LAB EXPERIMENT NO.

01

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Objectives:
 To study about safety precautions

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
 Safety is of paramount importance in the Electrical Engineering Laboratories.
 Electricity never excuses careless persons. So, exercise enough care and attention in
handling electrical equipment and follow safety practices in the laboratory. (Electricity is
a good servant but a bad master).
 Avoid direct contact with any voltage source and power line voltage. (Otherwise, and
such contact may subject you to electrical shock).
 Wear rubber-soled shoes. (To insulate you from earth so that even if you accidentally
contact a live point, current will not flow through your body to earth and hence you will
be protected from electrical shock.
 Wear laboratory-coat and avoid loose clothing. (Loose clothing may get caught on an
equipment/instrument and this may lead to an accident particularly if the equipment
happens to be a rotating machine).
 Do not wear any metallic rings, bangles, bracelets, wristwatches and neck chains. (When
you move your hand/body, such conducting items may create a short circuit or may touch
a live point and thereby subject you to electrical shock).
 Be certain that your hands are dry and that you are not standing on wet floor. (Wet parts
of the body reduce the contact resistance thereby increasing the severity of the shock).
 Ensure that the power is OFF before you start connecting up the circuit. (Otherwise you
will be touching the live parts in the circuit)
 Get you circuit diagram approved by the staff member and connect up the circuit strictly
as per the approved circuit diagram.
 Check power chords for any sign of damage and be certain the chords use safety plugs
and do not defeat the safety feature of these plugs by using ungrounded plugs.
 When using connection leads, check for any insulation damage in the leads and avoid
such defective leads.
 Do not defeat any Safety devices such as fuse or circuit breaker by shorting across it.
Safety devices protect you and your equipment
 Switch on the power to your circuit and equipment only after getting them checked up
and approved by the staff member.
 Take the measurement with one hand in your pocket. (To avoid shock in case you
accidentally touch two points at different potentials with your two hands)
 Do not make any change in the connection without the approval of the staff member.
 In case you notice any abnormal condition in your circuit (like insulation heating up,
resistor heating up etc. Switch off the power to your circuit immediately and inform the
staff member.
 Keep hot soldering iron in the holder when not in use.
 After completing the experiment show your readings to the staff member and switch off
the power to your circuit after getting approval from the staff member.

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Review questions:

1. What precautions should be taken in lab while performing practical in applied electronics
lab?
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2. What is the importance of safety?

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3. Write any two important safety precautions of equipment.

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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 02

EQUIPMENTS AND ITS SAFETY

Objectives:
 To observe the behavior of equipment and their safety.

Discussion:
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An oscilloscope, often abbreviated as "scope," is a widely used electronic test instrument that
allows you to visualize and analyze electrical signals in the time domain. It provides a graphical
representation of voltage changes over time, which is displayed on a screen as a waveform.
Engineers, technicians, and scientists use oscilloscopes for various applications, including
troubleshooting, testing, and debugging electronic circuits and systems.

Here are some key features and components of an oscilloscope:

 Display Screen: The primary component of an oscilloscope is its display screen, which
shows the waveform being measured. Modern oscilloscopes typically use LCD or LED
screens for high-resolution displays.
 Input Channels: Oscilloscopes come with one or more input channels, each equipped
with a probe. Each channel allows you to connect the oscilloscope to a specific point in a
circuit to measure voltage.
 Time base Control: The time base control allows you to adjust the horizontal scale of the
display, determining how much time is represented horizontally across the screen. This
setting is typically in units like seconds per division (s/div) or milliseconds per division
(ms/div).
 Probes: Probes are connected to the input channels and are used to make contact with the
circuit under test. They usually consist of a cable, connector, and a tip that attaches to the
circuit.
 Trigger Modes: Oscilloscopes offer various trigger modes, such as edge trigger, pulse
trigger, video trigger, and more, to help you capture specific waveform events.
 Oscilloscopes are essential tool used for diagnosing and characterizing electronic signals,
including waveforms from analog circuits, digital logic etc.

