PRACTICAL RESEARCH | FINALS • Difficulties in understanding the group's

LESSON 15: QUALITATIVE METHODS culture, values, and beliefs.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS
3. Structured observation
• Understands the behavior and perception of the
target audience on a particular subject. • Group is observed according to pre-
determined set of behaviors or events.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE METHODS • Gathers specific data and may not
1. Observations provide complete understanding of
• Systematically observing individuals or groups in behaviors and interactions.
their natural setting.
• Researcher can participate or remain an observer. 4. Unstructured observation
• Provide rich and detailed information about the • Group is observed without any pre-
context, social interactions, and behavior of the determined set of behaviors or events.
participants. • Gains holistic understanding but is
• Documented through notes and audio/video difficult to analyze since data follows
recordings. unstructured format.

2. Interviews OPTION WITHIN TYPES

1. Complete Observer
• Widely used method involving open-ended
• Researcher is neither seen nor noticed,
questions (How, What, Why).
allowing participants to act naturally.
• May be structured, semi-structured, or
unstructured interviews.
2. Observer as Participant
• Conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or
• Researcher is known and recognized.
online.
• Sometimes, participants know the
research goals of the observer.
3. Document analysis
• Collecting data by examining written or visual
3. Participant as Observer
materials (letters, diaries, newspapers,
• Observation role.
photographs, archival records)
• Researcher is fully engaged and act as a
• Provides historical or contextual perspective.
friend or colleague than a neutral third
• Offers insights into attitudes, beliefs, and values
party.
of the owners of the documents.
• Participants are aware of the researcher.
• Analyzes content, language, and symbols used in
the documents.
4. Complete Participant
OBSERVATION • Fully embedded observer (like a spy).
TYPES OF OBSERVATIONS • Researcher is fully engaged with
1. Participant observation participants who are unaware.
• Researcher actively participates in the
observation. ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
• Gains insider perspective on the group's • Gather data in a natural setting, without artificial
culture, values, and beliefs. manipulation.
• Difficulties in maintaining objectivity and • Provide rich and detailed information across
avoiding bias. contexts, social interactions, and behaviors.
• Verifies data collected through other methods.
2. Non-participant observation LIMITATIONS OF OBSERVATION
• Researcher studies from a distance • Subject to bias and inaccurate representation of
without actively participating. participants.
• Maintains objectivity and avoids bias. • Time-consuming and resource-intensive.
 • Not appropriate for studying behaviors that occur ADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEWS
infrequently or in private settings. • In-depth exploration of the research topic.
• Obtain perspectives and opinions not available
PROCESS OF OBSERVING ACCORDING TO CRESWELL
through other methods.
1. Select the research site.
• Adapted to suit the needs of the participants.
2. Develop observational protocol.
3. Focus on the observation. LIMITATIONS OF INTERVIEWS
4. Determine your role. • Subject to response bias (participants may not
5. Record field notes. provide accurate or truthful responses).
6. Slowly withdraw. • Time-consuming and resource-intensive.
INTERVIEW • Not appropriate for researching sensitive or
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS personal topics.
1. Structured interviews STEPS IN CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW (DENZIN,
• Pre-determined set of questions in a fixed BERNARD, RUBIN)
order. 1. Getting to Know Each Other.
• Allows easy comparison between 2. Having an Idea of the Research.
responses from different participants. 3. Starting the Interview.
• Limits in-depth exploration. 4. Conducting the Interview Proper.
5. Putting an End to the Interview.
2. Semi-structured interviews 6. Pondering Over Interview Afterthoughts.
• Follows set of open-ended questions but
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (CRESWELL)
allows flexibility in the order and
1. Basic Information about the Interview.
wording.
2. Introduction.
• Allow in-depth exploration.
3. Opening Question.
• Requires more time and effort to analyze. 4. Content Questions (sub-questions based on the
central topic).
3. Unstructured interviews 5. Closing Instructions.
• No pre-determined set of questions or
fixed order. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
• Allows the greatest flexibility. TYPES OF DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
• Requires high level skill and experience to 1. Content analysis
effectively guide the conversation. • Examination themes, patterns, and
categories.
OPTION WITHIN TYPES • identifies trends and patterns within
1. Telephone/ Call Interview documents.
• Affords certain amount of flexibility. • Limited by document availability and
quality.
2. Focus group
• Includes interviewing participants in a 2. Discourse analysis
group. • Examination of language and discourse
• Between 6 to 8 participants lasting 1 to 2 within the documents (social and cultural
hours. context).
• Small groups tend to lose mutual • Insights into the meanings and
stimulation, whilst large groups can be interpretations of language use.
difficult to manage. • Requires high level skill and expertise.

