Enablers).

Distinguish Between Consumer Devices And M2M Devices

Consumer behaviour on a network is very different to IoT device
behaviour. Therefore, how operators choose to optimize their networks for
each type of behaviour will likely differ.
For cases where the operator need is to distinguish between consumer
devices and M2M devices, additional Device Map properties can be
leveraged. Specifically, “Primary Hardware Type” can be used. Examples
of Primary Hardware Type include device types such as Mobile Phone,
Desktop and Games Console–typically used by consumers–in addition to
Data Collection Terminal and Embedded Network Module–common in
M2M systems.

3.7 Transport Layer Protocols

Transport is the OSI Level 4 layer and is recognized by the same name
in the TCP-IP model. Like physical layer, data link layer and network layer,
this layer is also part of the infrastructure layer in IOT reference
architecture. In the previous tutorials, physical and data link layer protocols
and network layer protocols were discussed.
To learn about physical and data link layer protocols commonly used
for computer and mobile devices networking, check out the following
tutorial – Physical and Data Link Layer Protocols for Computers and
Mobile Devices – Ethernet BLE Wi-Fi Wi-Fi Direct WPA

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To learn about physical and data link layer protocols developed for
LPWAN, check out the following tutorial –
https://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/part-5physical-and-data-
link- layer-protocols-lpwan
Physical and Data Link Layer Protocols for LPWAN
To learn about physical and data link layer protocols developed for
PAN, HAN and LAN, check out the following tutorial –
Physical and Data Link Layer Protocols for LAN HAN and PAN
To learn about RFID and Mobile standards with applications in IOT,
check out the following tutorial –
Physical and Data Link Layer Protocols – RFID and Mobile Standards
To learn about various network layer protocols, check out the
following tutorial –

3.8 Network Layer Protocols

In this tutorial, transport layer protocols will be discussed. Transport
layer which is also known as routing layer is responsible for routing of data
packets over a network. At this layer, ordering of packets, error detection
and correction in delivery of data packets is performed. The commonly
used transport layer protocols include the following –
❖ TCP
❖ UDP
❖ DCCP
❖ SCTP
❖ RSVP
❖ DTLS
❖ TLS
❖ RPL
❖ CARP
❖ CORPL
❖ QUIC
❖ uIP
❖ ROLL
❖ Aeron
❖ CCN (Content Centric Networking)
❖ NanoIP
❖ TSMP (Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol)
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is connection oriented
and heavyweight protocol. It is suitable for reliable communication because

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in this protocol acknowledgment is received when the client sends the

packet to the server via TCP protocol. The data must be guaranteed sent at
the other end if the packet is sent via TCP protocol.
The protocol operates in three phases – Connection establishment, data
transfer and connection close. A TCP connection is managed by an internet
socket which lying at the end point (physical) undergoes various state
changes.
The packet overhead is very large in this protocol. TCP consumes
more power from the devices and has large overhead so it is not suitable for
low power devices with constrained environment. Therefore, UDP is
preferred as a connection less protocol for low overhead.
UDP – User Datagram Protocol is a connection less protocol and is not
reliable for guaranteed transmission of data. However, the UDP protocol is
a best protocol to send data to the server when packet loss during
transmission of the data can be afforded. UDP protocol is a lightweight
protocol and is suitable for wireless sensor network communication. UDP
is often used in applications specially tuned for real-time performance.
DCCP – Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP) is a message-
oriented transport layer protocol. This protocol is more secure than TCP
protocol. Compared to TCP which has a single byte long ID for each
packet, the packet ID is 48-bit long (6-bytes) in DCCP. This makes it hard
for any attacker to hack data packets. This protocol is generally used for
time critical data transfers like media streaming and VoIP.
SCTP – Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) protocol is a
message oriented transport layer protocol and it uses congestion control to
reliably transfer data over a network. The data transferred along with a 12-
byte header is secured using 4-way handshake. Due to multi-homing, data
is reliably sent to the destination.
RSVP – Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) is a control protocol
mainly used for unicast and multicast data transmission. It actually does not
transport data but is used to ensure quality of service (QoS) for data
streams.
DTLS – Based on Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol, Datagram
Transport Layer Security (DTLS) is a stream oriented transport layer
protocol. This is a security protocol designed against message forgery,
tampering and eavesdropping. However, large packet size, packet
reordering and loss of datagram are some of the major drawbacks of this
protocol stack.

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TLS – Transport Layer Security (TLS) is a security protocol which

uses symmetric cryptography to secure data. This protocol has been now
prohibited from use due to security considerations.
RPL – IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks is a
transport layer protocol developed for 6LoWPAN networks. This protocol
stack has been specially designed for constraint networks. The protocol has
been designed handle unknown packet losses and minimize energy
consumption by the network. The protocol uses a graph of nodes
(Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph, DODAG) to route data
through the most optimum path, so that data is delivered with minimum
latency. It is also designed to tackle situations where the destination end-
point is not reachable or not available the time packet is routed. Despite that
when the end-point wakes up, it manages to deliver the data packets.
A node can join the network by sending DODAG Information
Solicitation (DIS) request to the root device which responds by a DAO
Acknowledgment (DAO-ACK) confirming the inclusion of the node in the
network. It is the root which determines how to route data through various
nodes and deliver it to the destination node or end point.
Not only for 6LoWPAN, the RPL (or Ripple) can be used along with
various other low power data link layer protocols. It is based on IPv6
standard, so it is quite suitable for any IOT application.
CARP – Channel-Aware Routing Protocol (CARP) is a transport layer
protocol developed for underwater networks. This protocol is quite suitable
for IOT implementations as header size in this protocol is very small. The
protocol keeps track of data communication history to select nodes for data
transfer. The focus in this protocol remains on building quality links
through which data packets can be reliably and securely delivered. The data
transfer happens in two stages – Network Initialization and Data
Forwarding. In network initialization phase, a sink node (node requesting
sensor data) sends a HELLO packet to all the nodes of the network. Then,
in the data forwarding phase, the data from the sensors is routed to the sink
node from one hop to another hop where each hop route data
independently. This protocol is designed especially for sensor networks.
CORPL – Cognitive RPL (CORPL) is an extension of RPL protocol
developed for cognitive networks. It is also based on Destination Oriented
Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) topology with few modifications to suit
the cognitive networks. In CORPL, there is opportunistic forwarding. There
are multiple forwarders (called forwarder set) from which best node to
forward data can be selected. Not only the parent node, instead each node

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maintains a forwarder set. The nodes communicate changes in their

forwarder set by sending Destination Advertisement Object (DAO)
messeges.
QUIC – Quick UDP Interconnections (QUIP) is a protocol stack based
on User Datagram Protocol with additional features that make this protocol
as secured as TLS protocol. It uses a set of multiplexed connections
between the source and destination such that there is minimum latency and
data losses.
uIP – It is an open-source TCP-IP protocol stack which can be used
with tiny 8-bit and 16-bit microcontrollers.
ROLL – Routing Over Low power and Lossy networks (ROLL) is an
IPv6 routing protocol based on RPL designed for Low power and Lossy
Networks.
Aeron – Aeron is a protocol stack designed for UDP unicast and UDP
multicast. It is a high throughput and low latency communication protocol
generally used for streaming data.
CCN – Content Centric Networking (CCN) or Information Centric
Networking (ICN) is a network architecture and protocol stack designed for
content distribution. In this protocol stack, the data is delivered as named
packets which are saved in memories wherever available in the network. By
automatic and application neutral caching of content or information, the
protocol removes the need of any application layer protocol or service to
deliver data.
NanoIP – Based on TCP-IP, NanoIP is an underdevelopment protocol
stack for sensors and embedded devices.
TSMP – Time Synchronized Mesh Protocol (TSMP) is a protocol stack
developed for motes or sensor nodes. It is used for networking of wireless
sensors so that sensors could communicate data to each other in timeslots.
It has an approach similar to time division multiplexing.
In the next tutorial, service delivery protocols will be discussed.
Common application layer protocols in IoT explained
IoT doesn't exist without connectivity, but those connections would not
be possible without the right application layer protocols in IoT.
IoT is simple in theory: Use the vast connectivity of the internet to
send data from the tiniest devices -- such as switches and sensors -- to the
cloud, on-premises server farms or large-scale data platforms to model the
world more accurately. That model forms the foundation for entire new
classes of applications, analyses and previously unimagined efficiencies
and optimizations.

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The global growth in IoT-based applications makes the cloud look

tame, as far as technological innovations and social importance go. IoT has
given the world automated industrial operations, personal healthcare
monitoring, traffic control and smart homes. The list is very long and
growing.
However, for all the available connectivity and the technological
revolution IoT promotes, it presents communication challenges rarely seen
in more conventional networking scenarios.

3.9 IoT Communication Challenges

Application layer protocols in IoT must address some major challenges
in IoT's network communications. The data in IoT are more complex than
in conventional networking. In a simple scenario, a sensor reports a
temperature to a local network, which then passes the data to a cloud
through the internet. Complex scenarios can get as tricky as dialog between
multiple machines on a factory floor that selectively power down when
environmental sensors report the detection of fire, while a cloud AI system
monitors the shutdown and reports the event to multiple external systems.
The simple scenario includes a single data type and a single message
moving in one direction. The complex one includes many data types in
many messages among many devices that must efficiently exchange the
data. The hardware itself can vary wildly.
The conventional protocol standard, HTTP, isn't necessarily
appropriate for small devices. Some IoT devices are HTTP-capable and
benefit from the features of HTTP transport, but many, if not most, are not
and cannot. HTTP is designed for very heavy, rich communications, while
most IoT communications are necessarily minimal, given the small size and
sparse hardware and firmware of most devices. An HTTP header can
contain hundreds of bytes; that's nothing in most internet communications,
but it's huge for most IoT devices. Protocols that are leaner and able to ride
HTTP but not be HTTP are necessary.

How the Application Layer Works

Some IoT devices have network capability directly built in, but most
connect to the internet through a gateway.
IoT makes use of the Open Systems Interconnection model, which
employs seven interactive layers to handle each phase of message transport.
The IoT application layer is one of seven layers, three of which are of
particular importance to IoT application protocols.
The physical network layer is the actual infrastructure that is moving
the data, such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.

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The transport layer is the protocol supporting the movement of the

data, such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), HTTP or User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
The application layer is the interface between the IoT device and the
network with which it will communicate. It handles data formatting and
presentation and serves as the bridge between what the IoT device is doing
and the network handoff of the data it produces. Top application layer
protocols in IoT
Engineers have many IoT application layer protocols to choose from,
covering a broad range of functionality. The right protocol for a particular
IoT application depends on a number of factors based on the type of
device involved and the function it will perform:
❖ Data latency. How fast does data transport need to be? How much time
can reasonably pass for a data packet to move from one point to
another?
❖ Reliability. How consequential is data loss in the IoT application? How
redundant must device communication be?
❖ Bandwidth. What's the volume of data that needs to be accommodated?
❖ Transport. What's the best transport protocol for the IoT application?
TCP, UDP and HTTP each offer features that can be exploited by
application layer protocols with which they're compatible.
Engineers must answer these questions before considering specific
protocols to pin down which features will be most important.
The application layer handles data formatting and presentation and
serves as the bridge between what the IoT device is doing and the network
handoff of the data it produces.
Five of the top protocols and their features that matter most to IoT are:
Constrained Application Protocol. Organizations use CoAP with limited
Hardware that has a low transmission rate because it's lightweight. The
protocol is HTTP-friendly, using two basic message types: request and
response. Messages can be confirmable or non-confirmable. Data packets
are small, so message losses are few. The disadvantage is the protocol lacks
security, which engineers normally can remedy with datagram transport
layer security, but DTLS is of limited use in IoT.

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Message Queue Telemetry Transport. MQTT is a publish /subscribe

protocol, which is effective for lightweight machine-to-machine (M2M)
connectivity over TCP and minimizes data loss. Publish/subscribe for IoT
means clients don't have to call for updates, which lessens network traffic
and processing load. The protocol also accommodates a range of quality
enforcement levels, from single handshake delivery to acknowledgment
requirement.
Extensible Message and Presence Protocol. XMPP is based on XML,
the document-encoding markup language popular for its human-friendly
readability. As an HTML extension, XMPP is useful for real-time
communication, including presence, content syndication and instant
messaging. The protocol is highly scalable and offers devices data-bearing
nodes that can connect with other nodes by request to create complex local
networking and data-sharing.
Advanced Message Queuing Protocol. AMQP is an asynchronous
protocol. Like MQTT, it uses a publish/subscribe approach. Engineers use
the protocol primarily over TCP, but it is also capable of other transport
methods. The protocol is quality-flexible and offers an optional one-or-
more delivery guarantee. AMQP implements security via Transport Layer
Security and Secure Sockets Layer.
Representational State Transfer. REST is the most ubiquitous protocol
and gives IoT synchronous request-response via HTTP. HTTP makes it
feature- rich, as well as capable of authentication and caching, both of
which are useful in complex environments, although difficult to implement
in IoT. The protocol is both XML- and JSON-compatible, which is useful
for M2M and communication with tablets and smartphones, a boon for IoT.

Accelerating IoT Transformation

IoT is the primary driving force of digital transformation and it has
complex technology requirements. It includes a cascade network
architecture, each network consists of massive number of electronic
devices, and each device has a different design objective. Optimizing your
network and delivering the required capacity and coverage for each IoT use
case is a challenging task. P.I. Works solution helps you tackle this
challenge.
Understanding IoT Use Cases and Changing Network Requirements
Analysys Mason predicts that the total number of IoT connections
worldwide will grow at a CAGR of 22% between the end of 2018 and
2028, and will reach 5.3 billion in 2028. Consequently, the number of

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challenges will mount proportionally, outpacing humans’ abilities to deal

with them and reinforcing the need for more software and automation
solutions. While traditional wireless networks have been built into a range
of one-size-fits-all options utilizing 2G, 3G, LTE and 5G with limited
cross-system integration, IoT networks are being designed around a broad
spectrum of use cases.
Each IoT use case has its own requirements. In some cases you need
high bandwidth for applications such as real-time surveillance. In some
other cases you need low bandwidth with many handovers like in vehicle
tracking. For example, while remote measurement devices require lower
bandwith, strong indoor coverage and battery lifetime, auto guided vehicles
look for ultra low latency and high bandwidth connection.
P.I. Works' service-aware EXA and SmartPlan products drive network
efficiency by delivering conformal coverage, mobility robustness and
signaling along with the latency reduction and self-healing functions in IoT
enabled mobile networks.

3.10 Providing Solid Iot Quality of Experience

Increasing radio network complexity and emerging new services bring
new network design and optimization challenges. Massive number of
simultaneously connected IoT devices used in remote measurement, smart
houses, medical, transportation industries increase signaling loads and radio
interference levels. This requires extensive and continuous QoS monitoring
and optimization for the specific services delivered. P.I. Works service-
aware network monitoring and optimization platform helps operators reach
IoT SLAs by ensuring solid service quality as expected from each service
type like including ultra-low latency, wide-band throughput and deep
indoor coverage.
P.I. Works EXA addresses IoT challenges through signaling load
mitigation, interference reduction, mobility performance improvement, and
power consumption optimization with coverage boosting activities. P.I.
Works EXA offers the following capabilities.
Battery Life Time Improvement and Coverage Continuity Assurance:
Besides real time optimization of defined parameters, EXA configures the
capacity and coverage optimization policies and monitors the network
performance.
Recommended modules include CCO (Coverage and Capacity
Optimization), RSI (Rach Index Optimization), ACO (Area Code
Optimization), AIC (Automated Inconsistency Correction), CEM enabled
VantageNQ for performance monitoring and SLA alarms.

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Signaling Reduction and Interference Mitigation for CapEx Savings:

The massive increase in the number of connections along with the bursty
traffic behavior of IoT devices cause more packet collisions in uplink
during the network access. Cell Random access channel optimization with
RSI and PCI optimizers, coverage overlap reduction with CCO, location
update traffic reduction with ACO (Area Code Optimization) brings not
only infrastructure efficiencies by reducing the need for new carriers in
radio network and minimizing CPU loads on core network nodes but also
allows operators to achieve improved IoT service quality (e.g., battery life
time, solid accessibility).
Recommended Modules: CCO (Coverage and Capacity Optimization),
RSI (Rach Index Optimization), PCI (Physical Cell Identity), ACO (Area
Code Optimization).

3.11 Application Protocols For Iot

One of the major auspect of the IoT is the data exchange between
Sensors, Servers, Databases, Business Engines and Content Consumers.
While there are many protocols available to enable this communication
between different classes of endpoints, there are some protocols which are
designed keeping IoT specific requirements in mind. Let’s explore some of
such protocols which are becoming more and more popular in IoT
Applications.

1. Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT):

MQTT or Message Queuing Telemetry Transport is a publish-
subscribe based lightweight messaging protocol. It is best suited for
Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine to Machine (M2M) communication
because of its small code footprint, lower bandwidth requirements and
lower power consumption on device.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Publish/Subscribe Architecture
❖ Light Weight (Min Header Size: 2 Bytes)
❖ TCP/IP Based
❖ QoS Support
❖ Payload Agnostic
❖ Uses SSL/TLS for Security
❖ Broker could be Single Point of Failure

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2. Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP):

The Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP) is an open
standard for passing business messages between applications. AMQP has
low success rate at low bandwidths, but it increases as bandwidth increases.
However, comparing AMQP with REST, AMQP can send a larger amount
of messages per second.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Point to Point Message Exchange (Server to Server)
❖ Flexible Messaging Patterns
❖ TCP/IP Based
❖ Smallest Packet Size: 60 Bytes
❖ QoS Support
❖ Uses SSL/TLS for Security

3. Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP):

The Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) is a specialized web
transfer protocol for use with constrained nodes and constrained networks
in the IoT. It runs over UDP (no TCP overhead) to keep the overall
implementation lightweight and uses the HTTP commands like GET,
POST, PUT, and DELETE to provide resource-oriented interactions.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Request/Response Architecture
❖ UDP/IP Based
❖ QoS Support
❖ Supports Unicast as well as Multicast
❖ Uses DTLS for Security
❖ Supports Resource Discovery
❖ CoAP Node plays Server Role too (NAT Issues)
❖ Decentralised (No Single Point of Failure)

4. Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP):

XMPP is the Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol, a set of
open technologies for instant messaging, presence, multi-party chat, voice
and video calls, collaboration, lightweight middleware, content syndication,
and generalized routing of XML data.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Publish/Subscribe and Request/Response Architecture
❖ Widely used for Instant Messaging, Presence, Voice/Video Calls
etc.

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❖ No QoS Support
❖ Text Based Communication (XML Payload)
❖ Secure Authentication (SASL) and TLS Based Security
❖ XML Payload creation and parsing may need extra compute and
battery power.

5. Very Simple Control Protocol (VSCP):

VSCP is an open source standard protocol for M2M, IoT and other
remote control and measurement applications. It enables simple, low-cost
devices to be networked together with high-end computers and/or to work
as an autonomous system, whatever the communication media is.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Event Based Architecture
❖ Leverages RS-323, CAN and/or TCP/IP
❖ Support for Device Discovery, Identification and Configuration
❖ Support for Secure Device firmware update
❖ A solution from sensor to UI

6. Data Distribution Service (DDS):

The Data Distribution Service (DDS) is a middleware protocol and
API standard for data-centric connectivity from the Object Management
Group. It integrates the components of a system together, providing low-
latency data connectivity, extreme reliability, and a scalable architecture
that business and mission-critical Internet of Things (IoT) applications
need.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Publish/Subscribe and Request/Response Architecture
❖ Relational data modeling
❖ QoS Support
❖ Multicast support over plain UDP sockets
❖ Leverages both TCP/IP and UDP/IP Transport
❖ Uses TLS and DTLS for Security
❖ Decentralised (No Single Point of Failure)

7. Restful Http (REST):

The Representational State Transfer (REST) is not really a protocol but
an architectural style. REST uses the HTTP methods GET, POST, PUT,
and DELETE to provide a resource oriented messaging system where all
actions can be performed simply by using the synchronous request/response

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HTTP commands.
❖ Key Highlights:
❖ Request/Response Architecture
❖ TCP/IP Based
❖ No QoS Support
❖ Complex Implementation at Client Side
❖ Larger Header compared to other IoT Protocols (Higher
Bandwidth
❖ Requirement)
❖ Uses SSL/TLS for Security

8. OMA LightweightM2M (LWM2M):

LightweightM2M is primarily a device management protocol, but it
should be designed to be able to extend to meet the requirements of
applications. LightweightM2M is not restricted to device management, it
should be able transfer service / application data.

