DEPARTMENT : MECHANIAL ENGINEERING

LEVEL : ND IN PRODUTION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT : MACHINE DESIGN

YEAR : 2015

COMPILED BY : DIMHAIRO. I @mutarepoly

CHAPTER 1:

THE DESIGN PROCESS

INTRODUCTION

1.0 DEFINITIONS:

1.1 Design:

In general, to design is to formulate a plan using a systematic method, for the satisfaction
of a human need.
In particular Machine Design is the creation of new and better machines and improving the
existing ones. A new or better machine is one which is more economical inthe overall cost of
production and operation. The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From the
study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The ideais then studied keeping in
mind its commercial success and given shape and form in the form of drawings. In
thepreparation of these drawings, care must be taken of theavailability of resources in money,
in men and in materials required for the successful completion of the new idea into an actual
reality.
In designing, the particular need to be satisfied may be quite well defined on the one
hand, for example, a gear box is giving trouble, redesign it so it can work better, while on
the other it may be vague and ill defined that a considerable amount of thought and
effort is necessary if the problems to be clear, for example many people are killed in
aeroplane accidents.

In contrast to Mathematical problems, design problems have no unique answers. A good

solution today may turn out to be a bad one tomorrow.

Human needs and desires are related to time and money which must be taken into account
when considering the optimal solution out of a wide range of possible solutions.

1.2 Classification of Machine Design

Machine design may be classified as follows :

a)Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer‘s work is concerned with adaptation of
existingdesigns. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can be attempted
by designers ofordinary technical training. The designer only makes minor alternation or
modification in the existingdesigns of the product.
b) Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and design
ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
differentmethod of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the existing
design, but the finalproduct may differ quite markedly from the original product.
c)New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking.Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order can
take up thework of a new design.
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows :
(a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of principle of
mechanics.
(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the
practiceand past experience.
(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufactureany machine component in the industry.
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the specified
constraints. It may be achieved by minimising the undesirable effects.
(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer systems to
assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimisation of a design.

1.3 General Considerations in Machine Design

Following are the general considerations in designing a machine component :