3. Email/ Internet interview

• Information is repeatedly exchanged
online within a particular time-frame.
 3. Historical analysis QUALITATIVE DATA
• Examination of documents over time to It gathers non-numerical information (words, images,
understand changes and developments. observations) to understand the meaning behind human
• Insights into evolution of concepts or experiences, behaviors, and perspectives.
ideas.
Characterized by the ff:
• Limited by availability and quality of
documents. • Approximates and characterizes data.
• Observed and recorded.
OPTION WITHIN TYPES
• Non-numerical in nature.
1. Public Documents – minutes of the meeting or
newspaper references. • Uses of observation, one-to-one interviews, focus
groups, etc.
2. Private Documents – journals, diaries, or letters. • Categorical data – data arranged categorically
based on the attributes of a phenomenon.
ADVANTAGES OF DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
• Provide data without direct interaction with WHAT IS THE NEED FOR QUALITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION?
participants.
Examines the ff:
• Examines documents from a wide range of
sources. • Knowledge around experience of people.
• Supplements other data collection methods. • Meaning and relationships.
• Social norms and contextual practices.
LIMITATIONS OF DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
• Limited by document availability and quality. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
• Requires high level skill and expertise. INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEWS AND THE QUESTIONNAIRE
• May not provide complete understanding of the • Interview questionnaire — designed to elicit
social and cultural context. interviewee’s knowledge or perspective
concerning the topic.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS HAVE SEVERAL
VALUES IN ADDRESSING RESEARCH PROBLEMS QUALITATIVE SURVEYS
• Capturing complex and nuanced phenomena. • Collects textual data and uses more open-ended
• Providing contextual understanding. questions.
• Allowing flexibility and adaptability. • Paper/Online surveys.
• Giving voice to marginalized group. • 15 to 20 questions, administered 3-5 (online)
maximum of 20 minutes (face-to-face)
LESSON 16: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
SURVEY FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS
• Evaluation of experiences or opinions of people • Audio and tape recording, note-taking, and
via questions as opposed to a questionnaire. participant observation.
• Collection of written/printed questions with an
RECORD KEEPING
answer choice.
• Recording data as reliable documents and other
QUESTIONNAIRE sources of information from interviews,
• Set of questions used for research purposes. observation, or from existing documents.
• Qualitative and quantitative in nature.
OBSERVATIONS
• Open-ended questions via email, telephone, or
• Traditional method of collecting qualitative data.
face-to-face meetings
Covert — observer is concealed and participants are
THREE MAJOR PARTS
unaware they’re being observed.
• Demographic information
• Background information
• Question Proper
Overt — Participants are aware they’re being watched. • Acc national science foundation (1997):
✓ Not guided by universal rules.
OBSERVATION PROTOCOL
✓ Dependent on the evaluator and the
• tool used to record observations during
context of the study.
fieldwork.
✓ Changes and adapts as study evolves.
• Guidelines on what is observed, the context of
the observation, and other relevant details. BASIC TECHNIQUES OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• Provide data that illustrate events during 1. Deductive Approach (General to Specific)
observation. • Researcher-defined structure.
• Quick and easy if researcher knows what
CREATING A SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES
the sample population will say.
1. Identify questions related to your RQs.
Do/Don't
Existing Formulate
2. Determine the target population. Theory Hypothesis
Collect Data Analyze data reject
hypothesis
3. Select appropriate…
2. Inductive Approach (Specific to General)
Survey method- online, telephone, etc.
Questionnaire format- paper/online based. • No structure or framework.
4. Develop the survey questions. • Commonly used when researcher has
5. Determine the question format. little info (bottom-up approach).
6. Avoid leading questions. Specific Observation Pattern Recognition General Conclusion
7. Consider the order of questions.
8. Keep the survey length reasonable. STEPS OF QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
9. Include demographic questions. 1. Process and Record Data Immediately