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CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYTICS AND
SUPPORTING SERVICES

4.1 Introduction
Traditional data management systems are simply unprepared for the
demands of what has come to be known as “big data.” As discussed
throughout this book, the real value of IoT is not just in connecting things
but rather in the data produced by those things, the new services you can
enable via those connected things, and the business insights that the data
can reveal. However, to be useful, the data needs to be handled organized
and controlled. Thus, a new approach to data analytics is needed for the
Internet of Things.
In IoT, the creation of massive amounts of data from sensors is
common and one of the biggest challenges—not only from a transport
perspective but also from a data management standpoint. A great example
of the deluge of data that IoT can generate is in the commercial aviation
industry and the deployed sensors throughout an aircraft. Modern jet
engines are fitted with thousands of sensors that generate 10GB of data per
second.
For example, modern jet engines, similar to the one shown in Figure 1,
may be equipped with around 5000 sensors. Therefore, a twin engine
commercial aircraft with these engines operating on average 8 hours a day
will generate over 500 TB of data daily, and this is just the data from the
engines! Aircraft today have thousands of other sensors connected to the
airframe and other systems. A single wing of a modern jumbo jet is
equipped with 10,000 sensors.
The potential for a petabyte (PB) of data per day per commercial
airplane is not farfetched—and this is just for one airplane. Across the
world, there are approximately 100,000 commercial flights per day. The
amount of IoT data coming from the commercial airline business is
overwhelming. This example is one of many highlighting the big data
problem that IoT exacerbates. Analyzing this amount of data in the most
efficient manner possible falls under the umbrella of data analytics. Data
analytics must offer actionable insights and knowledge from data, no matter
the amount or style, on time, or the full benefits of IoT cannot be realized.
Before diving deeper into data analytics, it is important to define a few
key concepts related to data. Not all data is the same; it can be categorized

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and thus analyzed in different ways. Depending on how data is categorized,

various data analytics tools and processing methods can be applied. Two
important categorizations from an IoT perspective are whether the data is
structured or unstructured and whether it is in motion or at rest.

4.1.1 Structured VS Unstructured Data

Structured and unstructured data are important classifications as they
typically require different toolsets from a data analytics perspective. Figure
2 provides a high-level comparison of structured data and unstructured
data.

FIG 4.1 Structured Vs Unstructured Data

Structured data follows a model or schema that defines how the data is
represented or organized. It fits well with a traditional relational database
management system (RDBMS). Inmany cases you will find structured data
in a simple tabular form—for example, a spreadsheet where data occupies a
specific cell and can be explicitly defined and referenced. Structured data
can be found in most computing systems and includes everything from
banking transaction and invoices to computer log files and router
configurations. IoT sensor data often uses structured values, such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, and so on, which are all sent in a known
format. Structured data is easily formatted, stored, queried, and processed;
for these reasons, it has been the core type of data used for making business
decisions. Because of the highly organizational format of structured data,
many data analytics tools are readily available for processing this type of
data. From custom scripts to commercial software like Microsoft Excel and
Tableau, most people are familiar and comfortable with working with
structured data. Unstructured data lacks a logical schema for understanding

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and decoding the data through traditional programming. Examples of this

data type include text, speech, images, and video. As a general rule, any
data that does not fit neatly into a predefined data model is classified as
unstructured data. According to some estimates, around 80% of a
business’s data is unstructured. Because of this fact, data analytics methods
applied to unstructured data, such as cognitive computing and machine
learning, are deservedly garnering much attention. You can decode speech
with machine learning applications, such as natural language processing
(NLP). With image/facial recognition applications, you can extract critical
information from still images and video.
The handling of unstructured IoT data employing machine learning
techniques is covered in more depth later.
Smart objects in IoT networks generate both structured and
unstructured data. Structured data is more easily managed and processed
due to its well-defined organization. On the other hand, unstructured data
can be harder to deal with and typically requires very different analytics
tools for processing the data. Being familiar with both of these data
classifications is important because knowing which data classification you
are working with integrates with the appropriate data analytics solution.

Data in Motion Versus Data at Rest

FIG 4.2 Data In Motion Versus Data At Rest

As in most networks, data in IoT networks is either in transit (“data in
motion”) or being held or stored (“data at rest”). Examples of data in
motion include traditional client/server exchanges, such as web browsing,
file transfers, and email. Data saved to a hard drive, storage array, or USB
drive is data at rest. From an IoT perspective, the data from smart objects is
considered data in motion as it passes through the network en route to its

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final destination. This is often processed at the edge, using fog computing.
When data is processed at the edge, it may be filtered and deleted or
forwarded on for further processing and possible storage at a fog node or in
the data center. Data does not come to rest at the edge.
When data arrives at the data center, it is possible to process it in real-
time, just like at the edge, while still in motion. Tools with this sort of
capability, such as Spark, Storm, and Flink, are relatively nascent compared
to the tools for analyzing stored data. Later sections of this chapter provide
more information on these real-time streaming analysis tools that are part of
the Hadoop ecosystem. Data at rest in IoT networks can be typically found
in IoT brokers or some storage array at the data center. Myriad tools,
especially tools for structured data in relational databases, are available
from a data analytics perspective. The best known of these tools is Hadoop.
Hadoop not only helps with data processing but also data storage. It is
discussed in more detail later.
Descriptive: Descriptive data analysis tells you what is happening,
either now or in the past. For example, a thermometer in a truck engine
reports temperature values every second. From a descriptive analysis
perspective, you can pull this data at any moment to gain insight into the
current operating condition of the truck engine. If the temperature value is
too high, there may be a cooling problem or the engine experiencing too
much load.

FIG 4.3 Prescriptive

Diagnostic: When you are interested in the “why,” diagnostic data
analysis can provide the answer. Continuing with the example of the
temperature sensor in the truck engine, you might wonder why the truck

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engine failed. Diagnostic analysis might show that the engine's temperature
was too high and overheated. Applying diagnostic analysis across the data
generated by a wide range of smart objects can provide a clear picture of
why a problem or an event occurred.
Predictive: Predictive analysis aims to foretell problems or issues
before they occur. For example, with historical values of temperatures for
the truck engine, predictive analysis could estimate the remaining life of
certain components in the engine. These components could then be
proactively replaced before failure occurs. Or perhaps if temperature values
of the truck engine start to rise slowly over time, this could indicate the
need for an oil change or some other sort of engine cooling maintenance.
Prescriptive: Prescriptive analysis goes beyond predictive and
recommends solutions for upcoming problems. A prescriptive analysis of
the temperature data from a truck engine might calculate various
alternatives to cost- effectively maintain our truck. These calculations could
range from the cost necessary for more frequent oil changes and cooling
maintenance to installing new cooling equipment or upgrading to a lease on
a model with a more powerful engine. Prescriptive analysis looks at a
variety of factors and makes the appropriate recommendation.

4.2 IoT Data Analytics Challenges

As IoT has grown and evolved, it has become clear that traditional data
analytics solutions were not always adequate. For example, traditional data
analytics typically employs a standard RDBMS and corresponding tools.
However, the world of IoT is much more demanding. While relational
databases are still used for certain data types and applications, they often
struggle with the nature of IoT data. IoT data places two specific challenges
on a relational database:
Scaling problems: Due to the large number of smart objects in most
IoT networks that continually send data, relational databases can grow
incredibly quickly. This can result in performance issues that can be costly
to resolve, often requiring more hardware and architecture changes.
Volatility of data: The schema must be designed correctly with
relational databases. Changing it later can slow or stop the database from
operating. Due to the lack of flexibility, revisions to the schema must be
kept minimum. IoT data, however, is volatile in the sense that the data
model is likely to change and evolve. A dynamic schema is often required
to make daily or hourly data model changes.

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A different type of database, known as NoSQL, is being used to deal

with scaling and data volatility challenges. Structured Query Language
(SQL) is the computer language used to communicate with an RDBMS. As
the name implies, a NoSQL database is a database that does not use SQL. It
is not set up in the traditional tabular form of a relational database. NoSQL
databases do not enforce a strict schema, and they support a complex,
evolving data model. These databases are also inherently much more
scalable.
In addition to the relational database challenges that IoT imposes, with
its high volume of smart object data that frequently changes, IoT also
brings challenges with the live streaming nature of its data and with
managing data at the network level. Streaming data, which is generated as
smart objects transmit data, is challenging because it is usually of a very
high volume. It is valuable only if it is possible to analyze and respond to it
in real-time. Real-time analysis of streaming data allows you to detect
patterns or anomalies that could indicate a problem or a situation that needs
some kind of immediate response. To have a chance of affecting the
outcome of this problem, you naturally must be able to filter and analyze
the data while it is occurring, as close to the edge as possible. The market
for analyzing streaming data in real-time is growing fast.
Major cloud analytics providers, such as Google, Microsoft, and IBM,
have streaming analytics offerings. Various other applications can be used
in house. (Edge streaming analytics is discussed in depth later in this
chapter.) Another challenge that IoT brings to analytics is network data,
referred to as network analytics. With the large numbers of smart objects in
IoT networks that communicate and stream data, it can be challenging to
ensure that these data flows are effectively managed, monitored, and
secure.

4.3 Network analytics tools IN IoT

Network analytics tools such as Flexible NetFlow and IPFIX can
detect irregular patterns or other problems in the flow of IoT data through a
network. Network analytics, including Flexible NetFlow and IPFIX, is
covered more detail.

Data acquiring
Having learnt about devices, devices-network data, messages and
packet communication to the Internet, let us understand the functions
required for applications, services and business processes at application-

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support and application layers. These functions are data acquiring, data
storage, data transactions, analytics, results visualisations, IoT applications
integration, services, processes, intelligence, knowledge discovery and
knowledge management.
First, let us discuss the following terms and their meanings in IoT
application layers.
Application refers to application software or a collection of software
components. An application enables a user to perform a group of
coordinated activities, functions and tasks. Streetlights control and
monitoring is an example of an application. Software for tracking and
inventory control are other examples of applications. Tracking applications
use tags and locations data of the RFIDs.
An application enables a user to withdraw cash using an Automatic
Teller Machine (ATM). An umbrella sending warning messages for
weather (Example 1.1), a waste container management, health monitoring,
traffic lights control, synchronisation and monitoring are other examples of
IoT applications. Service denotes a mechanism, which enables the
provisioning of access to one or more capabilities. An interface for the
service provides the access to capabilities. The access to each capability is
consistent with constraints and policies, which a service-description
specifies. Examples of service capabilities are automotive maintenance or
service capabilities for the Automatic Chocolate Vending Machines
(ACVMs) for timely filling of chocolates into the machines.
Service consists of a set of related software components and their
functionalities. The set is reused for one or more purposes. Usage of the set
is consistent with the controls, constraints, and policies specified in the
service description for each service. A service also associates a Service
Level Agreement (SLA).
A service consists of a collection of self-contained, distinct and
reusable components. It provides logically grouped and encapsulated
functionalities. Traffic lights synchronising service, automobile
maintenance service, devices location, detection and tracking service, home
security-breach detection and management service, waste containers
substitution service, and health-alerts service are the examples of IoT
services.
Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a software architecture model
consisting of services, messages, operations, and processes. SOA
components are distributed over a network or the Internet in a high-level
business entity. New business applications and applications integration
architecture in an enterprise can be developed using an SOA.

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Message Means a Communicating Entity or Object.

Operation means action or set of actions. For example, actions during a
bank transaction. Transaction (trans + action) refers to two inter-related
sets of operations or actions or instructions. For example, a transaction may
access sales data to select and get the annual sales in a specific year. One
operation is access to sales data and other is annual sales in return. Another
example of a transaction is a query transaction with a Database
Management System (DBMS).
Query is a command for getting select values from a database that
transfers the answer to the query after processing. A query example is a
command to the ACVMs database to provide sales data of ACVMs on
Sundays near city gardens in a specific festival period in a year. Another
example is a query to the service center database to provide the list of
automobile components needing replacement that have completed expected
service-life in a specific vehicle.
Query Processing is a group of structured activities undertaken to get
the results from a data store as per the query Key Value Pair (KVP) refers
to two linked entities. One is the key, which is a unique identifier for a
linked entity. The other is the value, which is either the identified entity or a
pointer to the location of that entity. A KVP example is birthday-date pair.
KVP is birthday: July 17, 2000. Birthday is the key for a table and date July
17, 2000 is the value. KVP applications create the look-up tables, hash
tables and the network or device configuration files.
Hash Table (also called hash map) refers to a data structure that maps
the KVPs and implements an associative array (for example, array of
KVPs). A hash table may use an index (key) computed using a hash
function and key maps to the value. Index is used to get or point to the
desired value.
Bigtable maps two arbitrary string values into an associated arbitrary
byte array. One is used as row key and the other as column key. Time
stamp associates in three-dimensional mapping. Mapping is unlike a
relational database but can be considered a sparse, distributed multi-
dimensional sorted map. The table can scale up to 100s to 1000s of
distributed computing nodes with ease of adding more nodes.
In database theory, business transaction (BT) refers to a (business)
process that requests information from or changes the data in a
database.One operation in a BT is a command ‘connect’ that connects a
DBMS and database, which also connects with the DBMS. Similarly, BTs
are processes using commands ‘insert’, ‘delete’, ‘append’, and ‘modify’.

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Process means a composition of a group of structured activities or tasks

that lead to a particular goal (or that interact to achieve a result). For
example, streetlights control the purchase process for an airline ticket. A
process specifies activities with relevance rules based on data in the
process.
Process Matrix is a multi-element entity. Each element relates a set of
data or inputs to an activity (or subset of activities).
Business Process (BP) is an activity or series of activities or a
collection of inter-related structured activities, tasks or processes. A BP
serves a particular goal or specific result or service or product. The BP is a
representation or process matrix or flowchart of a sequence of activities
with interleaving decision points; interleaving means putting in between.
Decision point means an instance in a series of activities when decisions are
taken for further activities.
A web definition states, “a BP is a specific event in a chain of
structured business activities that typically change the state of data and/or a
product and generate some type of output”. Examples of BPs include
finding the annual sales growth and managing the supplies. Another
definition2 of BP is that “business process is an activity or set of activities
that will accomplish a specific organizational goal”. One more definition3
of BP states, “BP is a series of logically related activities or tasks (such as
planning, production, or sales) performed together to produce a defined set
of results.”

4.4 Business Intelligence

Business Intelligence (BI) is a process which enables a business
service to extract new facts and knowledge, and then undertake better
decisions. These new facts and knowledge follow from earlier data
processing results, aggregation, and analysis.

Data Acquiring
1. Data Generation
Data generates at devices that transfer to the Internet through a
gateway later on.
Data generates as follows:
Passive devices data: Data generate at the device or system, following
the result of interactions. A passive device does not have its power source.
An external source helps such a device to generate and send data. Examples
are an RFID or an ATM debit card. The device may or may not have an

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associated microcontroller, memory and transceiver. A contactless card is

an example of the former and a label or barcode is the example of the latter.
Active devices data: Data generates at the device or system or
following the result of interactions. An active device has its power source.
Examples are active RFID, streetlight sensor or wireless sensor node. An
active device also has an associated microcontroller, memory and
transceiver.
Event data: A device can generate data on an event only once. For
example, on detection of the traffic or on dark ambient conditions, which
signals the event. The event on darkness communicates a need for lighting
up a group of streetlights (Example 1.2). A system consisting of security
cameras can generate data on an event of security breach or detection of an
intrusion. A waste container with associate circuit can generate data in the
event of getting it filled up 90% or above. The components and devices
generate data of their performance and functioning. For example, a play in
steering wheel and reduced air-conditioning is felt on wearing out of a
brake lining. The data communicates to the Internet. The communication
takes place when the automobile reaches near a Wi-Fi access point.
Device real-time data: An ATM generates data and communicates it to
the server instantaneously through the Internet. This initiates and enables
Online Transactions Processing (OLTP) in real time.
Event-driven device data: A device data can generate on an event only
once. Examplesare: (i) a device receives command from Controller or
Monitor and acts (s) using an actuator. When the action completes, the
device sends an acknowledgement; (ii) when an application seeks the status
of a device, then the device communicates the status.

Data Acquisition
Data acquisition means acquiring data from IoT or M2M devices. The
data communicates after the interactions with a data acquisition system
(application). The application interacts and communicates with many
devices for acquiring the needed data. The devices send data on demand or
at programmed intervals. Data of devices communicate using the network,
transport and security layers.
An application can configure the devices for the data when devices
have configuration capability. For example, the system can configure
devices to send data at defined periodic intervals. Each device
configuration controls the frequency of data generation. For example,
system can configure an umbrella device to acquire weather data from the

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Internet weather service, once each working day in a week. An ACVM can
be configured to communicate machine and other information sales data
every hour. The ACVM system can be configured to communicate
instantaneously in case of fault or if a specific chocolate flavour needs the
Fill service.
Application can configure sending of data after filtering or enriching at
the gateway at the data-adaptation layer. The gateway in-between
application and the devices can provision for one or more of the following
functions— transcoding, data management and device management. Data
management may be provisioning of the privacy and security, and data
integration, compaction and fusion
Device-management software provisions for device ID or address,
activation, configuring (managing device parameters and settings),
registering, deregistering, attaching, and detaching

Data validation
Data acquired from the devices does not mean that data are correct,
meaningful or consistent. Data consistency means within expected range
data or as per pattern or data not corrupted during transmission. Therefore,
data needs validation checks. Data validation software do the validation
checks on the acquired data. Validation software applies logic, rules and
semantic annotations. The applications or services depend on valid data.
Then only the analytics, predictions, prescriptions, diagnosis and decisions
can be acceptable.
Large data is acquired from a large number of devices, especially, from
machines in industrial plants or embedded components data from many
automobiles or health devices in ICUs or wireless sensor networks, and so
on. Validation software, therefore, consumes significant resources. An
appropriate strategy needs to be adopted. For example, the adopted strategy
may be filtering out the invalid data at the gateway or device itself or
controlling the frequency of acquiring or cyclically scheduling the set of
devices in industrial systems. Data enriches, aggregates, fuses or compacts
at the adaptation layer.

Data Categorization for Storage

Services, business processes and business intelligence use data. Valid,
useful and relevant data can be categorized into three categories for
storage—data alone, data and results of processing, only the results of data
analytics are stored. Following are three cases for storage:

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Data that needs to be repeatedly processed, referenced, or audited in

the future, data alone needs to be stored. Data needs processing only once,
and the results are used later using the analytics. Both the data and results
of processing and analytics are stored. Advantages of this case are quick
visualization and reports generation without reprocessing. Also the data is
available for reference or auditing in future.
Online, real-time or streaming data need to be processed and the results
of this processing and analysis need storage.
Data from many devices and sources is categorized into a fourth
category called Big data. Data is stored in databases at a server, in a data
warehouse, or on a Cloud as Big data.

4.5 Assembly Software for the Events

A device can generate events. For example, a sensor can generate an
event when temperature reaches a preset value or falls below a threshold. A
pressure sensor in a boiler generates an event when pressure exceeds a
critical value which warrants attention. Each event can be assigned an ID.
A logic value sets or resets for an event state. Logic 1 refers to an event
generated but not yet acted upon. Logic 0 refers to an event generated and
acted upon or not yet generated. A software component in applications can
assemble the events (logic value, event ID and device ID) and add the date
stamp. Events from IoTs and logic-flows assemble using software.

Data Store
A data store is a data repository of a set of objects which integrate into
the store.
Features of data store are:
Objects in a data-store are modeled using Classes which are defined by
the database schemas
A data store is a general concept. It includes data repositories such as
database, relational database, flat file, spreadsheet, mail server, web server,
directory services and VMware
A data store may be distributed over multiple nodes. Apache Cassandra
is an example of distributed data store.
A data store may consist of multiple schemas or data in only one
scheme. Example of only one scheme data store is a relational database.
Repository in English means a group related to looking for required
things, for special information or knowledge. For example, a repository of
paintings of artists. A database is a repository of data which can be relied

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upon for reporting, analytics, process, knowledge discovery and

intelligence. A flat file is another repository.