a)Type of load and stresses caused by the load. The load, on a machine component, may act
in several ways due to which the internal stresses are set up. The various types of load and
stresses are discussed in chapters to follow.
b)Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine. The successful operation of any
machinedepends largely upon the simplest arrangement of the parts which will give the
motion required.
The motion of the parts may be :
(i) Rectilinear motion which includes unidirectional and reciprocating motions.
(ii) Curvilinear motion which includes rotary, oscillatory and simple harmonic.
(iii) Constant velocity.
(iv) Constant or variable acceleration.
c)Selection of materials. It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of
the properties of the materials and their behaviour under working conditions. Some of the
importantcharacteristics of materials are : strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to
heat and corrosion,ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical conductivity,
etc. The various typesof engineering materials and their properties have been discussed in at
National certificate (NC).
d)Form and size of the parts. The form and size are based on judgement. The smallest
practicablecross-section may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the
designedcross-section are reasonably safe. In order to design any machine part for form and
size, it is necessaryto know the forces which the part must sustain. It is also important to
anticipate any suddenlyapplied or impact load which may cause failure.
e) Frictional resistance and lubrication. There is always a loss of power due to frictional
resistance and it should be noted that the friction of starting is higher than that of running
friction. Itis, therefore, essential that a careful attention must be given to the matter of
lubrication of all surfaceswhich move in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding, or
rolling bearings.
f)Convenient and economical features. In designing, the operating features of the machine
should be carefully studied. The starting, controlling and stopping levers should be located on
thebasis of convenient handling. The adjustment for wear must be provided employing the
various takeupdevices and arranging them so that the alignment of parts is preserved. If parts
are to be changedfor different products or replaced on account of wear or breakage, easy
access should be providedand the necessity of removing other parts to accomplish this should
be avoided if possible.
The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production, or for the
processingof material should be studied, in order to learn whether it has the maximum
capacity consistent withthe production of good work.
g) Use of standard parts. Theuse of standard parts is closely relatedto cost, because the cost
of standardor stock parts is only a fraction of thecost of similar parts made to order.
The standard or stock partsshould be used whenever possible ;parts for which patterns are
alreadyin existence such as gears, pulleys andbearings and parts which may be
selected from regular shop stock suchas screws, nuts and pins. Bolts andstuds should be as
few as possible toavoid the delay caused by changingdrills, reamers and taps and also to
decrease the number of wrenches required.
h)Safety of operation. Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are
speeded up to insure production at a maximum rate. Therefore, any moving part of a machine
whichis within the zone of a worker is considered an accident hazard and may be the cause of
an injury. Itis, therefore, necessary that a designer should always provide safety devices for
the safety of theoperator. The safety appliances should in no way interfere with operation of
the machine.
i) Workshop facilities. A design engineer should be familiar with the limitations of his
employer‘s workshop, in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other
workshop.It is sometimes necessary to plan and supervise the workshop operations and to
draft methods forcasting, handling and machining special parts.
j)Number of machines to be manufactured. The number of articles or machines to be
manufacturedaffects the design in a number of ways. The engineering and shop costs which
are calledfixed charges or overhead expenses are distributed over the number of articles to be
manufactured. Ifonly a few articles are to be made, extra expenses are not justified unless the
machine is large or ofsome special design. An order calling for small number of the product
will not permit any undue expense in the workshop processes, so that the designer should
restrict his specification to standardparts as much as possible.
k)Cost of construction. The cost of construction of an article is the most important
considerationinvolved in design. In some cases, it is quite possible that the high cost of an
article may immediatelybar it from further considerations. If an article has been invented and
tests of hand made samples haveshown that it has commercial value, it is then possible to
justify the expenditure of a considerable sumof money in the design and development of
automatic machines to produce the article, especially if itcan be sold in large numbers. The
aimof design engineer under allconditions, should be to reduce themanufacturing cost to the
minimum.
l)Assembling. Everymachine or structure must beassembled as a unit before it canfunction.
Large units must often beassembled in the shop, tested andthen taken to be transported to
theirplace of service. The final locationof any machine is important and the
design engineer must anticipate theexact location and the local facilities
for erection

1.4Mechanical Engineering design

Mechanical engineering design means the design of things and systems of the
mechanical nature such as machines , products ,structures , devices ,and instruments. As
applied to machines alone the usual name given is machine design.

For most of the part , machine design utilizes mathematics ; the materials sciences
(Materials, Workshop Technology and workshop practice) ; the engineering mechanics
sciences (Engineering Science, Applied Mechanics, Mechanics of Machines and Engineering
Mechanics); thermal (heat and thermodynamics) and fluid sciences. Hence in design
students are called upon to utilise all the theoretical knowledge learned in other subjects in a
logical and systematic way to solve a particular problem.

In a nut shell design involve

(i) Theoretical knowledge(Experimental training, strength of Materials,

Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics. Economics, Law etc.)
(ii) Human Skill (Creativity, imagination, inventiveness etc.)

The design process therefore entails the establishment of a concept, using creative skills. The
concept is then divided into smaller components that can be solved using the knowledge
gained in relevant subjects. Some of these smaller components my require additional
knowledge of other subjects such as electronics, of which one may not have sufficient know
how. It is very important for the design to recognise his own limitations and know when to
request assistance from persons with the necessary additional skills. In fact in practice more
than one person will be involved in a design project, therefore teamwork will be of utmost
importance.

1.5 Phases of design process:

What is meant by a good designer ?

A good designer‘s most important attribute is that of logical decision making. Every
step in a design requires decision - decision not based on prejudices and feelings , but
on available facts.

In practice the engineering designer must give an economic solution to the presented
problem within a reasonable period of time. The way in which the designer sets
about finding this solution should involve a logical design process to satisfy a specific
need or requirement.
 At the end of each step a decision must be made whether continuation to the next stage is
justified or whether a return to the previous stage in necessary. This is dependent on whether
the objectives of the previous stage have been met or not. A design process seldom advances
from one stage to the next without going back (iteration) to the previous stages to eliminate
shortcomings. This should not be considered as a waste of time or a failure but as a built-in
mechanism to ensure that the design is improved as the process continues.

