UNIT IV

SQL
SYLLABUS o SQL (pronounced as “ess-cue-ell”), commonly
 SQL Concepts: expanded as Structured Query Language, is a
o Basics of SQL, DDL, DML, DCL, computer language designed for the retrieval
o Tables and management of data in relational database
 Create management system, database schema creation
 Modify and modification.
 Delete table structures, o The most popular relational database
 Rename and Drop tables management systems today are Oracle,
o Defining constraints – MySQL, Microsoft SQL server, Postgre SQL
 Primary key and IBM DB2.
 foreign key o The SQL commands can be divided into three
 unique main sublanguages:
 not null  Data Definition Language
 check  Data Manipulation Language
o IN operator  Data Control Language
 Select Command
 Logical Operators o Data Definition Language:
 Functions  The SQL DDL provides commands for
o aggregate functions defining relation schemas, deleting relations,
o Built-in functions and modifying relations schemas.
 Numeric  DDL or Data Definition Language actually
 Date consists of the SQL commands that can be
 string functions used to define the database schema.
 set operations  These commands will primarily be used by
 sub-queries database administrators during the setup and
o correlated sub-queries removal phases of a database project.
 Use of group by, having, order by,  Examples of DDL commands:
 join and its types
 CREATE – is used to create the database
 Exist, Any, All.
or its objects (like table, index, function,
 View - Creation, Renaming the column of a
views, store procedure and triggers).
view, destroys view.
 DROP – is used to delete objects from
the database.
 ALTER-is used to alter the structure of
the database.
 TRUNCATE–is used to remove all
records from a table, including all spaces
allocated for the records are removed

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  The CREATE statement
o Data Manipulation language(DML): o The CREATE statement in SQL creates an
 The Data manipulation Language is used to objects inside of a RDBMS.
retrieve, insert and modify database o CREATE statement can be used to make a new
information. database, table, or stored query.
 These commands will be used by all o There are two CREATE statements available in
database users during the routine operation SQL:
of the database  CREATE DATABASE
o Examples of DML commands  CREATE TABLE
 SELECT – is used to retrieve data from the
o CREATE DATABASE
database.
 The CREATE DATABASE statement is
 INSERT – is used to add rows to an
used to create a new database in SQL.
existing table.
 Syntax
 UPDATE – is used to modify the values of
a set of existing table rows.
 DELETE – is used to delete records from a
database table.
o Data Control Language
 DCL handles the authorization aspects of
 Example
data and permits the user to control who has
access to see or manipulate data within the
database.
o CREATE TABLE
 Its two main keywords are:
 The CREATE TABLE statement is used to
 GRANT authorizes one or more users to
create a table in SQL. We know that a table
perform an operation or a set of comprises of rows and columns. So while
operations on an object. creating tables we have to provide all the
 REVOKE removes or restricts the information to SQL about the names of the
capability of a user to perform an columns, type of data to be stored in columns,
operation or a set of operations. size of the data etc.
 Syntax:

 Example:

create table s4bca(

no int,
name varchar(10),
age int);

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  INSERT INTO
 DROP o The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used
o The DROP DATABASE statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the
to drop an existing SQL database. database.
 Syntax o It is possible to write the INSERT INTO
statement in two ways
Syntax:
 Example

o The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used Or

to remove a table definition and all the data,
indexes, triggers, constraints and permission
specifications for that table.
 Syntax:
We do not need to specify the column
names in the SQL query. However, make
 Example sure the order of the values is in the same
DROP TABLE s4bca order as the columns in the table.
 TRUNCATE
o The TRUNCATE TABLE statement is used o Example
to delete the data inside a table, but not the
table itself.
 Syntax
OR

 Example
TRUNCATE TABLE s4bca;
OR

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 o To drop a column from the table.
 ALTER  ALTER command can also be used to drop or
o ALTER command is used for altering the table remove columns.
structure, such as,  Syntax:
 to add a column to existing table
 to rename any existing column ALTER TABLE table_name
 to change datatype of any column or to DROP COLUMN col_name;
modify its size.
 to drop a column from the table.  Example
o To add to add a column to existing table
ALTER TABLE s4bca
 Using ALTER command we can add a DROP COLUMN mark;
column to any existing table.
 Syntax:

 UPDATE
o The UPDATE statement is used to modify
 Example: the existing records in a table.
o Syntax

o to rename any existing column

 Using ALTER command you can rename o Example
an existing column.
 Syntax

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME

COLUMN old_col_name TO new_col_name

 Example
 DELETE
ALTER TABLE s4bca o The DELETE statement is used to delete
RENAME COLUMN no TO id; existing records in a table.
o Syntax

o To change datatype of any column or to modify

its size.
 ALTER command can also be used to
modify data type of any existing column. o Example
 Syntax

 Example

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 SQL CONSTRAINTS
o Constraints are the rules enforced on the data
columns of a table. These are used to limit the  PRIMARY KEY: A primary key is a field
which can uniquely identify each row in a
type of data that can go into a table.
table. And this constraint is used to specify a
o Following are some of the most commonly field in a table as primary key.
used constraints available in SQL.
o Syntax: Example

 FOREIGN KEY: A Foreign key is a field

o The available constraints in SQL are: which can uniquely identify each row in a
another table. And this constraint is used to
 NOT NULL: This constraint tells that we specify a field as Foreign key.
cannot store a null value in a column. That is,
if a column is specified as NOT NULL then
we will not be able to store null in this
particular column any more.

Example:

 CHECK: This constraint helps to validate the

values of a column to meet a particular
condition. That is, it helps to ensure that the
value stored in a column meets a specific
condition.

 UNIQUE: This constraint when specified

with a column, tells that all the values in the
column must be unique. That is, the values in
any row of a column must not be repeated.

Example

 DEFAULT: This constraint specifies a

default value for the column when no value is
specified by the user.

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 SELECT COMMAND LOGICAL OPERATORS
o There are three Logical Operators namely,
o The SELECT statement is used to retrieve data  AND
from a database.  OR
o Syntax  NOT.
o These operators compare two conditions at a
time to determine whether a row can be
selected for the output.
o When retrieving data using a SELECT
statement, you can use logical operators in the
 The select clause is used to list the WHERE clause, which allows you to combine
attributes desired in the result of a query. more than one condition.
 The from clause is a list of the relations o OR
(tables) to be accessed in the evaluation of  It is used to select rows that satisfy at least
the query. one of the given conditions.
 The SQL WHERE clause is used to
specify a condition while fetching the data
from a single table or by joining with
multiple tables. If the given condition is
satisfied, then only it returns a specific
value from the table.
 <attribute list> is a list of attribute names
whose values are to be retrieved by the
query.
 <table list> is a list of the relation names
required to process the query.
 <condition> is a conditional (Boolean)
expression that identifies the tuples to be
retrieved by the query.
o The WHERE clause can use the comparison
operators such as =, !=, <, >, <=,and >=, as o AND
well as the BETWEEN and LIKE operators.  It is used to select rows that must satisfy all
o Example: the given conditions.
 Example

o NOT
 It is used to find rows that do not satisfy a
condition.
 NOT results in the reverse of a condition.
That is, if a condition is satisfied, then the
row is not returned.

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 IN OPERATOR AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
o IN operator allows us to easily test if the
expression matches any value in the list of o An aggregate function allows you to perform a
values. calculation on a set of values to return a single
o It is used to remove the need of multiple OR scalar value.
condition in SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE or
o DELETE. o The following are the most commonly used
o You can also use NOT IN to exclude the rows SQL aggregate functions:
in your list.  AVG –
o Syntax  calculates the average of a set of values.
 Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
o Example
 COUNT
 counts rows in a specified table or view.
 Syntax

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
or WHERE condition;

 MIN
 gets the minimum value in a set of
values.
 Syntax

o SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

 MAX
 gets the maximum value in a set of
values.
 Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

 SUM
 calculates the sum of values.
 Syntax

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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 NUMERIC FUNCTONS SET OPERATIONS
o Set operators are used to join the results of two
(or more) SELECT statements.
o the SET operators available in Oracle 11g are
 UNION
 UNION ALL
 INTERSECT
 MINUS
o UNION
 UNION is used to combine the results of
two or more SELECT statements.
 However it will eliminate duplicate rows
from its resultset.
 In case of union, number of columns and
datatype must be same in both the tables,
on which UNION operation is being
applied.
 EXAMPLE