Data Centre Management

A data centre is a facility which has multiple banks of computers,
servers, large memory systems, high speed network and Internet
connectivity. The centre provides data security and protection using
advanced tools, full data backups, recovery, redundant data communication
connections, full system power, and electricity supply backups.
Large industrial units, banks, railways, airlines and units for whom
data are the critical components use the services of data centres. Data
centres also possess a dust free, heating, ventilation and air conditioning
(HVAC), cooling, humidification and dehumidification equipment,
pressurisation system with a physically highly secure environment. The
data center manager is responsible for all technical and IT issues,
operations of computers and servers, data entries, data security, data quality
control, network quality control and the management of the services and
applications used for data processing.

Server Management
Server management means managing services, setup and maintenance
of systems of all types associated with the server. A server needs to serve
around the clock. Server management includes managing the following:
Short reaction times when the system or network is down
High security standards by routinely performing system maintenance
and updation
Periodic system updates for state-of-the art setups
Optimised performance
Monitoring of all critical services, with SMS and email notifications
Security of systems and protection
Maintaining confidentiality and privacy of data
High degree of security and integrity and effective protection of data,
files and databases at the organisation Protection of customer data or
enterprise internal documents by attackers which includes spam mails,
unauthorised use of the access to the server, viruses, malwares and worms
Strict documentation and audit of all activities.

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9. Spatial Storage
Consider goods with RFID tags. When goods move from one place to
another, the IDs of goods and locations are needed in tracking or inventory
control applications. Spatial storage is a spatial database that is optimised to
store and receives queries from the applications. Suppose a digital map is
required for parking slots in a city. Spatial data refers to data which
represents objects defined in a geometric space. Points, lines and polygons
are common geometric objects represented in spatial databases. Spatial
database can also represent database for 3D objects, topological coverage,
linear networks, triangular irregular networks and other complex structures.
Additional functionality in spatial databases enables efficient processing.
Internet communication by RFIDs, ATMs, vehicles, ambulances, traffic
lights, streetlights, waste containers are examples of where spatial database
are used.
Spatial database functions optimally for spatial queries. A spatial
database can perform typical SQL queries, such as select statements, and
various spatial operations. Spatial database has the following features:
❖ Can perform geometry constructors. For example, creating new
geometries
❖ Can define a shape using the vertices (points or nodes)
❖ Can perform observer functions using queries which replies
specific spatial information such as location of the centre of a
geometric object
❖ Can perform spatial measurements which mean computing
distance between geometries, lengths of lines, areas of polygons
and other parameters
❖ Can change the existing features to new ones using spatial
functions and predicate spatial relationships between geometries
using true or false type queries.

4.6 Computing Using A Cloud Platform For Iot/M2m

Applications/Services
A few conventional methods for data collection and storage are as
follows:
Saving devices’ data at a local server for the device nodes
Communicating and saving the devices’ data in the files locally on
removable media, such as micro SD cards and computer hard disks
Communicating and saving the data and results of computations in a
dedicated data store or coordinating node locally

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Communicating and saving data at a local node, which is a part of a

distributed DBMS Communicating and saving at a remote node in the
distributed DBMS
Communicating on the Internet and saving at a data store in a web or
enterprise serverCommunicating on the Internet and saving at data centre
for an enterprise
Cloud is a new generation method for data collection, storage and
computing. cloud computing paradigm for data collection, storage,
computing and services. describes cloud-computing service models in a
software architectural concept, ‘everything as a service’.Describes IoT
specific cloud based services, Xively, Nimbits. describes platforms such as
AWS IoT, Cisco IoT, IOx and Fog, IBM IoT Foundation, TCS Connected
Universe (TCS CUP).
Different methods of data collection, storage and computing are shown
in Figure 4.4 The figure shows (i) Devices or sensor networks data
collection at the device web server, (ii) Local files, (iii) Dedicated data
store at coordinating node, (iii) Local node in a distributed DBMS, (iv)
Internet- connected data centre, (v) Internet-connected server, Internet-
connected distributed DBMS nodes, and (vii) Cloud infrastructure and
services.

FIG 4.4 Cloud Platform For Iot/M2m

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Cloud computing paradigm is a great evolution in Information and

Communications Technology (ICT). The new paradigm uses XAAS at the
Internet connected clouds for collection, storage and computing.
The key terms and their meanings need to be understood before
learning about the cloud computing platform.
Resource refers to one that can be read (used), written (created of
changed) or executed (processed). A path specification is also a resource.
The resource is atomic (not-further divisible) information, which is usable
during computations. A resource may have multiple instances or just a
single instance. The data point, pointer, data, object, data store or method
can also be a resource.
Devices or sensors network data collection at a device local-server,
local files, dedicated data store, at a coordinating node, a local node of a
distributed DBMS, Internet-connected server of data centre, server or
distributed database nodes or a cloud infrastructure
System resource refers to an operating system (OS), memory, network,
server, software or application. Environment refers to an environment for
programming, program execution or both. For example, cloud9 online
provides an open programming environment for BeagleBone board for
developing IoT devices; Windows environment for programming and
execution of applications; Google App Engine environment for creating
and executing web applications in Python or Java. Platform denotes the
basic hardware, operating system and network, and is used for software
applications or services over which programs can be run or developed.
A platform may provide a browser and APIs which can be used as a
base on which other applications can be run or developed.
Edge computing is a type of computing that pushes the frontier of
computing applications, data and services away from centralised nodes to
IoT data generating nodes, that means at logical extremes of the
network.Events push 2 IoT device nodes, triggers, alerts, messages and data
is collected for enrichment, storage and computations from the remote
centralised database nodes. Pushing the computations from centralised
nodes enables the usage of resources at device nodes, which could be a
requirement in case of low power lossy networks. The processing can also
be classified as edge computing at local cloud, grid or mesh computing.
The nodes may be mobile or of a wireless sensor network or cooperative
distributed in peer-to-peer and ad-hoc networks.
Distributed computing refers to computing and using resources
distributed at multiple computing environments over the Internet. The

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resources are logically-related, which means communicating among

themselves using message passing and transparency concepts. They
cooperate, movable without affecting the computations, and can be
considered one (location independent) computing system.
Service is a software which provides the capabilities and logically
grouped and encapsulated functionalities. An application calls a service for
utilising the capabilities. A service has a description and discovery
methods, such as advertisement for direct use or through a service broker.
The service binds to Service Level Agreement (SLA) between service
(provider end point) and application (end point). One service can also use
another service.
According to the W3C definition, Web Service is an application
identified by a URI, described and discovered using the XML based Web-
Service Description Language (WSDL). A web service interacts with other
services and applications using XML messages and exchanges the objects
using Internet protocols.
Service-oriented architecture consists of components implemented as
independentservices that can be dynamically bonded and orchestrated and
possess loosely coupled configurations. At the same time, the
communication between them uses messages. Orchestrating means a
process which predefines an order of calling the services (in sequences and
parallel) and the data and message exchanges.
Web computing refers to computing using resources at computing
environment of web server(s) or web services over the Internet.
Grid computing refers to computing using the pooled interconnected
grid of computing resources and environments in place of web servers.
Utility computing refers to computing using focus on service levels
with optimum amount of resources allotted when required and takes the
help of pooled resources and environments for hosting applications. The
applications utilise the services.
Cloud computing refers to computing using a collection of services
available over the Internet that deliver computational functionality on a
service provider's infrastructure for connected systems and enables
distributed grid and utility computing.
Key Performance Indicator (KPI) refers to values consisting of one or
more raw monitored values, including minimum, average, and maximum
values specifying the scale. A service is expected to be fast, reliable and
secure. The KPIs monitor the fulfillment of these objectives. For example, a
set of values can relate to Quality of Service (quality of service)

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characteristics, such as bandwidth availability, data backup capability, peak

and average workload handling capacity, ability to handle defined volume
of demand at different times of the day, and the ability to deliver defined
total volume of service. A cloud service should be able to fulfill the defined
minimum, average and maximum KPI values agreed in the SLA
Localisationmeans cloud computing content usage is monitored by
determining localisation of the quality of service level and KPIs.
Seamless cloud computing means during computing the content usages
and computations continue without any break when the service usage
moves to a location with similar quality of service level and KPIs. For
example, continue using same cloud platform when developer of software
shifts.
Elasticity denotes that an application can deploy local and remote
applications or services and release them after the application usage. The
user incurs the costs as per the usages and KPIs.
Measurability (of a resource or service) can be measured for
controlling or monitoring and enables report of the delivery of resource or
service.
Homogeneity of different computing nodes in a cluster or clusters
refers to integration with the kernel providing the automatic migration of
the processes from one to other homogeneous nodes. System software on
each computing node should ensure same storage representation and same
results of processing
Resilient computing refers to offering and maintaining the accepted
quality of service and KPIs in the presence of the identified challenges,
defined and appropriate resilience metrics, and protecting the service.4 The
challenges may be small to big, such as misconfiguration of a computing
node in a network to natural disasters. An English Cambridge dictionary
defines resilience as the power or ability to return to the original form,
position, etc., after being bent, compressed or stretched.
Scalability in cloud services refers to how an application can deploy
smaller local resources and remotely distributed servers and resources,
increasing or decreasing the usage while incurring the cost as per the usage
on increasing scales.
Maintainability in cloud services refers to the storage, applications,
computing infrastructure, services, data centres and servers maintenances
which are responsibilities of the remotely connected cloud services with no
costs to the user.

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XAAS is a software architectural concept that enables deployment and

development of applications, and offers services using web and SOA. A
computing paradigm is to integrate complex applications and services
(Section 4.3.5) and use XAAS concept for deploying a cloud platform
Multitenant cloud model refers to accessibility to a cloud platform and
computing environment by multiple users who pay as per the agreed quality
of service and KPIs, defined at separate SLAs with each user. The users do
resource pooling but each uses pays separately. The following subsections
describe the cloud computing paradigm and deployment models.

4.7 Cloud Computing Paradigm

Cloud computing means a collection of services available over the
Internet. Cloud delivers the computational functionality. Cloud computing
deploys infrastructure of a cloud-service provider. The infrastructure
deploys on a utility, grid computing, or webservices environment that
includes network, system, or grid of computers or servers or data centres.
We—electricity users—do not need to know about the source and
underlying infrastructure for electricity supply service.
Similarly, a computing service or application user need not know how
the infrastructure deploys or the details of the computing environment. Just
as the user does not need to know Intel processor inside a computer,
similarly, the user uses the data, computing and intelligence in the cloud, as
part of the services. Similarly, the services are used as a utility at the cloud.

4.8 Cloud Platform Services

Cloud platform offers the following:
❖ infrastructure for large data storage of devices, RFIDs, industrial
plant machines, automobiles and device networks
Computing capabilities, such as analytics, IDE (Integrated
Development Environment)
Collaborative computing and data store sharing

4.8.1Cloud Platform Usages

Cloud platform usages connect devices, data, APIs, applications and
services, persons, enterprises, businesses and XAAS.
The following describes a simple conceptual framework of the Internet
Cloud:
Internet Cloud + Clients = User applications and services with ‘no
boundaries and no walls’

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An application or service executes on a platform which includes the

operating system (OS), hardware and network. Multiple applications may
initially be designed to run on diversified platforms (OSs, hardware and
networks). Applications and services need to integrate them on a common
platform and running environment. Cloud storage and computing
environment offers a virtualized environment, which refers to a running
environment made to appear as one to all applications and services.
However, physically two or more running environments and platforms may
be present.

Virtualization
A characteristic of virtualized environment is that it enables
applications and services to execute in an independent execution
environment (heterogeneous computing environment). Each one of them
stores and executes in isolation on the same platform. It may execute or
access a set of data centers or servers or distributed services and computing
systems. The applications or services which are hosted remotely and are
accessible using the Internet can easily be deployed at a user application or
service in a virtualized environment, provided the Internet or other
communications are present.
Applications need not be aware of the platform, just Internet
connectivity to the platform, called cloud platform, is required. The storage
is called cloud storage. The computing is called cloud computing. The
services are called cloud services in line with the web services which host
on web servers.
Virtualization of storage means user application or service accesses
physical storage using abstract database interface or file system or logical
drive or disk drive. Storage may be accessible using multiple interfaces or
servers. For example, Apple iCloud offers storage to a user or user group
that enables sharing albums, music, videos, data store, editing files, and
collaboration among the user group members.
Network Function Virtualisation (NFV) means a user application or
service accesses the resources appearing as just one network. However, the
network access to the resources may be through multiple resources and
networks. Virtualisation of server means user application accesses not only
one server but accesses multiple servers.
Virtualised desktop means the user application can change and deploy
multiple desktops, though the access by the user is through their computer
platform (OS) that in fact may be through multiple OSs and platforms or
remote computers

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4.8.2 Cloud Computing Features and Advantages

Essential features of cloud storage and computing are:
On demand self-service to users for the provision of storage,
computing servers, software delivery and server time
Resource pooling in multi-tenant model
Broad network accessibility in virtualised environment to
heterogeneous users, clients, systems and devices Elasticity
Massive scale availability Scalability Maintainability Homogeneity
Virtualisation Interconnectivity platform with virtualised environment for
enterprises and provisioning of in-between Service Level Agreements
(SLAs) Resilient computing Advanced security Low cost

4.8.3 Cloud Computing Concerns

Concerns in usage of cloud computing are:
Requirement of a constant high-speed Internet connection
Limitations of the services available
Possible data loss
Non delivery as per defined SLA specified performance
Different APIs and protocols used at different clouds
Security in multi-tenant environment needs high trust and low risks
Loss of users’ control

4.9 Cloud Deployment Models

Following are the four cloud deployment models:
Public cloud: This model is provisioned by educational institutions,
industries, government institutions, businesses, or enterprises and is open
for public use.
Private cloud: This model is exclusive for institutions, industries,
businesses or enterprises and is meant for private use in the organisation by
the employees and associated users only.
Community cloud: This model is exclusive for use by a community
formed by institutions, industries, businesses or enterprises, and for use
within the community organisation, employees and associated users. The
community specifies security and compliance considerations.
Hybrid cloud: A set of two or more distinct clouds (public, private or
community) with distinct data stores and applications that bind to deploy
the proprietary or standard technology.
Cloud platform architecture is a virtualised network architecture
consisting of a cluster of connected servers over the data centres and
Service Level Agreements (SLAs) between them. A cloud platform

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controls and manages resources, and dynamically provisions the networks,

servers and storage. Cloud platform applications and network services are
utility, grid and distributed services. Examples of cloud platforms are
Amazon EC2, Microsoft Azure, Google App Engine, Xively, Nimbits,
AWS IoT, CISCO IoT, IOx and Fog, IBM IoT Foundation, TCS Connected
Universe Platform.
Everything as a service and cloud service models Cloud connects the
devices, data, applications, services, persons and business. Cloud services
can be considered a distribution service for linking the resources
(computing functions, data store, processing functions, networks, servers
and applications) and coordinating between the resources.
Cloud computing can be considered by a simple equation: Cloud
Computing = SaaS + Paas + IaaS + DaaS
SaaS means Software as a Service. The software is made available to
an application or service on demand. SaaS is a service model where the
applications or services deploy and host at the cloud, and are made
available through the Internet on demand by the service user. The software
control, maintenance, updation to new version and infrastructure, platform
and resource requirements are the responsibilities of the cloud service
provider.
PaaS means Platform as a Service. The platform is made available to a
developer of an application on demand. PaaS is a service model where the
applications and services develop and execute using the platform (for
computing, data store and distribution services) which is made available
through the Internet on demand for the developer of the applications. The
platform, network, resources, maintenance, updation and security as per the
developers’ requirements are the responsibilities of the cloud service
provider.
IaaS means Infrastructure as a Service. The infrastructure (data stores,
servers, data centres and network) is made available to a user or developer
of application on demand. Developer installs the OS image, data store and
application and controls them at the infrastructure. IaaS is a service model
where the applications develop or use the infrastructure made available
through the Internet on rent demand (pay as per use in multi-tenancy
model) by a developer or user. IaaS computing systems, network and
security are the responsibilities of the cloud service provider.
DaaS means Data as a Service. Data at a data centre is made available
to a user or developer of application on demand. DaaS is a service model
where the data store or data warehouse is made available through the
Internet on demand on rent (pay as per use in multi tenancy model) to an
enterprise. The data centre management, 24×7 power, control, network,
maintenance, scale up, data replicating and mirror nodes and systems, and
physical security are the responsibilities of the data centre service provider.

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CHAPTER 5
IOT PHYSICAL DEVICES AND ENDPOINTS

5.1 Introduction
Device for the Internet of Things
Any object with a unique identifier and the ability to send/receive data
(including user data) over a network qualifies as a "Thing" in the Internet of
Things (IoT) (e.g., smart phone, smartTV, computer, refrigerator, car, etc.).
Internet-connected IoT devices transmit information about themselves
or their surroundings (e.g., information sensed by connected sensors) over a
network (to other devices or servers/storage) or enable remote actuation of
physical entities/environments.

Examples of IoT Devices

A home automation device that allows you to remotely track and
manage the status of your appliances. • An industrial computer that sends
data to a server about its activity and health monitoring. • A vehicle that
transmits data about its position to a cloud-based service. • A wireless-
enabled wearable device that collects and sends data about a person, such
as the number of steps taken, to a cloud-based service.

5.2 IoT Building Blocks

Sensors, processors, gateways, and applications are the four
fundamental building blocks of the IoT framework. To form a useful IoT
structure, each node must have its characteristics.

Figure 5.1: Simplified Block Diagram of the Basic Building Blocks of

the IoT

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Sensors:
These are the IoT devices' front ends. These are the system's so-called
"Stuff." Their primary function is to gather data from the environment
(sensors) or transmit data to the environment (actuators).
❖ These must be individually recognisable devices with their IP address
to be easily identified over a vast network.
❖ They must be interested in nature, which means they must be able to
gather data in real time. This can either function on their own
(autonomous) or be programmed by the user to meet their specific
requirements (user-controlled).
❖ Gas, water quality, moisture, and other sensors are examples of
sensors.
❖ Processors:Processors are the IoT system's brain. Their primary
purpose is to process the data collected by the sensors in order to
derive useful information from the massive data of raw data collected.
In a nutshell, it provides intelligence to the data.
❖ Processors are often real-time devices that can be easily operated by
software. These are also in charge of data security, including
encryption and decryption.
❖ Embedded hardware devices, such as microcontrollers, process data
❖ because they have processors connected to them. Gateways:
❖ Gateways are in charge of routing processed data and directing it to the
appropriate locations for proper (data) use.
❖ In other words, a gateway facilitates data exchange between two
points. It allows data to be accessed over a network. Any IoT machine
that wants to communicate needs to be connected to the internet.
❖ Network gateways include things like LANs, WANs, and PANs.

Applications:
❖ An IoT system's applications are another end. Applications are needed
for the correct use of all collected data.
❖ These cloud-based systems are in charge of giving the data obtained a
meaningful value. Users manage applications, which serve as a
delivery point for specific services.
❖ Home automation software, security systems, industrial control hubs,
❖ and other applications are examples.
❖ In Figure 2, the extreme right block forms the application end of the
IoT system.

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Figure 5.2: Basic Building Blocks of IoT

In a nutshell, the information gathered by the sensing node (end node)
is processed first, then transmitted via connectivity to the embedded
processing nodes, which can be any embedded hardware devices, and
processed there. It then passes through the networking nodes again, arriving
at remote cloud-based processing, which can be any software, before being
sent to the application node for proper application of the data collected and
big data analysis.