Figures 1, 2 and 3 show models of systematic design process.

RECOGNITION OF NEED( REQUIREMENT)

SETTING OF OBJECTIVES (SPECIFICATION)

STNTHESIS, ANALYSIS AND

OPTIMASATION

EVALAUTION

PRESENTATION AND COMMISIONING

Fig. 1

Alternatively
IDEFICATION
IDIDE OF THE PROBLEM

GATHERING OF INFORMATION

PRELIMINARY IDEAS

EVALUATION OF IDEAS

ANALYSIS

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
DESIGN
Fig. 2

1.5.1 Recognition (Identification) of need (requirement)

All designs must start with a need or requirement, from this the designer decides what the
objectives are. The requirement outlines the need to be satisfied.

Recognition of need and phrasing it often constitute a highly creative act, because the need
may be only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness or a sensing that something is not
right.

For recognition of need the designer should keep an open mind and attempt to see not only
the problem but also to understand its relationship with its environment. Sometimes a small
adjustment or alteration outside the problem area may eliminate or alleviate a symptom that
was thought to be a problem, thereby preventing major undertaking. Once the problem is
understood, it must be formulated in writing. Objectives to be met, specific requirements,
unspecified conditions and factors to be considered when the eventual performance of the
designed object is to evaluated, must be noted and written down. The following must
considered:

i) Statement of the problem:

The problem should be stated clearly in one sentence. This consists of three basic
components:-
(i) ‗What needs to done‘ should be addressed, e.g. The purpose of this project is
to design a conveyor belt with supporting structure.
(ii) The standard, code or principles on which the design will be based must be
stated, e.g. According to BS structural steel code.
(iii) ‗Why the design needs to be done‘ should be answered, e.g. so that 50kg wire
reels can be loaded on to trucks of varying heights.

a) The sub-problems
When projects are large they are divided into smaller sub-projects that will be easier
to comprehend and solve. Each sub-project should be a complete project.

Sub project 1. Design a conveyor with a total travel of 30m that can carry 10, 50kg
wire reels at velocity 0.2m/s.

Sub-project 2. Design a structure for the conveyor belt with an inlet 0.6m above
ground level and adjustable outlet.

b) Delimitations
It is also important that after stating the problem and sub-problems clearly, the
designer specifies what he will not intend to do.
The designer will not incorporate
(i) A variable speed for the conveyor
 (ii) A means whereby the structure can be moved from one place to another.

c) Assumptions
Factors that will be taken for granted and that will not be incorporated into the design
must also be clearly stated, e.g.
(i) The existing floor will be able to carry the structure.
(ii) The number of reels per given time should be 10

The following should also be taken into account;

i) Check the reliability of the need source

ii) Make a preliminary assessment of the need to see if it is economically realistic
iii) Can the requirement be simply modified to expand the market potential?
iv) Do not fail to recognize a subdivision of a larger design as a requirement in its
own right.
1.5.2 Setting the objectives (specification) or gathering information

In design and definitely the real word situations enough information is not normally
given and therefore the gathering of relevant information is not always that obvious.

The first important source of information is people. Information can be gathered from
the people who will be involved with the final product, people who were previously
involved in a similar project and representatives from various supply companies.
Another source is written material (catalogues, reports, experimental data, design
magazines and books and the internet). Work by other designers can also be a source
of relevant information.

When collecting data you might find that your initial problem statement was not
complete. Do not hesitate to alter the problem statement to eliminate uncertainties.
This process of amending previous stages is very important and eliminates the
possibility of major changes in your design at the final stage because on an initial
misconception.

A specification is a listing of all parameters essential to the design.

For correct specification the following must be considered:

a) Listing of design parameters such as:

- Physical characteristics e.g. output power required, ambient temperature and

pressure variations, the load to be supported, reliability life span etc.