10. Test the survey. • Things that stuck out to you.
11. Pilot the survey. • Time/date details.
12. Obtain ethical approval. • Other observations.
13. Administer the survey. • Highlights from interaction.
2. Begin Analyzing as Data is Being Collected
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING 3. Data Reduction
1. Question development
• Reducing and transforming raw data.
2. Question Type: Open- and closed-ended
• Determine significant patterns and
questions
transform into simplified questions.
3. Question-wording
4. Identifying Meaningful Patterns and Themes
4. Question order
• Core of qualitative data analysis.
LESSON 17: QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 5. Data Display
DATA • Graphic, table/matrix, or textual display.
6. Conclusion Drawing and Verification
• Facts, figures, objects, symbols, and events
• Final steps in qualitative data analysis.
gathered from different sources.
✓ Interview transcripts. TWO WAYS OF IDENTIFYING PATTERNS AND THEMES
✓ Surveys with open-ended questions. 1. Content analysis
✓ Contact center transcripts. • Categorizing- coding the data for certain
✓ Texts and documents. words.
✓ Audio and video recordings. • Scanning, discussing, comparing-
✓ Observational notes. Identifying themes, patterns, and
relationships.
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS INVOLVES
• Identification, examination, and interpretation of • Summarizing- Interpreting their
recurring patterns and themes to answer meanings.
research questions.
 2. Thematic analysis • Brief overview of study's content and
• Grouping data into themes that will organization.
answer the research question. • Offers recommendations for future research.
✓ Pre-set before data collection
CONCLUSION
even began.
• judgment statements — investigation.
✓ Naturally emerged as study was
• Involves summary of findings & issues.
conducted.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
REMINDERS
• Step back and interpret your findings. • Brief overview of main findings and results of the
• Determine how findings answer research study.
question. • Summary of key insights and implications from
• Draw implications from your findings. data analysis.
LESSON 18 • Clear and concise, related to RQs the study aims
KEY CHAPTERS to address.
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION DISCUSSION OF ISSUES
• Background information. • Broader implications of the study and issues
• Context of research problem. raised.
• Research question. • Includes…
• Significance and purpose of the study. ✓ Considerations and limitations of the
• Scope and delimitation. study.
✓ Suggestions for further research.\
CHAPTER 2: RRL ✓ Implications of the findings for theory,
policy, or practice.
• Summarizes and synthesizes existing literature. • Reflects the significance and contribution of the
• Gaps, controversies, and limitations in previous study's findings in society.
literature
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Theoretical framework or conceptual model.
• logical suggestions— result of research.
• Includes…
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ✓ Key findings and related implications.
✓ Broader context of findings.
• Used research design and methods.
✓ Clear and actionable recommendations.
• Sampling strategy.
• Related questions:
• Describes data collection and analysis.
✓ How does the study compare over
previous studies.
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND FINDINGS ✓ How does it benefit the field.

• Presents the data and findings. STEPS FOR CHAPTER 5

• Detailed descriptions and explanations of 1. Restate the research questions or problem.
recurring themes and patterns. 2. Summarize the findings.
• Uses quotes or examples from data collected. 3. Discuss the implications of the findings.
4. Make recommendations.
5. Provide concluding thoughts.
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
REPORTING
• Summarizes study’s main points. • Either orally or in written format presented.
• Restates research question and significance.
• Emphasizes importance of the finding.
ORAL

• Presented to an audience verbally.

• Uses visual aids or handouts, and may include an
open forum.
• Allows presenter to engage with the audience.
WRITTEN PRESENTATIONS

• Includes a research report or manuscript,

submitted to a journal or presented as a thesis or
dissertation.
• Allows researcher to present their findings in a
detailed and structured way.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A RESEARCH ARTICLE

1. Title
2. Introduction
3. Methods
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion
7. References

IMRAD FORMAT
• I - Introduction
• M - Method
• R - (Analysis) Results
• D - Discussion