5.3 IoT Works

It's easy to understand how the Internet of Things functions.
In other words, sensors, RFID tags, and all other uniquely identifiable
objects or "things" acquire real-time information (data) by acquiring basic
resources (names, addresses, and so on) and related attributes of objects
through automatic identification and perception technologies such as RFID,
wireless sensor, and satellite positioning.
Second, it incorporates object-based information into the information
network and realises intelligent indexing and aggregation of information
related to masses of objects by relying on fundamental resource resources,
thanks to various communications technologies (similar to the resolution,
addressing and discovery of the internet).
Finally, it analyses and processes information related to masses of
objects using intelligent computing technologies like cloud computing,
fuzzy recognition, data mining, and semantic analysis to achieve intelligent
decision and control in the physical world.
Let's take a look at the diagram below.

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Figure 5.3: Layers of the IoT

All data collected by the access system (uniquely recognisable
"things") is collected in the Physical layer and sent to internet devices (like
smartphones). The data is then sent to the management layer through
transmission lines (fiber-optic cable). It is separated from the raw data and
handled separately (stream analytics and data analytics). The application
layer receives all of the managed data and uses it appropriately.

5.4 IoT Architecture Layers

There are four major layers.
The Sensors and Connectivity network, which collects data, is at the
bottom of the IoT architecture. The Gateway and Network Layer are the
next two layers. Over that, there's the Management Service layer. Finally,
there's the application layer, where the data is processed to meet the needs
of different applications.

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Let's look at the characteristics of each of these architectural layers

individually.
Layer of Sensors, Connectivity, and Networking
❖ RFID tags and sensors are included in this layer (an essential part
of an IoT system and responsible for collecting raw data). These
are the “things” that make up an IoT scheme.
❖ Wireless Sensor Networks are sensors, RFID tags, and other
wireless devices (WSN).
❖ Since sensors are active, they must capture and process data in real
time.
❖ This layer also includes network access (such as WAN, PAN, and
others) for transmitting raw data to the next layer, the Gateway
and Network Layer.
❖ The computers that make up a WSN have limited storage space,
limited communication bandwidth, and slow processing speeds.

Figure 5.4: IoT Architecture Layers

❖ We have various sensors for various applications, such as a
temperature sensor for collecting temperature data, a water quality
sensor for analysing water quality, and a moisture sensor for measuring
the moisture content of the atmosphere or soil.
The tags, RFID tags or barcode readers, are at the bottom of this layer,
followed by sensors/actuators and communication networks, as shown in
the diagram below.

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Figure 5.5: Sensor, Connectivity And Network layer gateway and

network layer
❖ Gateways are in charge of routing data from the Sensor, Connectivity,
and Network layers and passing it on to the Management Service
Layer's next layer.
❖ This layer necessitates a huge storage space to store the massive
amounts of data generated by sensors, RFID tags, and other devices.
This layer must also provide consistent, reliable performance across
public, private, and hybrid networks.
❖ Different IoT devices use various types of network protocols. Both of
these protocols must be consolidated into a single layer. This layer is in
charge of integrating different network protocols.
The gateway, which comprises the embedded OS, Signal Processors
and Modulators, Micro-Controllers, and other components, is shown at the
bottom of the diagram. The Gateway Networks, including LAN (Local
Area Network), WAN (Wide Area Network), and others, are located above
the gateway.

Figure 5.6: Gateway and Network Layer

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Management Service Layer

This layer is used to manage Internet of Things (IoT) services. The
management service layer handles security analysis of IoT devices,
Information Analysis (Stream Analytics, Data Analytics), and device
management.
❖ Data management is needed to extract the appropriate information
from the massive amounts of raw data obtained by sensor devices to
produce a useful result. This layer is where this operation is carried
out.
❖ In addition, a specific circumstance necessitates an urgent response. By
abstracting data, extracting knowledge, and managing the data flow,
this layer aids in this endeavour.
❖ This layer is also in charge of data mining, text mining, and service
analytics, among other things.
The management service layer has Operational Support Service (OSS),
which includes Device Modeling, Device Configuration and Management,
and more, as shown in the diagram below. The Billing Support System
(BSS) also assists in billing and reporting.
We can also see from the diagram that there are IoT/M2M Application
Services, which include Analytics Platform; Data – which is the most
important part; Security, which includes Access Controls, Encryption,
Identity Access Management, and so on; and finally, BRM and BPM
(BPM).

Figure 5.7: Management Service Layer Application Layer

The application layer is the topmost layer of IoT architecture. It is in
charge
of making efficient use of the data collected.
❖ Home automation, e-health, e-government, and other IoT
applications are only a few examples.

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❖ As seen in the diagram below, there are two types of IoT

applications: horizontal market applications such as fleet
management and supply chain, and sector-specific applications
such as oil, healthcare, and transportation.

Figure 5.8: Application Layer

Smart Environment Application Domains

Figure 5.9: Smart Environment Application Domains

❖ WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network, encompassing
Wi-Fi, WAVE, IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/p/n/ac/ad, and other wireless
technologies.
❖ Bluetooth, ZigBee, 6LoWPAN, IEEE 802.15.4, UWB, and other
wireless
❖ personal area networks are examples of WPAN.

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Figure 5.10: Smart Environment Application Domains: Service

Domain And Their Services Classified.

5.5 Exemplary Device: Raspberry PI

The Raspberry Pi is a small, low-cost device about the size of a credit
card. Raspberry Pi runs a variety of Linux distributions and can perform
nearly all tasks that a typical desktop computer can. The general purpose
I/O pins on the Raspberry Pi can also be used to attach sensors and
actuators. Python is supported "out of the box" on the Raspberry Pi since it
runs the Linux operating system. The Raspberry Pi is a small, low-cost
device about the size of a credit card. Raspberry Pi runs a variety of Linux
distributions and can perform nearly all tasks that a typical desktop
computer can. The general purpose I/O pins on the Raspberry Pi can also be
used to attach sensors and actuators. Python is supported "out of the box"
on the Raspberry Pi since it runs the Linux operating system.

5.5.1 Fundamentals of the Raspberry PI

The Raspberry Pi is a platform, not a single device. It's a group of
single- board computers (SBC). Each SBC has its own set of characteristics
and capabilities.
The Raspberry Pi model 1 A had a single-core ARM processor,
256MB RAM,
USB port, composite video out, HDMI output, and no networking
capabilities when it was first released. The most recent version of the
Raspberry Pi 3 model B has a quad-core processor, 1GB RAM, four USB

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ports, ethernet, built-in Wi-Fi, and a 40-pin header for controlling external
circuits.

FIG 5.12 Fundamentals of the Raspberry PI

With so many different Pi computers to choose from, deciding which
one is best for a project can be difficult. If you're new to the Raspberry Pi,
the most feature-packed version is best because it will allow you to do the
most projects. The Raspberry Pi 3 Model B features networking, a powerful
CPU, and GPIO ports. The Raspberry Pi 1 range is ideal for projects that do
not need networking but need a monitor and GPIO. In contrast, the
Raspberry Pi Zero is ideal for projects that only need a minimal system.
Linux on Raspberry Pi
1. Raspbian: Raspbian Linux is a RaspberryPi-optimized Debian
Wheezy port.
2. Arch: Arch is an AMD-optimized version of Arch Linux.
3. Pidora: Pidora Linux is a RaspberryPi-optimized version of Fedora
Linux.
4. RaspBMC: RaspBMC is a RaspberryPi-based XBMC media
centre distribution.
5. OpenELEC: OpenELEC is an XBMC media centre distribution
that is fast and easy to use.
6. RISC OS: RISC OS is a small, fast operating system.
Once you've decided on a Raspberry Pi, you'll need to learn a few
things about it, beginning with understanding the various parts on the PCB
and what - one does.

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FIG 5.13 Parts of the Raspberry PI

GPIO
GPIO is the Raspberry Pi's most critical function, and it's the Arduino's
equivalent of GPIO pins. These pins can read electrical signals from
circuits and provide electrical signals for controlling circuits in
programmes. When using GPIO, be cautious since they are easily damaged
and use 3.3V logic. A driver circuit (see 3.3 connecting I/O) should be used
to operate external devices that draw more than 20mA current. Relays,
inductors, and high- brightness LEDs are examples of such instruments.

DSI Display Port

The Raspberry Pi will connect to a serial display similar to those found
in tablets using the DSI display port. These touch-screen monitor modules
come in various sizes, including 7 inches.

CSI Camera Port

The CSI camera port is a connector that connects a Raspberry Pi
camera module to the Raspberry Pi. Generic web cameras may not function
since they usually only have a USB port.

MicroSD Slot
This slot stores the Raspberry Pi operating system on a microSD
card. The Pi does not come with a microSD card. This SD card also stores
all users' files, directories, notes, and photos. It is simply the computer's
hard drive.

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HDMI / USB / Network

These ports link the Pi to an HDMI display, USB devices including
mice and keyboards, and an ethernet connection for internet access.
However, since the Raspberry Pi 3 has built-in Wi-Fi, the ethernet port is
seldom used.

Micro USB Power

Power can be supplied to the Raspberry Pi via a micro USB cable
connected to the micro USB connector (recommended) or directly feeding
5V into the
5V GPIO pin. Now that you're familiar with the components that make
up the Raspberry Pi, you might discover that when it's turned on, it does
nothing. This is since we must first instal an operating system! I'll show you
how to put Raspbian, the Raspberry Pi's most common operating system,
on a microSD card in the following post.

5.5.2 Raspberry PI Interfaces

The Raspberry Pi has Serial, SPI, and I2C interfaces for data transfer.
Receive (Rx) and transmit (Tx) pins on the Serial interface on the
Raspberry
Pi are used to communicate with serial peripherals.
Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a synchronous serial data protocol
that allows one or more peripheral devices to communicate with one
another. In an SPI link, the Raspberry Pi has five pins for the SPI interface:
MISO (Master in slave out) – Master line for data transmission to
peripherals.
Slave line for sending data to the owner, MOSI (Master out slave in).
SCK (Serial Clock) – Clock generated by the master for data
transmission synchronisation.
To allow or disable devices, use CE0 (Chip Enable 0).
CE0 (Chip Enable 1) – This command enables or disables devices. I2C
(Inter-Industry Communication):
The Raspberry Pi's I2C interface pins allow you to attach hardware
modules. The I2C interface allows for synchronous data transfer using only
two pins: SDA (data line) and SCL (control line) (Clock Line).
Python is an excellent language for programming the Raspberry Pi
because of its ease of use and accessibility to hardware, such as GPIO. This
tutorial will look at running Python programmes on the Raspberry Pi.
What You Would Need

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❖ Pi (Raspberry Pi)
❖ SD card with Raspbian OS
❖ Display with HDMI input
❖ Mouse and keyboard
A Python programme that requires external libraries could not operate
on Raspbian using any of the methods mentioned below. PIP can be used to
instal additional libraries. However, it only does so for programmes that run
in the terminal window. This could be because the Python IDE programmes
have their local copy of Python. As a result, it is recommended that you run
Python programmes that require external libraries installed using PIP from
the terminal window.

FIG 5.15 Raspberry Pi Example: Interfacing Led and Switch

With Raspberry PI from time import sleeP import RPi.GPIO
asGPIO GPIO.setmode(GPIO.BCM) #Switch Pin
GPIO.setup(25,GPIO.IN)
#LEDPin GPIO.setup(18,GPIO.OUT) state=false
deftoggleLED(pin):
state = not state GPIO.output(pin,state) whileTrue:
try:
if (GPIO.input(25) ==True):

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toggleLED(pin) sleep(.01) exceptKeyboardInterrupt: exit()

Other Devices pcDuino BeagleBoneBlack Cubieboard pcDuino

FIG 5.16 Pcduino

The pcDuino's elegance lies in its exceptionally well-exposed hardware
peripherals. On the other hand, using these peripherals is more difficult
than using them on an Arduino-compatible circuit.
❖ pcDuino - some familiarity with the pcDuino basics is needed before
proceeding. Before continuing, please check our Getting Started with
pcDuino tutorial.
❖ Linux - The Linux operating system is the most important thing you
should be familiar with. Remember that pcDuino isn't an Arduino; it's a
modern microcomputer with a completely functional, albeit compact,
operating system.
❖ SPI is a synchronous (clocked) serial peripheral interface that allows
chips on a board to communicate. A minimum of four wires are
required (clock, master-out-slave-in data, master-in-slave-out data, and
slave chip select), with one additional chip select line required for each
additional chip added to the bus.
❖ I2C - also known as IIC (inter-integrated circuit), SMBus, or TWI
(two-wire interface), I2C communicates with different devices using
just two wires (bidirectional data and clock lines).
❖ Serial Communication - a data interface of at least two wires that is
asynchronous (no transmitted clock) (data transmit and data receive;
sometimes, additional signals are added to indicate when a device is
ready to send or receive).
❖ Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a digital-to-analog conversion
technique that employs a fixed frequency square wave with varying
duty cycle that can be easily converted to an analogue signal ranging

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from 0V to the maximum amplitude the digital IC driving the signal.

❖ Analog-to-Digital Conversion measures an analogue voltage and
converts it to a digital value.
BeagleBoneBlack is a character in the game BeagleBoneBlack
The BeagleBone Black is the BeagleBoard family's newest member.
It's a low-cost, high-expansion BeagleBoard powered by a Texas
Instruments Sitara XAM3359AZCZ100 Cortex A8 ARM processor. It's
similar to the Beaglebone, but it has certain features that the Beaglebone
doesn't. The distinctions between the BeagleBone and the BeagleBone
Black are summarised below.

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BeagleBone Black Features

The following table lists the key features of the BeagleBone Black.

In the box is (1)BeagleBone Black board, (1)USB cable, and (1)card

that should be read.
BeagleBone Black Picture
Here is a picture of the Rev A5A board.

FIG 5.17 Beaglebone Black Picture

BeagleBone Black Key Component Locations
Here are the locations of the key components on the Rev A5A.

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FIG 5.18 Beaglebone Black Key Component Locations BeagleBone

Black Connector and Switch Locations
Below is the connectors and switches on the Rev A5A board. The
Power Button and Battery Connections are new additions to the Rev A5A.

Fig 5.19 Beaglebone Black Connector and Switch Locations

Cubieboard

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FIG 5.20 Cubieboard

Cubieboard is a Chinese single-board machine manufactured in
Zhuhai, Guangdong. In September 2012, the first short run of prototype
boards was sold internationally, and in October 2012, the production
version was released. [1] It can run Android 4 ICS, Ubuntu 12.04 desktop,
and other operating systems. [2] Remixed Fedora 19 for ARM [3] Armbian,
Arch Linux ARM, desktop [4] a Cubian distribution based on Debian, [5]
FreeBSD,[6] or OpenBSD are two options. [nine]
It is powered by the AllWinner A10 SoC, commonly used in low-cost
tablets, phones, and media PCs. Developers of the lima driver, an open-
source driver for the ARM Mali GPU, use this SoC. [eight] It ran ioquake 3
at 47 frames per second in 1024x600 at the 2013 FOSDEM demo. [nine]
Using the Lubuntu Linux distribution, the Cubieboard team was able to run
an Apache Hadoop computer cluster.

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CHAPTER 6
IOT PHYSICAL SERVERS AND
CLOUD OF FERINGS

6.1 Introduction To Cloud Computing

FIG 6.1 Cloud Computing Applications

The Internet of Things (IoT) involves the internet-connected devices
we use to perform the processes and services that support our way of life.
Another component set to help IoT succeed is cloud computing, which acts
as a front end. Cloud computing is an increasingly popular service that
offers several advantages to IOT. It is based on the concept of allowing
users to perform normal computing tasks using services delivered entirely
over the internet. A worker may need to finish a major project that must be
submitted to a manager. However, perhaps they encounter problems with
memory or space constraints on their computing device. Memory and space
constraints can be minimized if an application is instead hosted on the
internet. The worker can use a cloud computing service to finish their work
because the data is managed remotely by a server.
Another example is that you have a problem with your mobile device
and need to reformat it or reinstall the operating system. You can use
Google Photos to upload your photos to internet-based storage. After the
reformat or reinstall, you can either move the photos back to your device or
view the photos on your device from the internet when youwant.

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Concept
In truth, cloud computing and IoT are tightly coupled. The growth of
IoT and the rapid development of associated technologiescreate a
widespread connection of ―things.‖This has lead to the production of large
amounts of data, which needs to be stored, processed and accessed. Cloud
computing as a paradigm for big data storage and analytics. While IoT is
exciting, the real innovation will come from combining it with cloud
computing. The combination of cloud computing and IoT will enable new
monitoring services and powerful processing of sensory data streams. For
example, sensory data can be uploaded and stored with cloud computing,
later used intelligently for smart monitoring and actuation with other smart
devices. Ultimately, the goal is to be able to transform data to insight and
drive productive, cost-effective action from those insights. The cloud
effectively serves as the brain to improved decision-making and optimized
internet- based interactions.However, when IoT meets cloud, new
challenges arise. There is an urgent need for novel network architectures
that seamlessly integrate them. During integration, the critical concerns are
quality of service (quality of service) and qualityof experience (QoE) and
data security, privacy, and reliability. The virtual infrastructure for practical
mobile computing and interfacing includes integrating applications, storage
devices, monitoring devices, visualization platforms, analytics tools and
client delivery. Cloud computing offers a practical utility-based model that
will enable businesses and users to access applications on demand anytime
and fromanywhere.

6.2 Characteristics
First, the cloud computing of IoT is an on-demand self service,
meaning it‘s there when you need it. Cloud computing is a web-based
service that can be accessed without any special assistance or permission
from other people; however, you need at minimum some sort of internet
access.
Second, the cloud computing of IoT involves broad network access,
meaning it offers several connectivity options. Cloud computing resources
can be accessed through many internet-connected devices such as tablets,
mobile devices and laptops. This level of convenience means users can
access those resources in a wide variety of manners, even from older
devices. Again, though, this emphasizes the need for network access points.
Third, cloud computing allows for resource pooling, meaning information
can be shared with those who know where and how (have permission) to

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access the resource, anytime and anywhere. This lends to broader

collaboration or closer connections with other users. From an IoT
perspective, just as we can easily assign an IP address to every "thing" on
theplanet, we can share the "address" of the cloud-based protected and
stored information with others and pool resources.
Fourth, cloud computing features rapid elasticity, meaning users can
readily scale the service to their needs. You can easily and quickly edit your
software setup, add or remove users, increase storage space, etc. This
characteristic will further empower IoT by providing elastic computing
power, storage and networking.
Finally, the cloud computing of IoT is a measured service, meaning
you get what you pay for. Providers can easily measure usage statistics
such as storage, processing, bandwidth and active user accounts inside your
cloud instance. This pay per use (PPU) model means your costs scale with
your usage. In IoT terms, it's comparable to the ever-growing network of
physical objects that feature an IP address for internet connectivity, and the
communication that occurs between these objects and other internet-
enabled devices and systems; just like your cloud service, the service rates
for that IoT infrastructure may also scale with use.

6.3 Service and Deployment

Service models
Service delivery in cloud computing comprises three different service
models: software as a service (SaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and
infrastructure as a service (IaaS).
Software as a service (SaaS) provides applications to the cloud‘s end
user mainly accessed via a web portal or service-oriented architecture-
based web service technology. These services can be seen as ASP
(application service provider) on the application layer. Usually, a specific
company that uses the service would run, maintain and give support to be
reliably used over a long time.
Platform as a service (PaaS) consists of the actual environment for
developing and provisioning cloud applications. This layer's main users are
developers who want to develop and run a cloud application for a particular
purpose. A proprietary language was supported and provided by the
platform (a set of important basic services) to ease communication,
monitoring, billing and other aspects such as startup and ensure an
application‘s scalability and flexibility. Limitations regarding the
programming languages supported, the programming model, the ability to
access resources, and the long-term persistence are possibledisadvantages.

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Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) provides the necessary hardware and

software upon which a customer can build a customized computing
environment. Computing resources, data storage resources and the
communications channel are linked together with these essential IT
resources to ensure the stability of applications used on the cloud. Those
stack models can be referred to as the medium for IoT, being used and
conveyed by the users in different methods for the greatest chance of
interoperability. This includes connecting cars, wearables, TVs,
smartphones, fitness equipment, robots, ATMs, vending machines, the
vertical applications, security and professional services, and analytics
platforms that come withthem.