Fig 2.1 Oscilloscope

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FUNCTION GENERATOR:
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Function generator is an electronic test instrument used in various applications to generate
precise and controllable electrical waveforms. It produces a range of periodic signals, including
sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and more complex waveforms like arbitrary
waveforms. Function generators are widely used in electronics, telecommunications, research,
and education for various purposes, such as testing and troubleshooting circuits, simulating
signal sources, and conducting experiments, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Here are some key features and capabilities of a typical function generator:

1. Waveform Generation: Function generators can produce different types of waveforms,

including:
 Sine Wave: A smooth, continuous waveform that mimics the behavior of AC
power sources.
 Square Wave: A waveform with sharp transitions between high and low
voltage levels, commonly used for testing digital circuits.
 Triangle Wave: A waveform with linearly increasing and decreasing voltage
levels.
 Arbitrary Waveform: Some advanced function generators allow you to create
custom waveforms with specific shapes, amplitudes, and frequencies.
2. Frequency Control: Function generators typically allow you to set the frequency of the
generated waveform. You can adjust the frequency over a wide range, from very low
frequencies (e.g., Hz) to high frequencies (e.g., MHz or even GHz, depending on the
model).
3. Amplitude Control: You can adjust the amplitude (voltage level) of the generated
waveform. Some function generators provide options for setting peak-to-peak amplitude,
RMS amplitude, or offset voltage.
4. Synchronization: Function generators can be synchronized with other test equipment or
instruments, ensuring that generated waveforms align with other signals or
measurements.
5. Output Impedance and Protection: Function generators usually have selectable output
impedance.

Fig 2.2 Function Generator

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 Precautions for safety:
_______________________________________________________________
 Do not use in high temperature and high pressure, humidity, strong vibration and strong
magnetic fields and storage.
 Please use in relatively stable environment, and provide good ventilation and cooling
conditions when the fuse blows, please correct the causes of failure.
 Ensure proper grounding.
 Read the warning labels and specifications.
 Ensure proper instrument cooling (air flow).

Review questions:
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1. Why oscilloscope is used?

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2. Why function generator is used?

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3. Write any two important safety precautions of function generator.

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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 03

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTER (LDR)

Objective:
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 To analyze the response of light dependent resistor (LDR).

Equipment’s and materials required:
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 Breadboard
 LDR (light dependent resistor)
 Lux meter
 Multimeter
 LED
 BATTERY (5V)
Discussion:
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An LDR, or Light Dependent Resistor, is a type of electronic component that changes its
resistance in response to changes in light levels. It is also known as a photoresistor. When
exposed to light, the resistance of an LDR decreases, and when it is in the dark, its resistance
increases, LDRs are commonly used in various applications like light sensors, dusk-to-dawn
switches and in photography for controlling exposure settings. These are fundamental component
in many electronic circuits that need to react to changes in ambient light.

Circuit diagram:

Fig:3.1 Light Dependent Resistor

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Connection Diagram:
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 Connect the positive terminal of LED with first terminal of LDR.
 The negative terminal of LED and second terminal of LDR is connected in positive and
negative terminal of the battery.

Fig:3.2 Connection diagram

Measurement:

 Turn on the power supply.

 Connect the multimeter across the LDR to measure the resistance of LDR on intensity of
light.
 Place a LUX meter to measure the intensity of light.
 Observe the brightness of LED and measure the resistance on multimeter, and intensity of
light on LUX meter.
 Cover the LDR with your hand or an object to reduce incoming light in fig 3.3
 Observe changes in brightness of LED and measure the resistance on multimeter, and
intensity of light on LUX meter in fig:3.3

7
 Fig:3.3 Measurement diagram

Table 3.1.

Sr no. Light intensity in Lux Resistance (KΩ)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Draw a response curve between light intensity and resistance on graph paper:

Review Questions:

1. What is light dependent resistor?

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2. What is working principle of light dependent resistor?