DATE FUNCTIONS

o UNION ALL
 This operation is similar to Union. But it also
shows the duplicate rows.
 Example

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 o INTERSECT STRING FUNCTIONS
 Intersect operation is used to combine two o SQL string functions are used primarily for
SELECT statements, but it only retuns the string manipulation.
records which are common from both
o The following are the important string
SELECT statements.
 In case of Intersect the number of columns functions
and datatype must be same  ASCII():
 Example  This function is used to find the ASCII
value of a character.
 Syntax: SELECT ascii('t');
 Output: 116
 LENGTH():
 This function is used to find the length of
a word.
o MINUS  Syntax: LENGTH('GeeksForGeeks');
 The Minus operation combines results of  Output: 13
two SELECT statements and return only
those in the final result, which belongs to  STRCMP():
the first set of the result.  This function is used to compare 2
 Example strings.
 If string1 and string2 are the same, the
STRCMP function will return 0.
 If string1 is smaller than string2, the
STRCMP function will return -1.
 If string1 is larger than string2, the
STRCMP function will return 1.
 Syntax: SELECT
STRCMP('google.com',
'geeksforgeeks.com');
 Output: -1

 UCASE():
 This function is used to make the string in
upper case.
 Syntax:
UCASE ("GeeksForGeeks");
 Output:
GEEKSFORGEEKS
 LCASE():
 This function is used to convert the given
string into lower case.
 Syntax:
LCASE ("GeeksFor Geeks To Learn");
 Output:
geeksforgeeks to learn
 INSTR():
 This function is used to find the
occurrence of an alphabet.
 Syntax:
INSTR('geeks for geeks', 'e');
 Output:
2 (the first occurrence of „e‟)

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 LENGTH(): SUBQUERY
 This function is used to find the length of o A MySQL subquery is a query nested within
a word. another query.
 Syntax: o Subqueries can be used with the SELECT,
LENGTH('GeeksForGeeks'); INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements
 Output: 13 along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=,
IN, BETWEEN, etc.
 REPEAT(): o There are a few rules that subqueries must
 This function is used to write the given follow:
string again and again till the number of  Subqueries must be enclosed within
times mentioned. parentheses.
 Syntax:  A subquery can have only one column in
SELECT REPEAT('geeks', 2); the SELECT clause, unless multiple
 Output: columns are in the main query for the
geeksgeeks
subquery to compare its selected columns.
 Subqueries that return more than one row
can only be used with multiple value
 REVERSE(): operators such as the IN operator.
 This function is used to reverse a string.
 Syntax:
SELECT REVERSE('geeksforgeeks.org');
 Output:
„gro.skeegrofskeeg‟

o Example:

select name from st where depid in( select

depid from dep where depname=’cs’ or
depname=’bca’;

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 Correlated Subquery ORDER BY
o A correlated subquery is a subquery that o The ORDER BY statement in sql is used to sort
contains a reference to a table (in the parent the fetched data in either ascending or
descending according to one or more columns.
query) that also appears in the outer query.
o By default ORDER BY sorts the data in
o Correlated subqueries are used for row-by- ascending order.
row processing. Each subquery is executed o We can use the keyword DESC to sort the data
once for every row of the outer query. in descending order and the keyword ASC to
o A correlated subquery is one way of reading sort in ascending order.
every row in a table and comparing values o Syntax
in each row against related data. It is used
whenever a subquery must return a different
result or set of results for each candidate
row considered by the main query. o Example
o You can also use the ANY and ALL
operator in a correlated subquery.
 Difference between nested Subquery and
Correlated Subquery
o With a normal nested subquery, the inner
SELECT query runs first and executes
once, returning values to be used by the
main query. A correlated subquery,
however, executes once for each candidate
row considered by the outer query. In other
words, the inner query is driven by the outer
query.