6.3.1 Deployment Models

Deployment in cloud computing comprises four deployment models:
private cloud, public cloud, community cloud and hybrid cloud.
A private cloud has infrastructure provisioned for exclusive use by a
single organization comprising multiple consumers such as business units.
It may be owned, managed and operated by the organization, a third party
or some combination of them. It may exist on or off premises.
A public cloud is created for open use by the general public. Public
cloud sells services to anyone on the internet. (Amazon Web Services is an
example of a large public cloud provider.) This model is suitable for
business requirements that require management of load spikes and the
applications used by the business, activities that would otherwise require
greater infrastructure investment. The public cloud also helps reduce capital
expenditure and bring down operational ITcosts.
A community cloud is managed and used by a group or organizations
with shared interests, such as specific security requirements or a common
mission.
Finally, a hybrid cloud combines two or more distinct private,
community or public cloud infrastructures. They remain unique entities but
are bound together by standardized or proprietary technology enabling data
and application portability. Normally, information that‘s not critical is
outsourced to the public cloud. At the same time, business-critical services
and data are kept within the organization's control.

6.4 Cloud Storage API

A cloud storage API is an application program interface that connects a
locally-based application to a cloud-based storage system. A user can send

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data to it and access and work with data stored. To the application, the
cloud storage system is just another target device, like tape or disk-based
storage. An application program interface (API) is code that allows two
software programs to communicate with each other. The API defines the
correct way for a developer to write a program that requests services from
an operating system (OS) or other application. APIs are implemented by
function calls composed of verbs and nouns. The required syntax is
described in the documentation of the application beingcalled.

6.4.1 APIS work

APIs are made up of two related elements. The first is a specification
that describes how information is exchanged between programs, done in the
form of a request for processing and a return of the necessary data. The
second is a software interface written to that specification and published for
use.The software that wants to access the features and capabilities of the
API is said to call it, and the software that creates the API is said to publish
it.

APIS are Important for Business

The web, software designed exchange information via the internet and
cloud computing have all combined to increase the interest in APIs in
general and services in particular. Software that was once custom-
developed for a specific purpose is now often written referencing APIs that
provide broadly useful features, reducing development time and cost and
mitigating the risk of errors.APIs have steadily improved software quality
over the last decade. The growing number of web services exposed through
APIs by cloud providers also encourages the creation of cloud-specific
applications, internet of things (IoT) efforts, and apps to support mobile
devices and users.

6.4.2 Three Basic Types of APIS

APIs take three basic forms: local, web-like and program-like.
1. Local APIs is the original form, from which the name came. They offer
OS or middleware services to application programs. Microsoft's .NET
APIs, the TAPI (Telephony API) for voice applications, and database
access APIs are the local API form examples.
Web APIs are designed to represent widely used resources like HTML
pages and are accessed using a simple HTTP protocol. Any web URL
activates a web API. Web APIs are often called REST (representational

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state transfer) or RESTful because the publisher of REST interfaces doesn't

save any data internally between requests. As such, requests from many
users can be intermingled as they would be on the internet.
Program APIs are based on remote procedure call (RPC) technology
that makes a remote program component appear local to the rest of the
software. Service-oriented architecture (SOA) APIs, such as Microsoft's
WS- series, are program APIs.

6.5 IoT / Cloud Convergence

Internet-of-Things can benefit from cloud computing infrastructures'
scalability, performance, and pay-as-you-go nature. Indeed, as IoT
applications produce large volumes of data and comprise multiple
computational components (e.g., data processing and analytics algorithms),
their integration with cloud computing infrastructures could provide them
with opportunities for cost-effective on-demand scaling. As prominent
examples consider the following settings:
A Small Medium Enterprise (SME) developing an energy management
IoT product, targeting smart homes and smart buildings. By streaming the
product's data (e.g., sensors and WSN data) into the cloud it can
accommodate its growing needs in a scalable and cost-effective fashion.
As the SMEs acquires more customers and performs more
deployments of its product, it is able A smart city can benefit from the
cloud-based deployment of its IoT systems and applications. A city is likely
to deploy many IoT applications, such as smart energy management, smart
water management, smart transport management, urban mobility of the
citizens, and more. These applications comprise multiple sensors and
devices, along with computational components. Furthermore, they are
likely to produce very large data volumes. Cloud integration enables the
city to host these data and applications cost-effectively. Furthermore, the
elasticity of the cloud can directly support expansions to these applications
and the rapid deployment of new ones without major concerns about the
provisioning of the required cloud computing resources.
A cloud computing provider offering pubic cloud services can extend
them to the IoT area, by enabling third parties to access its infrastructure to
integrate IoT data and/or computational components operating over IoT
devices. The provider can offer IoT data access and services in a pay-as-
you fashion, by enabling third parties to access resources of its
infrastructure and accordingly to charge them in a utility-based fashion.

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These motivating examples illustrate the merit and need for converging
IoT and cloud computing infrastructure. Despite these merits, this
convergence has always been challenging mainly due to the conflicting
properties of IoT and cloud infrastructures, in particular, IoT devices tend
to be location- specific, resource-constrained, expensive (in terms of
development/ deployment cost), and generally inflexible (in terms of
resource access and availability). On the other hand, cloud computing
resources are typically location-independent and inexpensive, while at the
same time providing rapid and flexibly elasticity. To alleviate these
incompatibilities, sensors and devices are virtualized before integrating
their data and services in the cloud, to enable their distribution across cloud
resources. Furthermore, service and sensor discovery functionalities are
implemented on the cloud to discover services and sensors in different
locations.
Based on these principles, IoT/cloud convergence efforts have started
over a decade, i.e. since the early days of IoT and cloud computing. Early
efforts in the research community (i.e. during 2005-2009) have focused on
streaming sensor and WSN data in a cloud infrastructure. Since 2007 we
have also witnessed the emergence of public IoT clouds, including
commercial efforts. One of the earliest efforts has been the famous
Pachube.com infrastructure (used extensively for radiation detection and
production of radiation maps during earthquakes in Japan).
Pachube.com has evolved (following several evolutions and acquisitions of
this infrastructure) to Xively.com, which is nowadays one of the most
prominent public IoT clouds.
Nevertheless, there are tens of other public IoT clouds, such as
ThingsWorx, ThingsSpeak,Sensor-Cloud,Realtime.io, etc. The list is
certainly non-exhaustive. These public IoT clouds offer commercial pay-as-
you-go access to end-users wishing to deploy IoT applications on the cloud.
Most of them come with developer-friendly tools, which enable the
development of cloud applications, thus acting like a PaaS for IoT in the
cloud. Similarly to cloud computing infrastructures, IoT/cloud
infrastructures and related services can be classified into the following
models:
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) IoT/Clouds: These services provide
access to sensors and actuators in the cloud. The associated business model
involves the IoT/Cloud provides to act either as a data or sensor provider.
IaaS services for IoT provide access control to resources as a prerequisite
for offering related pay-as-you-go services.

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Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS) IoT/Clouds: This is the most widespread

model for IoT/cloud services. It is the model provided by all public
IoT/cloud infrastructures outlined above. Most public IoT clouds come with
a range of tools and related environments for application development and
deployment in a cloud environment. The main characteristic of PaaS IoT
services is that they provide access to data, not to hardware. This is a clear
differentiator comparing to IaaS.
Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) IoT/Clouds: SaaS IoT services enable
their uses to access complete IoT-based software applications through the
cloud, on-demand, and in a pay-as-you-go fashion. As soon as sensors and
IoT devices are not visible, SaaS IoT applications resemble conventional
cloud- based SaaS applications. However, there are cases where the IoT
dimension is strong and evident, such as applications involving the
selection of sensors and the combination of data from the selected sensors
in integrated applications. Several of these applications are commonly
called Sensing-as- a-Service. They provide on-demand access to the
services of multiple sensors. SaaS IoT applications are typically built over a
PaaS infrastructure and enable utility-based business models involving IoT
software and services.
These definitions and examples provide an overview of IoT and cloud
convergence and why it is important and useful. More and more IoT
applications are integrated with the cloud to benefit from its performance,
business agility, and pay-as-you-go characteristics. In the following
chapters of the tutorial, we will present how to maximize the benefits of the
cloud for IoT, through ensuring semantic interoperability of IoT data
and services in the cloud, thus enabling advanced data analytics
applications, but also the integration of a wide range of vertical (silo) IoT
applications that are nowadays available in areas such as smart energy,
smart transport, and smart cities. We will also illustrate the benefits of
IoT/cloud integration for specific areas and segments of IoT, such as IoT-
based wearable computing.

6.6 WAMP for IoT

Web Application Messaging Protocol (WAMP) is a sub-protocol of
Websocket which provides publish-subscribe and remote procedure call
(RPC) messaging patterns.

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FIG 6.2 Web Application Messaging Protocol

WAMP
Transport: Transport is a channel that connects two peers.
Session: The session is a conversation between two peers that run over
a transport.
Client: Clients are peers that can have one or more roles. In the
publish- subscribe model client can have the following roles:
Publisher: Publisher publishes events (including payload) to the topic
maintained by the broker.
Subscriber: Subscriber subscribes to the topics and receives the events
including the payload.
In the RPC model client can have the following roles: –
Caller: Caller issues calls to the remote procedures along with call
arguments. Callee executes the procedures to which the calls are issued by
the caller and returns the results to the caller. • Router: Routers are peers
that perform generic call and event routing. In the publish-subscribe model,
the Router has the role of a Broker: – Broker: Broker acts as a router and
routes messages published to a topic to all subscribers subscribed to the
topic.
In RPC model Router has the role of a Broker: – Dealer: Dealer acts as
a router and routes RPC calls from the Caller to the
Callee and routes results from Callee to Caller.
Application Code: Application code runs on the Clients (Publisher,
Subscriber, Callee, or Caller).

6.7 Amazon Ec2 – Python Example

Boto is a Python package that provides Amazon Web Services (AWS)
interfaces. In this example, a connection to the EC2 service is first
established by calling boto.ec2.connect_to_region. The EC2 region, AWS
access key, and AWS secret key are passed to this function. After

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connecting to EC2, a new instance is launched using the conn.run_instances

function. The AMI-ID, instance type, EC2 key handle, and security group
are passed to this function.
Amazon AutoScaling – Python Example
AutoScaling Service: A connection to AutoScaling service is first
established by calling boto.ec2.autoscale.connect_to_regionfunction.
Launch Configuration: After connecting to the AutoScaling service, a
new launch configuration is created by calling conn.create_launch_con f
figuration. Launch configuration contains instructions on launching new
instances including the AMI-ID, instance type, security groups, etc.
AutoScaling Group: It is associated with a new AutoScaling group
after creating a launch configuration. AutoScaling group is created by
calling conn.create_auto_scaling_group. The AutoScaling group settings
include the maximum and a minimum number of instances, the launch
configuration, availability zones, optional load balancer to use with the
group, etc.
Amazon AutoScaling – Python Example
#Creating auto-scaling policies
scale_up_policy = ScalingPolicy(name='scale_up',
adjustment_type='ChangeInCapacity', as_name='My-Group',
scaling_adjustment=1, cooldown=180)
scale_down_policy =ScalingPolicy(name='scale_down',
adjustment_type='ChangeInCapacity',
as_name='My-Group', scaling_adjustment=-1, cooldown=180)
conn.create_scaling_policy(scale_up_policy)
conn.create_scaling_policy(scale_down_policy)

AutoScaling Policies:
AutoScaling Policies:
After creating an AutoScaling group, the scaling up and scaling down
policies are defined.
This example defines a scale-up policy with adjustment type
ChangeInCapacity and scaling_ad justment = 1.
Similarly, a scale-down policy with adjustment type ChangeInCapacity and
scaling_ad justment = -1 is defined.
CloudWatch Alarms
#Connecting to CloudWatch
cloudwatch = boto.ec2.cloudwatch.connect_to_region(REGION,
aws_access_key_id=ACCESS_KEY,

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aws_secret_access_key=SECRET_KEY)
alarm_dimensions = {"AutoScalingGroupName": 'My-Group'}
#Creating a scale-up alarm scale_up_alarm = MetricAlarm(
name='scale_up_on_cpu', namespace='AWS/EC2',
metric='CPUUtilization', statistic='Average', comparison='>',
threshold='70',
period='60', evaluation_periods=2,
alarm_actions=[scale_up_policy.policy_arn],
dimensions=alarm_dimensions) cloudwatch.create_alarm(scale_up_alarm)
#Creating a scale-down alarm scale_down_alarm =MetricAlarm(
name='scale_down_on_cpu',namespace='AWS/EC2',
metric='CPUUtilization', statistic='Average', comparison='<',threshold='40',
period='60', evaluation_periods=2,
alarm_actions=[scale_down_policy.policy_arn],
dimensions=alarm_dimensions)
cloudwatch.create_alarm(scale_down_alarm)
With the scaling policies defined, the next step is to create Amazon
CloudWatch alarms that trigger these policies.
The scale-up alarm is defined using the CPUUtilization metric with the
Average statistic and threshold greater than 70% for 60 sec. The scale-up
policy created previously is associated with this alarm. This alarm is
triggered when the average CPU utilization of the instances in the group
becomes greater than 70% for more than 60seconds.
The scaled-down alarm is defined similarly with a threshold of less
than50%.

6.8 Python for Mapreduce

#Inverted Index Mapper in Python
The example shows inverted index mapper program. The map function
reads the data from the standard input (stdin) and splits the tab-limited data
into document-ID and contents of the document. The map function emits
key-value pairs where key is each word in the document and value is the
document-ID.
Python for MapReduce
#Inverted Index Reducer in Python
#!/usr/bin/env python import sys current_word = None current_docids = []
word = None
for line in sys.stdin: # remove leading and trailing whitespace line =
line.strip() # parse the input we got from mapper.py word, doc_id =

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line.split(‘‘) if current_word
word: current_docids.append(doc_id) else: if current_word: print ‘%s%s‘
%
(current_word, current_docids) current_docids = []
current_docids.append(doc_id) current_word = word
The example shows an inverted index reducer program. The key-value
pairs emitted by the map phase are shuffled to the reducers and grouped by
the key. The reducer reads the key-value pairs grouped by the same key
from the standard input (stdin) and creates a list of document-IDs in which
the word occurs. The reducer's output contains key-value pairs where the
key is a unique word and value is the list of document-IDs in which the
word occurs.
Python Packages of Interest
JSON: JavaScript Object Notation (JSON) is easy to read and write
data- interchange format. JSON is used as an alternative to XML and it is
easy for machines to parse and generate. JSON is built on two structures - a
collection of name-value pairs (e.g. a Python dictionary) and ordered lists
of values (e.g.. a Python list).
XML: XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a data format for
structured document interchange. The Python minidom library provides
minimal Document Object Model interface implementation. It has an API
similar to that in other languages.
HTTPLib & URLLib: HTTPLib2 and URLLib2 are Python libraries
used in network/internetprogramming
SMTPLib: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is a protocol that
handles sending email and routing e-mail between mail servers. The Python
smtplib module provides an SMTP client session object that can be used to
send emails.
NumPy:NumPy is a package for scientific computing in Python.
NumPy provides support for large multi-dimensional arrays and matrices
Scikit-learn: Scikit-learn is an open-source machine learning library for
Python that implements various machine learning algorithms for
classification, clustering, regression, and dimension reduction problems.

6.9 Python Web Application Framework - Django

Django is an open-source web application framework for developing
web applications in Python. A web application framework in general is a
collection of solutions, packages, and best practices that allows the
development of web applications and dynamic websites. Django is based

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on the Model-Template-View architecture and provides a separation of the

data model from the business rules and the user interface. Django provides
a unified API to a database backend. Thus web applications built with
Django can work with different databases without any code changes. With
this flexibility in web application design combined with the powerful
capabilities of the Python language and the Python ecosystem, Django is
best suited for cloud applications. Django consists of an object-relational
mapper, a web templating system, and a regular-expression-based URL
dispatcher.
Django Architecture
Django is Model-Template-View (MTV) framework.
Model: The model acts as a definition of some stored data and handles the
interactions with the database. The data can be stored in a relational
database, non-relational database, an XML file, etc. A Django model is a
Python class that outlines the variables and methods for a particular data
type.
Template: In a typical Django web application, the template is simply
an HTML page with a few extra placeholders. Django‘s template language
can be used to create various forms of text files (XML, email, CSS,
Javascript, CSV, etc.)
View: The view ties the model to the template. The view is where you
write the code that generates the web pages. The view determines what data
is to be displayed, retrieves the data from the database, and passes the data
to the template.

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CHAPTER 7
INDUSTRIAL INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

7.1 Introduction
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), sometimes known as
Industrial IoT, is a critical component of Industry 4.0. The Industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) combines the capability of smart devices with
real-time analysis to make better use of the data that industrial equipment
has been producing for years. Smart machines are the main driver of IIoT
for two reasons. The first is that smart machines, unlike humans, can
acquire and analyse data in real time. The second benefit is that smart
machines show their results in a clear and timely way, which makes it
easier for businesses to make faster and more accurate business decisions.

FIG 7.1 IIOT

Manufacturing, logistics, oil and gas, transportation, mining, aviation,
energy, and other industries all utilise IIoT. Its major goal is to improve
operations, especially through process automation and maintenance. IIoT
capabilities improve asset performance and allow for improved
maintenance management. There are a lot of ways it helps industries
become more digital. In the long run, it moves the industry toward a
demand-driven service model that deepens customer relationships and
creates new ways to make money.

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FIG 7.2 Evolution of IIoT

7.2 Evolution of IoT
1. Industry 1.0 (1784): The invention of steam engines ushered in the first
industrial industry. The manufacturing, on the other hand, was
completely labor-intensive and exhausting.
2. In Industry 2.0 (1870), assembly line production is introduced.For the
workers, this invention was a huge relief since their labor was reduced
to the bare minimum. Conveyor belts were invented by Henry Ford,
the man who invented both mass production and the assembly line.
They were used in a vehicle manufacturing plant to speed up
production.
3. Industry 3.0 (1969): This was characterized by advances in electronic
technology and industrial robots.Industrial robots are being used to
simplify, automate, and increase production.Miniaturization of circuit
boards with programmable logic controllers The operations, on the
other hand, remained separate from the rest of the company.
4. Industry 4.0 (Industry 4.0): Industry 4.0 realized the vision of a
connected organization by connecting industrial assets via the
internet.The smart devices connect with one another and provide useful
information. Asset optimization, production integration, smart
monitoring, remote diagnosis, intelligent decision making, and, most
significantly, predictive maintenance are all advantages of IIoT.

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7.3 Advantages of Industrial IoT

The Industrial Internet of Things has a lot of benefits, some of which
are shown below:
1. Predictive as well as proactive maintenance
2. Real-Time Monitoring
3. Resource and Asset Allocation
4. Diagnosis from a distance

7.4 Drivers of IoT

❖ A primary driver for the Industrial Internet is smart sensor technology,
robotics and automation, augmented and virtual reality, big data
analytics, cloud integration, software applications, mobile, low-power
hardware devices, and IPv6-3.4X 1038 IP address scalability, among
other things.
❖ Customer Behavior: The advantage that IIoT gives enterprises over
their competitors enables them to provide value to their customers,
resulting in higher customer satisfaction and retention.
❖ Macroeconomic Drivers: Government policies such as Industry 4.0,
Smart Factories, Make in India, Make in China 2025, and Smart Cities,
Japan's Industrial Value Chain Initiative Foum, Support for Green
initiatives, Rising Energy and Crude Oil Prices, Favorable FDI
Policies, and Policies by Regulatory Bodies, among others, all work in
favour of the IIoT evolution.
Industrial Internet of Things: The Magic wand for the Economy
The never-ending development of new technologies has led to a long
list of "Next Big Things." Not every emerging technology, however, has
the potential to disrupt the business and social environment. The McKinsey
Global Institute has highlighted a number of key technologies that have the
potential to revolutionise the economy. IIoT is one of the items on the list.
According to McKinsey, the Internet of Things will have a potential
economic impact of $6.2 trillion by 2025. In addition, it has the potential to
boost productivity and save money in a $36 trillion market that includes
manufacturing, health care, and mining, as well as other things.
What are the security concerns and challenges associated with
implementing the IIoT?
Adoption of the IIoT has the potential to transform how industries run.
However, it's hard to speed up digital transformation and keep people safe
in the face of more and more connectivity.