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3. What is the relationship between light intensity and the resistance of LDR?
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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 04

INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

Objectives:

 To investigate and understand the Amplification and Resistor impact.

 The phase shift introduced by an inverting amplifier
 The corresponding voltage gain.

Equipment’s and materials required:

______________________________________________________________________________
 Function Generator
 Oscilloscope
 Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) IC (e.g., LM741)
 De Lorenzo [DL3155E19]
 Connecting wires
 Power supply

Discussion:
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An inverting amplifier is a fundamental electronic circuit used to amplify an input voltage while
inverting its polarity. It is often designed using operational amplifiers (op-amps) and is widely
used in various electronic applications. In this detailed explanation. It will provide the working
principle of an inverting amplifier, along with references for further study.
Circuit diagram:
____________________________________________________________________________

Fig 4.1 Operational Amplifier

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Experimental Results:

Table 4.1:

Frequency (Hz) Input Voltage Output Voltage Voltage Gain Phase Shift
(Vin) (V out) (Av)
100 5.0 V
500 5.0 V
1k 5.0 V
5k 5.0 V
10k 5.0 V

Review questions:

1. What is inverting operational amplifier?

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2. In an inverting amplifier, where is the input voltage applied?
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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 05

NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Objectives:

 To investigate phase relationship and voltage gain.

 To observe the impact of changing resistance on amplification/gain.
 To observe the impact of changing frequency on saturation of signal.

Equipment’s and materials required:

 DL3155AL2
 Function generator
 Oscilloscope
 Source
 Connecting probes

Discussion:
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Non-inverting amplifier produces an output signal that is in phase with the input signal. The
circuit designed for a non-inverting amplifier consists of a basic op-amp where the input is
connected to a non-inverting terminal. The output obtained from this circuit is a non-inverted
one. This is again feedback towards input but to the inverting terminal via a resistor. An
amplifier’s non-inverting input refers to the pin configuration. The non-inverting input is the
terminal marked with a plus (+) sign, and the inverting input is marked with a minus (-) sign.
These can also be referred to as positive and negative terminals.

Circuit diagram:
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. Draw The circuit diagram for non-inverting amplifier is presented in Figure 5.1

Fig 5.1: Schematic diagram of non-Inverting Amplifier

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Circuit diagram

The connection diagram of non-inverting amplifier is presented in figure 5.2

Fig 5.2 Connection Diagram

NON- INVERTING O.A

Ri [W] Rf [W] U0 [V] A measured A calculated
R2 R4
R2 R3
R1 R4
R1 R3

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Review questions:

1. What is non inverting amplifier?

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2. Write few applications of non-inverting amplifier?

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3. Why negative terminal is connected with ground in non-inverting amplifier?

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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO: 06
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Objectives:
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 To analysis voltage follower or buffer
 To learn about the construction and working of voltage follower
 To learn about the measuring instruments

Equipment’s and materials required:

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 DL3155AL2
 Function generator
 Oscilloscope
 Operational amplifier circuit
 Connecting wires

Discussion:
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A voltage follower also known as a buffer amplifier. It is an operational amplifier circuit
whose output voltage always equal to the input voltage hence a voltage follower operational
amplifier does not amplify the input signal and has a voltage gain of 1. A voltage follower is a
circuit, where in the magnitude and the phase of signal remains the same.

Circuit diagram:
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The schematic diagram for voltage follower circuit is shown in figure 6.1

Fig:6.1 Voltage follower

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Connection diagram:
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The circuit diagram for voltage follower is presented in figure 6.2.

Fig 6.2: Connection diagram

Experiment Result:

Review questions:

1. What is the importance of voltage follower?

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2. Write applications of follower circuits
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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 07

OP-AMP OPERATING AS A DIFFERENTIATOR MODE

Objectives:
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 To demonstrate the working of op-amp as differentiator.
 Understand the role of capacitor in differentiator circuit.
 Understand the difference between integrator and differentiator.