GROUP BY
o The GROUP BY Statement in SQL is used to
arrange identical data into groups with the help
of some functions. i.e if a particular column has
same values in different rows then it will
arrange these rows in a group.
o Syntax:

o Example

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 HAVING CLAUSE EXIST
o The HAVING Clause enables you to specify o The EXISTS operator is used to test for the
conditions that filter which group results existence of any record in a subquery.
appear in the results. o EXISTS returns true if the subquery returns
one or more records.
o The WHERE clause places conditions on the
o EXISTS is commonly used with correlated
selected columns, whereas the HAVING clause subqueries.
o places conditions on groups created by the o Syntax:
GROUP BY clause.
o The HAVING clause was added to SQL
because the WHERE keyword could not be
used with aggregate functions.
o Syntax:

o Example

cus
o Example

ord

select name from cus

where exists(select * from ord
where cus.cusid=ord.cusid);

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 ANY / ALL  Any

o ANY and ALL keywords are used with a SELECT * FROM employee WHERE Age >
WHERE or HAVING clause. ANY( SELECT Age FROM employee
o ANY and ALL operate on subqueries that WHERE Salary > 5000)
return multiple values.
o ANY returns true if any of the subquery values
meet the condition.
o ALL returns true if all of the subquery values
meet the condition.
o Syntax
Any
The sub-query returns 23, 27 i.e, These are the
ages for which salary is greater than 5000.
Then main query is compared with this, if any
of the ages in table is greater than any of the
values of sub-query(i.e the ages in table
should be either greater than 23 or 27) . Now
it returns (A, 25, 2000) (B, 33, 4000) (D, 27,
6000) (E, 24, 4150).
All
 All
SELECT * FROM employee WHERE Age >
ALL( SELECT Age FROM employee
WHERE Salary > 5000)

The sub-query returns 23, 27 i.e, These are

o Example: the ages for which salary is greater than 5000.
Then main query is compared with this, if
any of the ages in table is greater than all
of the values of sub-query(i.e the ages in
table should be greater than both 23 and
27) . Now it returns(B, 33, 4000) .

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 JOIN OPERATIONS AND ITS TYPES o Equi Join
o Join is a combination of a Cartesian product  It is a Theta join using the equality
followed by selection process. operators.
o It is used to combine related tuples from two
o Natural join
relations into single tuple.
 It is an equi join on attribute that has same
o It is denoted by ⋈ name in each relation.
o Join operation can be divided into two:
 Inner join
 Theta Join
 Equi Join
o Outer Join
 Natural Join  The results will contain all tuple from one or
 Outer join both the relations.
 Left outer join  Notice that much of the data is lost when
 Right outer join applying a join to two relation. In some
 Full outer join cases this lost data might hold useful
information. An outer join retains the
o Inner Join
information that would have been lost from
 Outcomes of the results contain only the the tables, replacing missing data with nulls.
matching tuple.  Outer join can be categorized into three
 Inner join can be categorized into three:  Left outer join
 Theta Join  Right outer join
 Equi Join  Full outer join
 Natural Join o Left outer join
 Keep data from left hand side table.
o Theta Join
 Denoted by ⟕
 Theta join combines tuples from different o Right outer join
relations provided, they satisfy theta  Keep data from right hand side table
condition.  Denoted by ⟖
 Theta join can use all kinds of comparison o Full outer join
operators.  Keep data from both tables
 Denoted by ⟗

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 JOIN AND ITS TYPES 2. LEFT JOIN
o The SQL Joins clause is used to combine  It return all records from the left table, and
records from two or more tables in a database. the matched records from the right table.
o A JOIN is a means for combining fields from 
two tables by using values common to each.
o There are different types of joins available in
SQL:

 Example

3. RIGHT JOIN
 It return all records from the right table, and
the matched records from the left table.


 Example

1. INNER JOIN
 It returns rows when there is a match in both
tables.


4. FULL JOIN
 It return all records when there is a match in
either left or right table.


 Example

 Example

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 VIEW
o Views in SQL are kind of virtual tables.
o A view also has rows and columns as they are
in a real table in the database.
o We can create a view by selecting fields from
one or more tables present in the database.
o A View can either have all the rows of a table
or specific rows based on certain condition.
 CREATION
o SYNTAX

o Example
create view emp as
select name,age
from employee
where salary >5000;

 DROP A VIEW
o Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name

o Example
DROP VIEW emp

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