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Industries and enterprises that deal with operational technologies

should be well-versed in issues like worker safety and product quality.
However, as OT becomes increasingly linked with the internet,
organisations are witnessing the introduction of more intelligent and
automated equipment at work, posing a bevy of new challenges that will
require a thorough grasp of the IIoT's inner workings.
Three aspects of IIoT deployment must be prioritised: availability,
scalability, and security. Because industrial operations may have been
founded or in business for a long time, availability and scalability may be
second nature to them. When it comes to integrating the IIoT into their
operations, however, many people run into problems with security. For one
reason, many businesses continue to rely on outdated systems and
processes. Many of them have been around for a long time and haven't
changed, which makes it more difficult to use new technologies.
Furthermore, the widespread use of smart devices has resulted in
security flaws and concerns about security responsibility. IIoT adopters are
responsible for securing the configuration and usage of their connected
devices by default. Device manufacturers, on the other hand, have a
responsibility to safeguard their consumers when their products are
released. Users should have their safety taken care of by the manufacturers,
who should be able to offer preventative measures or remedies if there are
security flaws.
As more severe security events emerge over time, the necessity of
cybersecurity becomes increasingly apparent. When hackers get access to
linked systems, they risk not only exposing the business to a huge data
breach, but also shutting down operations. In order to keep physical and
digital parts safe, businesses and industries that use the IIoT must plan and
work like technology companies at least some of the time.
Adopters are also faced with the difficulty of correctly integrating
industrial operations with IT, which necessitates the security of both the
connection and the information. Users' data should be treated in accordance
with existing privacy legislation, such as the General Data Protection
Regulation of the European Union (EU) (GDPR). While acquired data is
useful for creating insights for devices and infrastructures, personal
information must be separated from log data in general. Information such as
personally identifiable information (PII) should be kept in a secure
database. Businesses may be at risk if they store unencrypted data and do
other things in the cloud.

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Technology fragmentation is one of the primary problems surrounding

the IoT. As a result, the IIoT is not immune to the cohabitation of many
standards, protocols, and architectures. The use of different standards and
protocols in IIoT systems, such as Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
(MQTT) and Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), for example, may
make it difficult for IIoT systems to work together.

7.5 Risks Associated With Iot Systems

Many of the IIoT's security problems originate from a lack of
fundamental security procedures. The rise of risks is aided by security flaws
such as open ports, insufficient authentication processes, and old
applications. When you combine these factors with the network's being
directly linked to the internet, you've got yourself a recipe for disaster.
Businesses may have gotten used to the potential financial systems of
IT impact on businesses due to cybercrime or malware infestation. The
integration of IT and OT, on the other hand, adds a new major risk factor:
real-world threats that might strike even civilians.
Unsecure IIoT systems may result in operational interruption and
financial loss, among other things. There are additional security risks in
increasingly linked settings, such as:
❖ Software flaws that could be exploited to attack systems
❖ Publicly searchable Internet-connected devices and systems
❖ Malicious behavior, such as data breaches, targeted attacks, and
hacking
❖ System manipulation can disrupt operations (e.g., product recalls)
or sabotage processes (e.g., production line shutdown).
❖ A system failure may cause damage to devices and physical
facilities, as well as hurt operators and people in the area.
❖ IOT systems used for extortion, as a result of the IT environment's
penetration.
The December 2015 hack on a power grid in Ukraine is a well- known
example of an OT system being infiltrated by the IT environment. The
attacker was able to get into the IT system, which caused important systems
to go down and thousands of families to lose electricity.

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FIG 7.3 Basic Security Reference Architecture In The New It/Ot

Environment

7.6 Businesses and Industries Approach IoT Security

While increasing operational productivity is critical for IIoT systems,
security should be a priorit. With the aid of the numerous sensors and
linked devices at work, as well as real-time data, connecting OT to the
internet might make businesses more feasible. However, neglecting to
invest in cybersecurity might negate the benefits. Security by design and
embedded security techniques should be used in this case.
A security operations centre (SOC) is essential for monitoring and
fighting against the wide range of threats that impact networked settings.
This single unit enables industries and enterprises to manage the large
number of alerts they may encounter and respond quickly. SOCs are
particularly useful for facilities that need more visibility and ongoing
security posture assessments. The purpose of SOC teams is to identify
security problems or any unusual behaviour and be able to respond quickly
before a breach occurs. This approach solves the challenges that older
systems, poor system visibility, and delayed reaction times might cause.
SOCs can help businesses manage both IT and OT, so they can keep an eye
on both. Alerts will be prioritized and threats will be linked more closely
with a SOC.
Shifts in the threat environment and industrial infrastructure, on the
other hand, necessitate organisations adapting their security to new and
unforeseen threats. Given that security in an OT environment is a specialist
area, IIoT adopters might prioritise having a dedicated team to solve it.
Recruiting security specialists who can recognise all types of threats and

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respond quickly enough to mitigate the consequences of attacks should be a

key priority for industries and businesses looking to succeed in the age of
IT/OT convergence.
Industries and enterprises would be able to conduct their operations
more securely if a whole stack of protection were purposefully incorporated
into the various tiers of IIoT installations. The device, the network, and the
cloud are all security levels.
IIoT devices and applications from various manufacturers and service
providers generally make up the device layer. Adopters of the Industrial
Internet of Things should be able to understand how their manufacturers
and service providers transmit and retain data. In the case of a security
breach, manufacturers and service providers should be able to actively alert
businesses about what has to be done.
The gateway, which collects data from devices, is located in the
network area. In order to monitor and identify potential attacks,
organizations need to have next-generation intrusion prevention systems
(IPSs) in place. A control centre generally gives orders to various devices
via the gateway. The control center is the most important place where
security should be tightened up to protect against malware infections or
hacker control.
Finally, providers should have security solutions that operate server-
based protection to mitigate the risk of hackers exploiting servers and
storing data in the cloud. This reaffirms the concern that organisations
might face data protection repercussions.
So, securing IIoT systems requires linked threat defense and full
security, from the gateway to the end point, that can do things like:
❖ Ongoing detection and monitoring of malware infections
❖ A better understanding of threats, as well as the early detection of
❖ anomalies
❖ Threats and attacks against IT and OT are prevented before they
happen.
❖ Encrypted data transmission
❖ A next-generation intrusion prevention system (IPS) to guard
against attacks that take advantage of security flaws.
❖ Server and application protection in the data center and the cloud.

7.7 Applications of IoT

The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is a game-changer for any
manufacturing industry that creates physical products or handles product

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transportation. IIoT may improve operational efficiency, paving the way for
new business models to emerge. It has a wide range of applications in a
variety of industries.

Production
At the moment, the most IIoT technology is used in the production
sector. Smart machines that are connected to the internet of things (IIoT)
may self-monitor and predict potential production issues. As a result, there
is less downtime and more efficiency.

Supply Chain Management

While maintaining production levels is critical, ensuring seamless
delivery across the supply chain is equally crucial. Orders may be
automatically replenished as required using IIoT. This cuts down on waste,
keeps stock levels in check, and guarantees that the proper quantity of raw
materials is always on hand. With the automation of supply chains and
ordering, employees may be able to work on more complex tasks.

Building Management
Most concerns with building management can be solved using IIoT
technology. Sensor-driven climate control eliminates any uncertainty in
maintaining a building's interior environment by taking into account all
relevant factors such as the number of people, ventilation spots, equipment,
and so on. The IIoT makes buildings more secure by having smart devices
that look for threats at every entrance point.For a long time, healthcare has
been embracing smart devices. Healthcare experts may keep an eye on
patients from afar and be notified if their condition changes. This improves
the precision and personalization of healthcare. Artificial intelligence might
allow physicians to make more accurate and effective diagnoses, allowing
them to treat patients more successfully.

Retail
In retail, IIoT technology allows for swift marketing choices tailored to
each location. Companies may update storefronts based on consumer
preferences in certain regions, and they can better target audiences with
targeted marketing. These data-driven insights make a shop different from
its competitors.
Sensors are not a new technology; companies have been using them for
years to track cargo and monitor machinery. This is because the IIoT makes

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it easier for more people to use sensors, complete wiring networks, and big-
data analytics at the same time.
According to IDC, manufacturers spend $197 billion on IIoT each
year. It has received a total investment of $71 billion from transportation
companies alone. Companies are allocating funds for IIoT, but how they
spend these funds differs from company to company, depending on their
goals.

7.8 Work Flow of IoT

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of smart devices connected
to databases through networks. Data is monitored, collected, exchanged,
and analyzed using these devices. A typical IIoT system includes the
following components:
❖ Intelligent information gathering, equipment, and communication
devices
❖ Internet networks, whether public or private, that serve as a data
transmission system.
❖ Analytical applications that convert raw data into data insights to
improve process optimization.
❖ Tools that help decision-makers and employees better understand
data in order to improve business results.
Dataflow is critical for IIoT applications to function properly. To
facilitate dataflows, companies employ a databus to disseminate and handle
real-time data. This technology allows applications and devices to work
together as a single entity. A databus maintains data in motion while a
database keeps historical data at rest.
The Internet of Things (IIoT) improves business efficiency by
streamlining and automating processes. It promotes revenue production by
improving operating efficiency and lowering operational expenses. Product
quality is improved by higher automation levels, which, when combined
with efficient operations, aid in predictive maintenance.
The prospects of generating new income streams are substantially
higher with IIoT. Data insights may demonstrate how a well-run company
can improve productivity by resolving previously unknown inefficiencies.
Data about performance or use leads to the development of innovative
products or services. Manufacturers may, for example, work out asset-
sharing schemes with other manufacturers. This resource sharing saves
money while optimising space and manufacturing capacities. IIoT devices
may also be used to monitor and manage an HVAC system.

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The IIoT aims to increase production and quality without putting a

strain on resources. This is really beneficial to business growth.

7.9 Security Considerations and Challenges When Adopting IoT

Although IIoT adoption has the potential to change industries, it also
has the potential to introduce new security concerns. Workers' safety and
product quality are important to companies that work with operational
technologies. Even though more and more operations, automation, the
internet, and smart equipment are being used together, there are new
problems in terms of availability and security.
Because availability and scalability are crucial to operations, most
industries are well-versed in controlling them, and they can readily be
incorporated into an IIoT system. Most organisations fail when it comes to
security. Many businesses still use old systems and processes, and new
technologies may make it more difficult for them to work together and keep
their data safe.
The proliferation of smart devices, especially those used for work, has
resulted in a slew of security flaws. Any linked devices must be installed
and configured in a secure manner by organisations. However, gadget
manufacturers must demonstrate that their devices are safe, which is not
always the case.
Cyber-security concerns are on the rise. Successful hackers have the
ability to break into linked systems and shut off operations. In order to deal
with these security issues, manufacturing companies need to treat the IIoT
like any other IT company. They should focus on the security of both
physical and digital parts.
Another issue with IIoT adoption is securing the connection between
industrial operations and IT. Global privacy standards must be adhered to
when it comes to user data. Data collection is essential for a company to
provide essential insights. Personal information, on the other hand, must be
kept separate and saved in encrypted databases. Storing personal data with
business data might expose you to major security concerns.
IIoT is linked to a slew of other security problems. Exposed ports, a
lack of adequate authentication methods, or even the usage of old
applications might all be contributing factors. All of these little problems,
in addition to having an internet network, might pose a risk to companies.
IIoT systems that are not secure might result in operational interruption and
financial losses.

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The higher the security threats, the more networked an environment is:
❖ Software flaws are simple prey for hackers to attack.
Internet-connected devices and systems are searchable by the
general public.
❖ The number of hacking attempts is increasing, resulting in targeted
attacks and data loss.
❖ System manipulation or sabotage efforts cause operations to be
interrupted.
❖ System failure causes equipment damage or, even worse, bodily
harm to personnel.
❖ Extortion attempts as a result of hacked operational technologies
❖ Increased penalties for making private information public in
violation of the law.
As a result, IoT and IIoT have a lot of different types of technology,
which could lead to systems that don't work if processes aren't properly or
efficiently managed.

7.10 Companies Can Implement IoT Intelligently

Even with all of these concerns, IIoT is still the way forward for
organizations to remain relevant and competitive. Companies can take full
advantage of its benefits by using methodical research, implementation, and
maintenance.
Without a doubt, one key area of focus is cyber-security. Connecting
operational technology to the internet makes any business vulnerable. A
lack of security can undermine all IIoT’s potential, leaving a business open
to tremendous risk. Security design is needed in key areas:

A Centralized Security Operations Centre

Despite these worries, IIoT is still the way to go for organisations to
stay relevant and competitive. Methodical research, implementation, and
maintenance may help companies maximize the benefits of the system.
Without a doubt, cyber-security is a key area of concern. Any business that
connects its operational technology to the internet becomes exposed. A lack
of security may undermine all of IIoT's potential, exposing a business to
significant danger. In key areas, security design is required:

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A Security Operations Center that is Central

A security operations centre (SOC) is required for every company
interested in using the IIoT. This will allow for proactive monitoring and
defence against a wide range of threats. A centralised setup helps
businesses respond quickly to a variety of red signals. These centres are
ideal for organisations that need constant monitoring and analysis of their
security posture. The key to avoiding any breach is to anticipate security
problems. Companies may improve and update outdated systems using this
approach.
Low system visibility and sluggish reaction times may also be
addressed by a SOC. Alerts are prioritized and handled in a security
operations center, which makes the best use of IT and operational
technology.

Recruiting Security Experts to Mitigate Threats

The IT security environment, like any other technology-based industry,
is always evolving, and organizations must adapt to emerging threats.
Companies that implement IIoT must build a dedicated security team that is
always working to secure operational technology environments in order to
be prepared. This is a specialist area that needs the use of professionals.
These IT security experts can work to predict the next possible attack and
put safeguards in place to stop it, so they can keep your company safe.

Full-Stack Protection
Security must be built into all of the important parts of the IIoT.
The device: This layer comprises of IIoT devices and the
accompanying applications offered by different manufacturers and service
providers. IIoT adopters should know how manufacturers and service
providers use, transmit, and keep data. If there is a security breach,
manufacturers and service providers need to be able to quickly tell
businesses about it, so they don't lose money.
The network area has a gateway via which data is collected from
devices. Organizations need to have state-of-the-art intrusion prevention
systems (IPSs) to screen for potential assaults. The control centre houses
this gateway, which sends orders to numerous devices. To protect the
control center from malware and hackers, security measures must be put in
place.
Cloud security: Providers must have server-based protection against
hackers who try to take control of systems and data from them.

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In a nutshell, IIoT security necessitates interconnected threat defences

and end-to-end protection systems. These systems should be able to:
Keep an eye out for malware infestations at all times. Identify threats
and abnormalities as soon as possible.
❖ Shield IT and operational technologies from proactive threats and
attacks.
❖ Ensure that data is sent in a secure manner.
❖ Use a sophisticated intrusion prevention system (IPS) to guard
against security flaws.
❖ Safeguard servers and applications in the data center and cloud.
When combined with digital transformation efforts, the IIoT is
recognised for its potential to allow faster and better decision- making. By
safeguarding real-time, precise data, the IIoT helps businesses better
understand business processes. IIoT analyses data from a variety of sensors,
improving process efficiency and generating new income sources.
Companies may learn more about all parts of their supply chain, which will
help them work together and coordinate better.
Despite all of these benefits, the IIoT is still a relatively young
technology. Several IIoT-based technologies, such as 5G networks, are too
costly to be used just once. The deployment of the IIoT in its entirety will
be gradual and steady. Organizations that look for a digital future with care
and sense will be rewarded, on the other hand.

7.10 Industrial Internet of Things Use Cases

People often use the term "Internet of Things IIoT" when talking about
Internet of Things applications that aren't related to the Consumer Internet
of Things. This is despite the fact that the IIoT is often used to refer to
applications that aren't related to the Consumer Internet of Things.
As a result, it is de facto employed in industries such as agriculture,
linked logistics, finance, government (including smart cities), healthcare
(hospitals and healthcare facilities), and cross-industry IoT use cases such
as facility management. This means that there may be fewer or more IIoT
use cases depending on the perspective and industries that are known in an
Industrial Internet of Things environment.
If we widen IIoT beyond manufacturing and the like, below are a few
common IIoT application cases and business scenarios.
❖ Intelligent industrial and warehouse applications
❖ Predictive as well as remote maintenance.
❖ Freight, product, and transportation monitoring

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❖ Interconnected logistics
❖ Smart metering and smart grid
❖ Eco-friendly alternatives
❖ Smart city applications
❖ Intelligent farming and livestock monitoring.
❖ Industrial facility security systems
❖ energy consumption optimization
❖ Workplace HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning)
❖ manufacturing equipment monitoring
❖ Asset tracking and smart logistics are two of the most important
aspects of asset management.
❖ Ozone, gas, and temperature monitoring in industrial settings.
❖ monitoring of employees' safety and health conditions.
❖ Asset performance management
❖ Remote service, field service, remote maintenance, and control use
cases
❖ The Industrial Internet of Things market's size, growth, and
economic impact
The IIoT presents a massive market potential. According to
IndustryARC research (June 2016), the industrial IoT market is expected to
reach $123.89 billion by 2021.
In the picture below, you can also see Morgan Stanley's estimates,
Accenture's data on the impact of IIoT on the global economy, and
Research and Markets' forecast. Leaders in the IIoT field, including GE,
have similarly high projections. Again, it depends on how you define IIoT
and what you measure.
There was a lot of information about the size and impact of the
Industrial Internet of Things that Morgan Stanley, IndustryARC,
Accenture, and Research and Markets gave to us.
The primary challenges in implementing the Industrial Internet of
Things
Even though the Industrial Internet of Things is expected to grow,
there are still problems.
Visual Capitalist's infographic at the bottom of this page, as well as
Morgan Stanley's and other research, illustrates a few. An overview of the
IIoT challenges as seen by executives

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Size and market impact of the Industrial Internet of Things – source:

Morgan Stanley, IndustryARC, Accenture and Research and Markets.
Industrial Internet of Things adoption barriers: the major challenges
For the reasons mentioned in the infographic, industrial data is difficult
to come by (based upon IDC 2016 data). Most are also among our time's
(big) data challenges.
Consider different data source types, large data quantities (especially in
"heavy" industrial applications), varying date frequencies, and complicated
data relationships. The solution, as in the larger picture of big data "chaos,"
is intelligent data systems.

Challenges and barriers to Industrial Internet of Things adoption

Data integration challenges (and data is key in IIoT).

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According to the study, data integration is the most significant hurdle,

with 64 percent of respondents citing it as such. In the context of the IIoT,
the perennial issue of transferring data to business value becomes clear.
Future income potential, on the other hand, is found in sharing ecosystems
where data, insights, and expertise are shared.

Lack of skills (and access to skills)

Another main cause of organizations' lack of readiness for the
Industrial Internet of Things, according to the survey, is a skills shortage.
For 36% of respondents, a lack of access to the required skills and
knowledge is a problem. This lack of skills doesn't just apply to data
integration. It also applies to a lot of other skills that are needed for the
IIoT.
A shortage of qualified workers was also mentioned in the Morgan
Stanley- Automation World Industrial Automation Survey, with 24 percent
of respondents citing it. There is a general shortage of highly specialised
skills, but it may be required to seek farther "outside" to get the essential
skills. Let's assume one thing is clear in this era of digital transformation
and the Industrial Internet of Things. No organization can flourish on its
own, so networks, ecosystems, and platforms of partners are crucial.

Cybersecurity and Data Security

The main problems for executives in the Morgan Stanley and
Automation
World magazine surveys were cybersecurity and data security.
When Morgan Stanley released some of its findings in April 2016, it
stated that data security was becoming a greater concern for organisations
that rely on universal connectivity, which is true for the Internet of Things,
which in industrial applications often requires a mix of IoT connectivity
solutions depending on the use case.
There are a lot of hybrid IoT connectivity solutions for industrial
applications out there, from cellular IoT and low-power wide area networks
(LPWAN) to industrial connectivity solutions that are both fixed and
moving.
It is important to note that before the end of 2016, severe IoT security
concerns and cyberattacks, even if they were not all employing the sorts of
devices and connectivity one thinks of in an IIoT context, emerged as the
first IIoT adoption obstacle in the Morgan Stanley research. We've already
discussed these Internet of Things security concerns.