Equipment’s and materials required:

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 Base frame with power supply and interface to pc.
 TIME electronic board Model DL 3155M16.
 Multimeter.
 Function Generator.
 Oscilloscope.
 Connecting Cables and wires

Discussion:

An ideal differentiator is shown in Figure 7.1. The placement of the capacitor and resistor
differs from the integrator. The capacitor is the input element, and the resistor is the feedback
element. A differentiator produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input
voltage. Since the current at the inverting input is negligible, IR = IC. Both currents are constant
because the slope of the capacitor voltage (VC/t) is constant. The output voltage is also constant
and equal to the voltage across Rf because one side of the feedback resistor is always 0 V (virtual
ground).

Circuit diagram:
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The schematic diagram of op amp as differentiator is presented in Figure 7.1.

Fig. 7.1 Differentiator Configuration

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Procedure:
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 Connect the TIME module DL 3155M16 with power supply module DL 3155AL2.
 Connect the output of function generator to terminal labeled G.
 Supply the signal generator and adjust the output with a square wave signal of l V peak-
to-peak – l KHz
 Now connect the Ch1 and Ch2 of oscilloscope according to the figure 10.3
 Power up the supply module, function generator and oscilloscope. Set output of function
generator to 50 HZ Sinusoidal.

Draw the graph

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Review questions:

1. How lower cutoff frequency is obtained?

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2. When sine wave is inserted at input of differentiator what is the output obtained?
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Conclusion:
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 LAB EXPERIMENT NO. 08

OP-AMP OPERATING AS INTEGRATOR

Objectives:
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 To analyze how op amp works.
 Give different types of waves and the role of capacitor.

Equipment’s and materials required:

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 Multisim simulator (for virtual analysis)
 Multi-meter
 Function generator
 Oscilloscope
 Op amp OR IC 741 as (in place of op-amp)

Theory:
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The operational amplifier integrator is an electronic integration circuit. Based on the
operational amplifier (op-amp), it performs the mathematical operation of integration with
respect to time; that is, its output voltage is proportional to the input voltage integrated over time.
t
−1
Vout (t)= ∫ Vin ( t ) dt +V initial
R .C 0

Discussion:
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Op-amp can be configured as an integrator using a simple circuit configuration. An
integrator produces an output voltage that is proportional to the integral of the input voltage over
time. In mathematical terms if the input voltage is V in(t) , the output voltage is Vout(t) of the op-
amp is given by
t
−1
Vout (t)= ∫ Vin ( t ) dt +V initial
R .C 0

Where: R is the resister connected in series with the input of op-amp.

C is the capacitor connected between input and the output terminals of the op-amp.
V-initial is the initial voltage across the capacitor at t=0.

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Circuit diagram:
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Fig.8.1 Op-amp

The application of this integrator is mainly in waveform generation. It can be used to

generate various waveforms. For instance, by the square wave as an input. You can get the
triangular wave as an output. As shown in the fig 2. By feeding a triangular wave in to
another integrator you can generate a sine wave.

21
Procedure on Multisim:
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 Take an IC 741 in place of OP-amp as an integrator

 Make a ground V=0 on non-inverting side.
 On inverting side connect resistor of 1K ohm and capacitor of 10 F between input and output
of inverting side of OP-amp.
 For wave generation or to give signal to the input side of the IC 741
 Give the two power supplies of 12V, which means it needs both positive and negative
voltage supplies. This allows the OP-amp to handle both positive and negative input signals
and produce an integrated output.
 Using oscilloscope for output results.

Simulated Circuit:
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Fig 8.2 Simulated circuit of op amp as integrator

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Output Results:
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Fig.8.3 Results

Observation:

Both of channel A and B is on scale of 1volt/div. by giving square wave as input

we get triangular wave as shown in fig 8.4 By changing the value of capacitor we
get better results of waveform.

Calculation:

Fig.8.4 : Op amp as integrator

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RESULTS:
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Review questions:

1. Why we use two supplies in integrator amplifier using 741 IC?

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2. What is role of capacitor?

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3. When we give the triangular wave then which waveform we obtained?

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Conclusion:
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