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However, the Industrial Internet of Things poses unique security

challenges, such as merging IT and OT, and the need to rethink security
architectures.
Other obstacles to IIOT adoption
A lack of standardisation is also a concern, according to the Morgan
Stanley survey, and there is more.
Survey: The top five problems with adopting the IIoT are
cybersecurity, lack of standardization, lack of experience, and high upfront
costs.
As seen in the diagram below, data integrity came in sixth place (23
percent). Several of these challenges have been noted by others and seem to
be universal.
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) adoption: the driving benefits
According to Morgan Stanley research, the following are the main
reasons why the Industrial Internet of Things is becoming more popular:
❖ Improving operational efficiency.
❖ Improving efficiency.
❖ Launching new business ventures
❖ Minimizing downtime
❖ Making the most of your assets
More drivers in the report.

5
steps to start and optimize IIoT projects – based upon Dell IIoT
presentation Based on a Dell IIoT presentation, here are five steps to get
started and optimise IIoT initiatives.

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Create Partnerships
As previously mentioned, partnerships between OT and IT are crucial.
However, business decision-makers must be engaged as well. IDC says that
for every digital transformation project, you should build partnerships and
work with people who aren't obvious.
Determine the business consequences and return on investment.
This may seem self-clear, but as almost every IoT expert will tell you,
the business benefits aren't always evident.
For IIoT initiatives, as for others, unclear business benefits are just
fatal. An IIoT project begins with the discovery of an idea, a need, or an
opportunity. However, the business case must be clear.

Begin with a Modest Project.

This is frequently the de facto approach in Internet of Things and
Industrial
IoT initiatives.
It's best to start with pilots and grow slowly over time. You should start
small and fail, then try again and try again. You should also know how to
grow quickly if you have the right ecosystem in place.
First and foremost, there is security.
Security is just as essential as business objectives and partnerships with
key stakeholders and others.
Keep an eye on the IoT providers you work with and consider security
from beginning to finish. There are several components involved, ranging
from connectivity to linked devices and applications. Security through
design, as well as inherent security, is essential. And, like with every
revolutionary initiative, start with security.
Analytics Architect
Big data, and what you do with it, is everything: insight, action, and
automation.
It's all about turning data into insights, actions, and automation in your
Industrial Internet of Things project, and the necessity to employ analytics
to do so, even if you already have data.
Real-life examples or cases of the Industrial Internet of Things
As previously mentioned, there are several IoT application cases. Some
are industry-specific, while others are cross-industry.
Numerous actual Internet of Things implementation examples
demonstrate the real-world benefits, ranging from streamlining
manufacturing operations to predictive and remote maintenance. Case

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studies are excellent for helping you see the benefits without relying on too
much theory.
Manufacturing: ABB Robotics' IIoT-connected services offering
Thanks to the Industrial Internet of Things, ABB Robotics was able to
increase productivity, improve customer service, and create a new linked
services approach.
ABB Robotics, a branch of the automation giant ABB, creates
industrial robots for its customers. Because of the Internet of Things, the
company was able to go from fixing problems with robots after the fact to
being able to fix them remotely and completely change the company's
service offerings in this technologically dense environment.
Engineers may analyze difficulties without having to travel to the
client by creating a linked ecosystem of the industrial robots that the
company has deployed for them, often at difficult-to-reach customers. In an
environment where uptime is critical, this results in actual benefits for
customers. The Internet of Things (and the platforms that exploit the data
and insights gained from it) opened new opportunities for ABB Robotics to
build new services and online applications that allow monitoring, asset
optimization, and more.

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CHAPTER 8
IOT APPLICATIONS & CASE STUDIES

8.1 IoT Applications

The IoT has a wide range of applications, but today we'll look at the
top 11 IoT applications and their purposes. So, let's have a look at each one
separately:
The smart home When we think about IoT systems, the most essential
and efficient application that stands the test of time is Smart Home, which
consistently ranks as the most popular IoT application across all channels.
Every month, the number of people looking for smart homes climbs by
roughly 60,000 people.
Another intriguing fact is that 256 organizations and startups are
represented in the smart home database for IoT Analytics. Smart homes are
currently being aggressively pursued by more firms than related IoT
applications.
Smart Home firms have received more than $2.5 billion in financing,
and the amount is increasing all the time. The list of startups includes well-
known startup names like AlertMe or Nest, as well as global firms like
Philips, Haier, and Belkin, among others.

FIG 8.1 internet of things applications – smart home

Wearable

Wearables, like smart houses, are a popular subject among potential

IOT applications. Every year, Apple's smartwatch is eagerly anticipated by
consumers all around the world.
Other wearable devices that make our lives easier are the Sony
Smart B Trainer, LookSee bracelet, and Myo gesture control.

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FIG 8.2 internet of Things Applications – Wearable

Smart City
The smart city, as the name implies, is a huge invention. It can be used
for a wide range of things, like water distribution, traffic management,
waste management, environmental monitoring, and city security.
It is so popular because it aims to alleviate the pain and problems that
city people face. IoT solutions in the Smart City area assist in tackling a
variety of city-related problems such as traffic congestion, decreasing air
and noise pollution, and making cities safer.

FIG 8.3 IoT Applications – Smart City

Another application area that stands out is smart grids. A smart grid
allows for the automatic collection of information on the behavior of users
and electrical providers.

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FIG 8.4 Uses Of IoT – Smart Grid Industrial Internet

Connecting machinery and devices in sectors like power production,
oil and gas, and healthcare is one way to conceive of the Industrial Internet.
It's also employed in circumstances when unforeseen downtime or system
breakdowns might result in people's lives being in danger.
Devices such as fitness bands for heart monitoring or smart home
appliances are examples of IoT-enabled systems. These systems are
functional and may provide ease of use, yet they are reliable since they
seldom cause crises if there is an outage.

Connected Car

FIG 8.5 IoT Applications – Connected Car

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Connected automobile technology is a huge and broad network of

many sensors, antennas, integrated software, and technologies that assist
with communication in our complicated environment. It is in charge of
making judgments that are consistent, accurate, and timely.
It must also be reliable. When humans hand over complete control of
the steering wheel and brakes to the autonomous or automated cars that are
now being tested on our roadways, these needs will become even more
crucial.
Connected Health (Digital Health/Telehealth/Telemedicine)
From remote monitoring equipment to advanced and smart sensors to
equipment integration, the Internet of Things offers a wide range of
healthcare applications. It has the potential to improve how doctors provide
care while also keeping patients safe and well.
Patients may be able to spend more time communicating with their
physicians thanks to the Internet of Things in healthcare. It has the potential
to increase patient happiness and involvement.
From personal fitness sensors to surgical robots, IoT in healthcare
delivers new tools updated with the newest technology in the ecosystem
that helps in producing better healthcare.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is helping to improve healthcare by giving
patients and healthcare professionals cost-effective ways to get things done.

FIG 8.6 Internet of Things Applications

– Connected Health
Smart Retail
Retailers have begun to use IoT solutions and embedded systems in a
variety of applications to improve shop operations. These include raising
sales, minimizing theft, improving inventory management, and improving
the shopping experience for customers.
Physical stores can compete more effectively against internet
adversaries thanks to the Internet of Things. They may regain lost market
share by attracting consumers inside the shop, making them spend more
while saving money.

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FIG 8.7 Uses of Iot – Smart Retail

i. Smart Supply Chain

For a couple of years, supply networks have been growing smarter.
Some of the most popular services are ones that help people solve problems
like how to keep track of things while they are on the road or in transit, and
how to help suppliers share inventory information.
Factory equipment with integrated sensors exchanges data about
various characteristics, such as pressure, temperature, and machine usage,
with an IoT-enabled system. In order to get the best out of the IoT system,
it may look at how things work and change the settings on things.

FIG 8.8 Uses of Iot – Smart Supply Chain

j. Smart Farming
Smart farming is an IoT application that is often ignored. However,
since agricultural operations are often distant and farmers deal with a huge
number of cattle, the Internet of Things can monitor all of this and alter the
way farmers operate.
However, this concept has yet to get widespread notice. It is,
nevertheless, one of the IoT applications that should not be overlooked.

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Smart farming could become a big business, especially in countries that

export agricultural goods.

Fig 8.9 Internet of Things Applications – Smart Farming

8.2 IoT Consumer Applications

Customers gain from the IoT's information analysis and optimization.
The technology of things functions as a team of advisers, helpers, and
security. Consumer Internet of Things applications range from basic and
low-cost devices such as personal health monitors to high- quality smart
home automation systems.
As a result, there are a lot of different IoT use cases, devices, and
packages out there for people to choose from.

a. Home security and smart domestic

Domestic safety is one of the most important areas where the internet
of things is becoming an increasingly important intrusion. Unauthorized
entries may now be monitored and stopped before things get out of hand.
One of the smart domestic's concerns is home security.We see linked
devices becoming more popular in family home equipment, for example.
Other smart home packages include room management devices and
recreational structures.
These applications range in price from low-cost to high-cost smart
home automation solutions.
The Internet of Things (IoT) tracks the location of a whole team of
workers.

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❖ Butler IoT anticipates your arrival and ensures that your home is
fully prepared.Its visual displays bring together your assets,
family, and the kingdom of your own home. It takes action to
resolve any problems that arise.
❖ Chef – An IoT kitchen may prepare meals for you or assist you in
preparing them.
❖ In the event of an emergency, Nanny IoT can act as a mother or
father by regulating access, providing supplies, and notifying the
appropriate people.
❖ Gardner A farm's IoT infrastructure may be used for home
landscaping as well.
❖ Repairman Smart systems both perform routine maintenance and
repairs and make requests for them.
❖ The IoT security shield monitors you 24 hours a day, seven days a
week.It may detect suspicious people from a long distance and
predict the potential of young equipment problems.

b. Personal healthcare, healthcare carriers, and healthcare payers

Personal healthcare, healthcare carriers, and healthcare payers are all
included in this category.
Another area where the consumer net of factors has a big impact is
private health care.
IoT-powered blood pressure and heart rate bracelets connect us to the
medical equipment right away, so we can get help right away if something
isn't working right.
In the world of sports, monitoring the vital symptoms of athletes via
training and the use of personal wearables is becoming more prevalent.
There are also other uses in the healthcare industry for things like
patient monitoring, fall detection, and so on.

c. Wearable technology
Wearables are often used for personal healthcare, but they're also
gaining popularity for applications other than smartwatches and health
monitors.
Wearables, for example, are used to keep factory workers safe. This
means they are part of the commercial web of things.
The majority of wearables, on the other hand, are consumer
electronics. The market is on the lookout for smart wearables that are less
reliant on cellphone technology.

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d. Asset Tracking – Tracking your Valuable Assets

Consumer IoT is well-known for anything from smart smartphone
tracking to GPS pet monitoring and tracking any item you choose. Puppy
monitoring is becoming more popular as a way to provide pet owners with
total peace of mind.
They could keep an eye on their dogs' movements. This is possible
with asset monitoring solutions, which enable you to listen to anything. IoT
coverage is also available across greater distances for low-energy wide-area
networks.

e. Workplace
Have fun with it.
For my part, the IoT learns just as much about you as it does
professionally. This enables the next generation to direct their delight.
❖ Entertainment and nightlifeIoT can look at what you do and how
you react in the real world to help you find more things and places
you like, like suggesting restaurants and events based on your
preferences and past events.
❖ ## Holidays For some, making plans and budgeting for vacations
is tough, and many firms that use IoT can be replaced.
❖ Goods and servicesDue to its deeper access, IoT provides a more
accurate assessment of the products you desire and need than
existing analytics. It uses data from important areas of your life,
such as your money, to make answers.
❖ IIoT (Industrial Internet of Things) Applications
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is a fast-rising market that
accounts for the majority of worldwide IoT investment.
Industrialists and manufacturers in practically every industry have a
fantastic chance to not only monitor but also to act. However, many
complicated manufacturing processes may be automated.
Sensors and systems have been used to measure development in
businesses and facilities for a long time. IoT, on the other hand, goes a step
farther and adds complexity to even the tiniest problems.
Let's have a look at some of the IoT's applications in manufacturing
and industrial operations.

8.3 IoT Applications in Agriculture

The Internet of Things (IoT) has the potential to transform the ways we
live in the world; we have more-efficient industries, more connected cars,
and smarter cities, all these as components of an integrated IoT system.

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The ever-growing global population would touch around 8.6 billion by

2050. So, to feed this immense population, the agriculture industry needs to
embrace IoT.
The demand for more food has to meet overcoming challenges such as,
rising climate change, extreme weather conditions and environmental
impact that results from intensive farming practices.
Smart farming through the use of IoT technologies will help farmers to
reduce generated wastes and enhance productivity. That can come from the
quantity of fertilizer that has been utilized to the number of journeys the
farm vehicles have made.
So, smart farming is a hi-tech system of growing clean and sustainable
food for the masses. It is the induction and the application of modern ICT
(Information and Communication Technologies) into agriculture.
At below, we discussed some important IoT Applications in
Agriculture, let’s
discuss them one by one:

a. Precision Farming
Precision farming is a process or a practice that makes the farming
procedure more accurate and controlled for raising livestock and growing
crops. In this approach, the use of IT and items like sensors, autonomous
vehicles, automated hardware, control systems, robotics, etc in this
approach are key components.
Precision agriculture in the recent years has become one of the most
famous applications of IoT in agricultural sector and a vast number of
organizations have started using this technique around the world.
The products and services offered by IoT systems include soil moisture
probes, VRI optimization, virtual optimizer PRO, etc.
VRI (Variable Rate Irrigation) optimization is a process that
maximizes the profitability on irrigated crop fields with soil variability,
thereby improving yields and increasing water use efficiency.

b. Agriculture Drones
Agricultural drones are a very good example of IoT applications in
Agriculture. Today, agriculture industries have become one of the major
industries that drones can incorporate.
Two types of drones, that is, ground-based and aerial-based drones are
being incorporated in agriculture in many ways such as, for crop health
assessment, irrigation, planting, and soil & field analysis.

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The benefits that the usage of drones brings to the table include, ease
of use, time-saving, crop health imaging, integrated GIS mapping, and the
ability to increase yields.
The drone technology will give a high-tech makeover to the agriculture
industry by using strategy and planning based on real- time data collection
and processing.
The farmers through drones can enter the details of what field they
want to survey. Select an altitude or ground resolution from which they
what fields' data.
From the data collected by the drone, useful insights can be drawn on
various factors such as plant counting and yield prediction, plant health
indices, plant height measurement, canopy cover mapping, nitrogen content
in wheat, drainage mapping, and so on.
The drone collects data and images that are thermal, multispectral and
visual during the flight and then lands at the same location it took off
initially.

c. Livestock Monitoring
IoT applications help farmers collect data regarding the location, well-
being, and health of their cattle. This information helps them in identifying
the condition of their livestock.
Such as, finding sick animals so that they can separate from the herd,
preventing the spread of the disease to the entire cattle. The feasibility of
ranchers locating their cattle with the help of IoT-based sensors helps bring
down labor costs by a substantial amount.
One example of an IoT system used by a company is JMB North
America. Which is an organization that provides cow monitoring solutions
to cattle producers? One of the many solutions provided is to help the cattle
owners observe their cows that are pregnant and about to give birth.
From them, a battery that is sensor powered is expelled when its water
breaks. An information is then sent to the herd manager or the rancher. The
sensor thus enables farmers will more focus.

d. Smart Greenhouses
Greenhouse farming is a technique that enhances the yield of crops,
vegetables, fruits etc. Greenhouses control environmental parameters in two
ways; either through manual intervention or a proportional control
mechanism.

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However, since manual intervention has disadvantages such as

production loss, energy loss, and labor cost, these methods are less
effective. A smart greenhouse through IoT embedded systems not only
monitors intelligently but also controls the climate. Thereby eliminating
any need for human intervention.
Different sensors that measure the environmental parameters according
to the plant requirement are used for controlling the environment in a smart
greenhouse. Then, a cloud server create for remotely accessing the system
when it connects using IoT.
Inside the greenhouse, the cloud server helps in processing data and
applies a control action. This design provides optimal and cost- effective
solutions to the farmers with minimal and almost no manual intervention.
One example of this is Illuminum Greenhouses, an Agri-Tech
greenhouse organization that uses technologies and IoT to provide services.
It builds modern and affordable greenhouses by using IoT sensors that are
solar powered.
The greenhouse state and water consumption can supervise with these
sensors through sending SMS alerts to the farmer with an online portal.
The sensors in the IoT system in the greenhouse provide information
on temperature, pressure, humidity, light levels.

8.4 Iot Applications in Media, Marketing, and Advertising

The IoT gadget that is in use in media, marketing, and advertising
consists of a custom designed enjoyment wherein the device analyzes and
responds to the desires and pursuits of each client.
This includes their famous conduct styles, shopping for conduct,
choices, tradition, and

a. IoT Applications in Media & leisure

A leisure layout and manufacturing firm uses sensors in turnstiles of
venues to recognize the foot traffic of people at activities.
Their IoT utility visualizes the attendee site visitors patterns in real
time to help sponsors understand the great locations to market it and ensure
the attendee remember stays inside the fire code compliance of the venue.

b. IoT Applications in Marketing

The conventional sample-based content intake metrics is most effective
display who watches a program, when and – optimistically!
– how. Sensor facts accumulated through wearable devices can also help

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content cloth companies and digital marketers determine how many human
beings noticed the identical advert on a couple of structures and how many
impressions precipitated conversions.
27% of agencies that leverage IoT-driven records for advertising
purposes record a regular revenue increase.

c. IoT Applications in Advertising

IoT’s abilities are comparably and more deeply to contemporary
generation, analytics, and big facts. Gift technology collects particular
information to supply associated metrics and styles over time, however, that
information regularly lacks depth and accuracy.
IoT improves this through looking greater behaviors and reading them
otherwise.
This leads to more facts an element, which could provide extra reliable
metrics and styles. It lets businesses examine and respond to consumer
goals or opportunities.
It improves business productiveness and strategy, and improves the
client enjoyment through handiest turning in applicable content material
and answers.

d. Advanced Advertising
Modern advertising and marketing is poorly concentrated on. No
matter modern day analytics, contemporary-day advertising fails. IoT
guarantees exceptional and personalized advertising and marketing in
preference to one-size-fits-all strategies.
It transforms marketing from noise to a realistic part of life because of
the truth purchasers engage with advertising and marketing through IoT in
preference to in reality receiving it.
This makes advertising and marketing extra realistic and beneficial to
humans searching the market for answers or questioning if those solutions
exist.

8.5 Application of Iot in Education

One of the most innovative features of today's universities and
classrooms is that the Internet of Things enhances education by bringing
modern technology to the physical environment and systems. An intelligent
institution offers facilities that are simple to use and allow for a greater
level of personal interaction.

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The wi-fi network is used by the smart devices on campus to send facts
and receive orders. A computational internet of things device can be used
by teachers and learning facilities to make better lesson plans, keep track of
important resources, improve admission records, make campuses safer, and
more.
These are some key areas in which the Internet of Things may be used
in education.

a. Transforming Poster Boards into IoT-Enabled Boards

It's impossible to make a comparison between earlier presentation
boards and today's multimedia poster boards. Glogster and other internet-
based tools have altered this ease. It makes it easy for us to make digital
posters that include photos, music, video, text, and links.
This enables us to share them electronically with others while also
revealing the scholar's activities without difficulty. These virtual posters
may then be sent to students and instructors, accessible through the poster's
URL address, and posted on elegant blogs.

b. Knowledge Acquisition Through Interaction

Nowadays, learning is not limited to a combination of words and
images, but extends much beyond that. The majority of textbooks are
accompanied by web-based websites that provide additional materials,
videos, examinations, animations, and other materials to aid in learning.
This provides students with a wider perspective, allowing them to
analyze new things with greater knowledge and interact with instructors
and their peers. Educational experts bring real-world problems into the
classroom and allow students to discover answers.

C. Learning can Take Place at any Time and from any Location.
The Internet of Things (IoT) plays a vital role in the construction of a
network using unique internet-based solutions. Academics may use
advanced technology to show how their scholars have progressed. Edmodo
is a fantastic tool for trainer-pupil communication.
Edmodo enables newcomers to have access to information from any
place. Using the Internet of Things, students and teachers can connect in
new ways. For example, they can keep an eye on messages and upcoming
events while they're not in the classroom, or even respond to social media
posts.

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It's a powerful program that ensures a secure network and total privacy.
It also enables you to preserve your individual ideas and class assignments
without fear of losing secrecy.
Extraordinary safety features
IoT's application in education is critical, since applying advanced
technology solutions in classrooms and training areas may be quite
beneficial. It features emergency indications, audio augmentation, wi-fi
clocks, and hearing-impaired warnings, all of which provide a sense of
security to the scholars and workers.
It may also help to mitigate the destruction and save lives that can
occur in the aftermath of a catastrophe. Colleges and educational
institutions are using particular security measures to help calm down their
campuses.
Special emergency tones, live bulletins, a couple of bell schedules, and
pre-recorded instructional messages may all be used with the IoT-enabled
communications system to lead a group of workers and students in an
emergency.

Chalkboards Say Goodbye

In recent years, students have been using a highly sophisticated
platform that incorporates smart boards. With the use of online displays and
videos, it allows instructors to explain the lectures more thoroughly.
Students are vocal in their support for interactive gaming as a viable
medium.
Web-based tools and programs may help scholars learn more
effectively than paper-based or chalkboard-based methods. Because of
clever generation, instructors and students can access the internet, edit
videos, and exchange homework.

Monitoring System for Attendance

A reliable faculty attendance system ensures the safety of a learning
institution. It may help universities and educational institutions in a variety
of ways. It enables academics to rapidly enter essential records into the
device.
This might assist the agency in cutting down on the time it takes to
publish attendance facts and enable school authorities to deliver a message
to the parents through email.
It may also be used to keep track of how many times a student has
spoken to the doctor and to conduct a test on the student's clinical desires

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and the medication they will be taking. It also gives students the option of
verifying their daily meal.

8.6 Government Applications

The Internet of Things (IoT) aids in the development of smart
international locations and smart cities. This includes improvements to
previously mentioned infrastructure (e.g., healthcare, electricity,
transportation, etc.), security, and community engineering and maintenance.

Government Applications in IoT

IoT helps the improvement of clever international locations and clever
cities. This includes enhancement of infrastructure previously discussed
(e.g. healthcare, power, transportation, etc.), protection, and the engineering
and keeping up of communities.

a. National Defense
Threats to a country's national security vary in severity and complexity.
IoT enhances and supports militia systems and services, as well as provides
the technology required to control the national defense landscape.
It helps to increase border security by providing more affordable, high-
performance devices that are both controllable and outstanding.
IoT automates the safety obligations that are often distributed across
various departments and people. This is accomplished while improving
accuracy and speed.

FIG 8.11 Government Applications In Iot –

Future Scope of Internet of Things
b. Smart Cities
Smart towns are authorities that use the time of the internet to modify
physical buildings and services in ways that benefit residents and
businesses while also increasing area efficiency.

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It's more than just process automation; it also connects diverse

structures and networks to acquire and analyse facts. These facts are then
used to describe whole systems and effect change.
While the notion of smart cities has been around for a long time, it has
taken on new importance as more people flock to city facilities.
Sustainability is becoming more and more important.
To some degree, technology has progressed. Real-time and meaningful
contact between communities, residents, and government agencies is
possible.

FIG 8.12 Government Applications In Iot –

Future Scope of Internet of Thing
City Control and PlanningGovernments and engineers may utilise the
Internet of Things to analyse the very complicated factors that go into city
planning and control. The Internet of Things makes this easier by looking at
a variety of factors such as population growth, zoning, mapping, water
distribution, transportation patterns, food delivery, social offers, and land
usage.
Having the ability to "live" with people in a metropolis allows it to get
more valuable and accurate data than other analytics.
The IoT helps cities by incorporating key services and infrastructure,
such as transportation and healthcare, into the management realm. It also
helps with important things like water management, waste management,
and emergency management.

d. Creating Jobs
This is one of the most Important government applications in IoT. IoT
offers thorough economic evaluation. It makes previous blind spots seen
and helps better monetary tracking and modeling. It analyzes the industry
and the market to spot possibilities for increase and obstacles.

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e. Building an Ecosystem for Water Safety

IoT era can resolve the complicated challenges surrounding water
security, allowing governments to better define priorities for water supply,
consumer call for, and governance.
Like other problems driven using multiple and various factors,
improving results for water management will require contributions from a
surrounding of companions, many of whom are not even privy to the role
they play in water conservation.

FIG 8.13 Benefits of Iot In Government Sector –

Future Scope of Internet of Things

E. Creating a Water Safety Ecosystem

The Internet of Things era may help governments better figure out
what to do about water supply, consumer demand, and governance. This
could help governments figure out what to do about water supply,
consumer demand, and governance.
Improving water management results, like other problems that involve
many different factors, would require help from a lot of people, many of
whom don't know they play a role in water conservation.

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FIG 8.14 internet of things government applications –

Future scope of iot
8.7 IoT Energy Applications
The benefits of IoT in other sectors apply to energy usage as well. The
Internet of Things (IoT) can be used to monitor and control a wide range of
things that use energy, like businesses and homes, as well as devices and
the energy supply.
IoT optimization is based on a deep study that most organisations and
people do not have access to.

a. Dependability
The IoT system ensures system dependability by providing actionable
data and analytics. In addition to efficient utilisation, the IoT prevents a
system from being throttled or overwhelmed.
By paying attention to system performance and stability issues, the
system is protected from things like broken equipment, down time, and
injuries.

B. Industrial Power
Small firms' high energy organizations, which result in increased
energy waste, may have a significant influence on enterprises. Smaller
organisations deliver products with lower profit margins. They struggle to
keep company expenditures in check while working with limited cash and
technology.
Larger organisations are in charge of monitoring a vast, complicated
ecology of energy consumption with few effective and easy energy
management solutions.

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The IoT streamlines the process of energy monitoring and management

while maintaining a low cost and high degree of precision. Every aspect of
a company's usage across devices is carefully considered.
Through the IoT system's depth of analysis and control, organizations
are given a powerful tool for controlling their consumption through cost
savings and output optimization.
IoT systems deal with energy issues in the same way that problems in a
complicated corporate network are dealt with and solutions are found.
Energy Applications of the Internet of Things: Commercial Energy

C. Domestic Energy
The growing technology of energy is a result of technological
advancements. Consumers are always looking for strategies to control or
minimise their consumption. IoT has a wide range of ways to look at and
improve use across the whole home system as well as at the level of each
individual device.
This could be as simple as dimming the lights, turning them off, or
changing different home settings or gadget settings to use less energy.
IoT also has the capability of detecting problematic consumption
patterns that are caused by problems like defective appliances, ageing
appliances, or faulty system components. Environmental Monitoring using
the Internet of Things We'll go through four key IoT environmental
monitoring applications that are good for the environment.

8.7 IoT Environmental Monitoring

Vehicle Tracking:
Things-on-the-internet IoT Environmental Monitoring – Vehicle
Tracking
The vehicle tracking facility makes use of road sensors and clever
display technologies to assist vehicles in locating the best parking spots in
the city.
There are several advantages to using this service. The less time it
takes a vehicle to find a parking spot, the less CO2 it emits, the fewer
traffic issues it causes, and the happier its residents are. The vehicle parking
facility may be immediately integrated into the IoT infrastructure.
Furthermore, as previously discussed, we can understand the electronic
confirmation system of parking and locate slots reserved for residents or
disabled people by using communication technologies such as Near Field
Communication (NFC) or Radio Frequency Identifiers (RFID), thus

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providing a better service to residents who can use those slots and as an
efficient tool to spot any violations quickly.
Things-on-the-internet IoT Environmental Monitoring – Vehicle
Tracking
Manual labour, complex instrumentation, and lab processing
procedures are mostly used in the present monitoring technology for air and
water safety. The use of IoT systems reduces the requirement for physical
labour.
As a result, more frequent sampling is allowed, broadening the range
of monitoring and sampling, enabling comprehensive on-site testing and
reacting to detecting systems. In this way, there is less risk that more water
bodies and other natural resources will become polluted and that there will
be more natural disasters, too.c. Severe Weather
Deep monitoring is possible because of today's powerful, modern
weather forecasting technologies. They do, however, suffer from the use of
widespread equipment like radar and satellites. These small- scale gadgets
lack the precision targeting capabilities of smart technology.
Benefits of IoT Environmental Monitoring-Extreme Weather
Now, thanks to recent IoT advancements, the IoT system can get more
detailed data, be more flexible, and be more accurate now, too.
Weather forecasting processes that are effective need a high level of
detail and flexibility in terms of equipment kind, range, and deployment. As
a result, early interventions are possible, preventing the loss of life and
property.

8.8 Transportation and the Internet of Things (IoT)

At each stage of transportation, the Internet of Things allows for
improved verbal conversation and information sharing. This comprises
personal automobiles, commercial automobiles, railways, unmanned aerial
applications, and other devices.
Let’s discuss more IoT – Internet of Things in detail

a. Vehicle
Most automotive firms have begun to imagine a future for automobiles
in which IoT makes vehicles "smart," providing enticing options similar to
MRT, yet IoT provides few significant advantages to private automobiles.
Better control over connected infrastructure and the inherent
weaknesses in vehicle transportation provide the greatest advantages. On
the other hand, IoT improves private motors in non- public areas. IoT

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allows for the same upgrades and customizations in a car as it does in a

home.
IoT in Transportation: Car Applications IoT Transportation
Applications – Car Avenue b.
Congestion control, accident reduction, and parking are the three top
traffic problems. Using the Internet of Things (IoT), we can better track and
measure the flow of visitors through devices in every traffic comment
section.
If you have trouble parking, this helps by making the storage glide
more visible. Current systems don't give you very many or no statistics.
Accidents are caused by a variety of circumstances, but visitor
management has an influence on how often they result. Production sites,
bad rerouting and not knowing where traffic is good or bad are all factors
that lead to an accident.
Improved data exchange with the general public and between different
events that have an impact on road users is one way IoT can help.
Avenue of Transportation IoT Applications
Public Transportation and Rails Modern buildings provide advanced
integration and overall performance, but they deliver MRT to a bygone
period and practice. This leads to better results when it comes to managing
things like general performance, maintenance, and new features.

Transportation IoT Applications-Rail

Mass transportation options outside of the preferred MRT may not
have the right combination to turn them from a choice to a long- term
provider.
The IoT provides a low-cost, high-tech way to improve overall
performance and transfer MRT characteristics to other modes of
transportation, such as buses.
Increasing service and offer delivery in areas like scheduling, shipping
time optimization, reliability and responding to customer requests is a result
of this.

D. Industrial Transportation
The benefits of managing the transportation arm of enterprises extend
to commercial enterprises and manufacturing.
Analytical tools make it easier to control and monitor things like idling
and fuel use, as well as idling and travel time. This lowers and eliminates
problems caused by poor fleet control.

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As a result, transportation of goods works more like a single company

than a group of separate services.

8.8 IoT Applications in Healthcare

A. Conduct research
Current medical research does not have access to vital real-world data.
For medical examinations, it usually employs leftovers, controlled
conditions, and volunteers. Through analysis, real-time field data, and
testing, the Internet of Things opens doors to a sea of valuable data and
information.
By deploying equipment capable of undertaking future research, IoT
may deliver considerably better data than typical analytics.
As a result, IoT aids healthcare by giving more practical and
trustworthy data, resulting in improved solutions and the identification of
previously undisclosed concerns; research is therefore one of the most
significant IoT applications in healthcare.
Healthcare Applications of the Internet of Things (IoT) – Research

B. Devices
Even if existing devices are advancing in terms of power, precision,
and availability, they still fall short of the advantages and attributes
provided by an IoT system. The Internet of Things has the potential to
unlock current technologies and lead to improved healthcare and medical
device solutions.
By developing a system rather than merely tools, the Internet of Things
seeks to bridge the gap between how we deliver healthcare and the
equipment. It then looks for weaknesses, trends, and missing aspects in
healthcare, and makes recommendations for changes.
Benefits of IoT in Healthcare – Devices
Benefits of the Internet of Things in Healthcare – Devices Benefits of
the Internet of Things in Healthcare – Devices C. Take care
The Internet of Things allows healthcare practitioners to better use
their expertise and training to address issues. It enables them to make
greater use of data and equipment, allowing them to take more accurate and
quick actions.
IoT empowers healthcare professionals to advance their careers by
allowing them to put their skills to use rather than wasting time on
administrative activities.
Applications of the Internet of Things in Healthcare - Care

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D. Dissemination of Medical Information

The dissemination of correct and updated information to patients
remains one of the most problematic aspects of medical care, and this is a
most notable innovation of IoT applications in healthcare.
Individuals' everyday life, as well as facilities and professional
practise, are improved by IoT devices.
IoT solutions enable invasive care at the workplace, home, or social
environment, removing healthcare from facilities such as hospitals.
Individuals are empowered and enabled to take care of their health, and
healthcare practitioners are able to give better care to patients.
As a result, fewer accidents caused by misunderstanding have
occurred, patient satisfaction has improved, and preventative care has
improved. Applications of the Internet of Things in Healthcare - Medical
Information Distribution

E. Immediate Care
Limited resources and disconnections from the base facility have
traditionally plagued emergency response services. IoT's sophisticated
automation and analytics address this issue in the healthcare industry.
An emergency may be assessed from a long way away, even
kilometres distant. Providers have access to patient profiles well in advance
of their arrival. They have the ability to provide critical care to patients on
schedule. Associated losses are decreased as a result, and emergency health
care is improved.
The Internet of applications in Healthcare - Emergency Care
Applications of the Internet of Things in Law Enforcement Regulation
enforcement in an area that plays a significant role in securing people and
ensuring that they are protected is one way to enhance human life. Because
criminal charges are on the rise all across the world, policing is vital.
Law enforcement agencies are using technology to make that its staff
are up to date on technology in order to better do their responsibilities as
part of their mission to reduce crime rates.
It's no surprise that bundles of IoT in law enforcement are being sought
to improve the government's present reputation.
The Internet of Things (IoT), a dynamic age that has delivered
significant improvements in a variety of sectors, is now altering the realm
of law enforcement. Here are several IoT applications in law enforcement
that might help people and authorities boost law enforcement's cutting-edge
reputation.

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8.9 IoTLaw Enforcement Applications

A. Single traffic sensors for reduced congestion
Smart site visitor signals are becoming fashionable in a number of
countries throughout the world. They've shown to be effective in decreasing
injuries and better managing site visitors. According to a research, the loss
of parking places is responsible for 30% of all accidents.
This congestion not only results delays in people getting to their
destinations, but it also causes fuel waste.
With the Internet of Things, traffic signs become sophisticated
indicators that may assist people and criminal authorities in a variety of
ways, such as warning authorities about congestion in a certain area and
what preventative actions are necessary.
Parking problems are reduced thanks to sophisticated sensors. Those
devices no longer need batteries that must be replaced after a few months
and may operate for many years on the energy they already have. These
sensors may also alert clients to any open parking spaces.

B. Law Enforcement wearables

Smart wearables are now regarded the most up-to-date innovations
among humans. With the increased use of smart devices, law enforcement
authorities understood how important they are in monitoring crimes and
reducing their frequency.
A government may immediately communicate with its server rooms
thanks to the availability of smartwatches. A pedometer, a cardiac charge
sensor, and other equipment are included in the smartwatches to determine
whether an officer has gotten enough sleep and maintained stress levels.

c. Surveillance Vehicles that aren't Armed

There are times when physically reaching an area is difficult because
the area may pose a threat to government officials' lives.
IoT becomes effective in combating such situations and gaining more
monitoring. Authorities may use drones to reach a faraway location without
having to be personally there.
When mounted with different types of cameras, drones may hover over
a certain area that needs to be monitored and act as an extra pair of eyes.
The use of cameras makes it easier for authorities to monitor criminals and
assures that their region's crime cost is reduced.
Aside from cameras, drones are equipped with a variety of sensors that
aid law enforcement authorities in their monitoring efforts.

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Applications of the Internet of Things in Law Enforcement Regulation

enforcement agencies must intentionally seek out ways to train their people
to understand and use new technology as part of their mission to make
things safe and productive.

d. The Judicial System

Traditional generation and assets are used in today's courtrooms. With
the exception of minimal legal responsibilities, they seldom use modern
analytics or automation.
Advanced analytics, improved evidence, and streamlined procedures
are brought to judicial systems by IoT, which enhance tactics, eliminate
inefficient processes, control corruption, save costs, and increase pride.
This might result to a more effective and trustworthy mechanism
within the criminal justice system. It adds automation comparable to that of
typical authorities office solutions in traditional court products; for
example, IoT may automate the formation of an LLC.
Internet of Things Security – IoT Law Enforcement Applications
IoT combined with new legislation has the potential to remove or
decrease the need for attorneys in many typical criminal duties. This lowers
expenses and expedites numerous processes, which might take months to
complete because to the complexity of criminal procedures and documents.

e. Surveillance
It's not always easy to enforce the law. Through greater information,
data sharing, and superior automation, the Internet of Things serves as a
regulatory enforcement instrument that helps people expend less effort and
make better judgments.
IoT technologies save costs by reducing human labour in certain
regions while also reducing positive traffic offences.
IoT contributes in the development of better solutions to challenges via
the use of generation in the pressure area.
A far-flung statement, documented film of infractions, and digital
ticketing, for example, may be replaced by moderate in-person or women
examinations of suspicious activities. It also decreases corruption by
removing human control and opinion in the case of a few minor infractions.

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Acronyms
HVAC Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
MWSN Mobile Wireless Sensor Network
WSN Wireless Sensor Network
IoT Internet of Things
IoE Internet of Everything AWS
Amazon Web Services
MitM Man in the Middle (attack)
MEMSMicro Electro Mechanical Systems
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
FCC Federal Communications Commision
M2M Machine to Machine
IP Internet Protocol
IPv6 Internet Protocol version 6
BPME Business Process Management Everywhere
EIoT Enterprise Internet of Things
A2DP Advanced Audio Distribution Profile
ACL Asynchronous Connection-Less
ASB Active Slave Broadcast
ATT ATTribute protocol
AVCTP Audio/Video Control Transport Protocol
AVDTP Audio/Video Distribution Transport Protocol
AVRCP Audio/Video Remote Control Profile
BLE/LE Bluetooth Low Energy / Low Engery
(Both terms are used to alternately)
Bluetooth SIG Bluetooth Special Interest Group
BNEP Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol BR/EDR Basic
Rate / Enhanced Data Rate
DUN Dial-Up Networking
GATT Generic ATTribute profile
HCI Host Controller Interface
HCRP Hard Copy Replacement Profile
HFP Hands-Free Profile
HID Human Interface Device
HOGP HID over GATT Profile
IPSP Internet Protocol Support Profile L2CAPLogical Link
Control and Adaptation Protocol LC Link Control (protocol)
LELL Low Energy Link Layer
LL Link Layer

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LMP Link Management Protocol LMP

Link Manager Protocol OBEX
Object exchange
OPP Object Push Profile
PANU Personal Area Network User
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol PSB Parked Slave Broadcast
RFCOMM Radio frequency communication RTLS Real
Time Location System
SCO Synchronous Connection-Oriented
SDP Service Discovery Protocol
SPP Serial Port Profile
TCS Telephony Control Protocol Specification
UUID Universally Unique Identifier

References
1. Internet of Things - A Hands-on Approach, Arshdeep Bahga and
Vijay Madisetti, Universities Press, 2015, ISBN: 9788173719547
2. Getting Started with Raspberry Pi, Matt Richardson & Shawn
Wallace, O'Reilly (SPD), 2014,ISBN: 9789350239759
Vijay Madisetti, Arshdeep Bahga, Internet of Things: A Hands-On
3. Approach
4. Waltenegus Dargie,Christian Poellabauer, “Fundamentals of
Wireless Sensor Networks: Theory and Practice”
5. Beginning Sensor networks with Arduino and Raspberry Pi –
Charles Bell, Apress, 2013

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