- Subjective aspects such as appearance, styling, surface finish etc

- Objective aspects such as user skill, safety, standards and service requirements,
b) The specification must be so framed as to avoid unnecessarily influencing the
possible range of solutions,

c) An order of priorities within a specification must be recognized, among cost,

weight, reliability, appearance just but to mention a few,

d) Any item or value transferred from the requirement recognition to the specification
must be critically examined before the transfer is permitted.

1.5.3 Synthesis , analysis and optimization

Synthesis involves the engineering of design to the state of preparing working

drawings, component schedules and other media of communication between the
designer and manufacturer. Synthesis can be divided into preliminary and final
synthesis:-

Preliminary Synthesis:

Preliminary ideas (synthesis), is where imagination and creativity play a major role as
one should think of a number of different ways in which to solve the problem. Make
sketches of the different ideas and write down their advantages and disadvantages.
Brainstorming can play a pivotal role if people are working in groups.

Preliminary calculations and discussions with the end user of the design will now help
to eliminate some of the ideas. Factors such as cost and availability of materials use of
standard components and manufacturing techniques required should also be considered
to lift the best idea on which the design will be based.

Analysis:

Physical sizes and dimensions of various components must be calculated. Calculations

must be based on the theory of various engineering subjects. Before you calculate an
unknown value, try to estimate the value and if the calculated answer is not of the same
order or magnitude as your estimation, you should check your reasoning and
calculations. Be critical of you answers.

Unknown values can also be determined through experiments, testing of models and
testing of prototypes. Sophisticated tools for analysis are also available on the
computer.

Optimisation:

Optimisation means standardisation of calculated dimensions as standardised it

catalogues, books manufacturer‘ s manuals or available components in the stores. In
optimising calculated values it is always recommended to take values above the
calculated values as taken smaller values result in weakening the section.
The synthesis of the optimum solution cannot take place without both analysis and
optimization.

The analysis may reveal that the solution is not an optimum one. If the design fails
either or both of these tests the synthesis procedure must begin again. Proper synthesis
must include the following:

i) Detailing is as important as the other design stages and requires a specialized

knowledge of manufacturing methods,
ii) Synthesis is the correct place for detailed analysis, not the evaluation stage,
iii) Be aware of new requirements arising during synthesis and treat them, as
designs in there own right.

Final Synthesis:

This is where detailed working drawings are produced. These drawings will
communicate your final design to your customer and to the people involved in the
manufacturing process. Documentation on starting up procedures, mechanics,
adjustments, maintenance requirements and other relevant information should also be
compiled. Time and money will normally put major restrictions on your design,
tempting you to take shortcuts. Try to avoid this and adhere to the steps outlined above
as they have proved themselves to produce the beet results.

1.5.4 Evaluation and Iteration

Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. It is the final proof of a
successful design and usually involves the testing of a proto-type in the laboratory.

Evaluation looks at the satisfaction of the need or needs, reliability, competence of the
product, economics, maintenance and adjustment, profit, etc

In short evaluation must include the following;

a) Careful assessment avoids throwing away the effort made in earlier stages of the
design process,

b) Evaluation should start at a superficial level, increasing in detail as the elimination

proceeds,

c) Economic as well as technical considerations should be assessed at each stage of the

elimination.

Iteration:

Although the stages of the design process have been laid out as discrete steps, iteration
must exist between them. Design is an iterative process, particularly on large projects.

1.5.5 Presentation and Commissioning.

Presentation is a selling job. In presentation the design tries to sell or to prove to the
interested parties that the solution is a better one.

Poor presentation may prove time and effort spend on obtaining the solution have been
largely wasted.

Basically, there are only three means of communication; These are written, oral and
graphical.

The designer must be technically competent versatile in all three forms of

communication.

More specifically machine design follow steps shown in figure 3 below:

Recognition of
need

Synthesis
(Mechanisms).

Analysis of forces

Material selection

Design of elements
(Size and Stresses).

Modification

Detailed drawing

Production.

Figure 3: Specific procedure in Machine Design.

Specific Procedure in Machine Design

In designing a machine component, there is no rigid rule. The problem may be attempted in
several ways. However, the general procedure to solve a design problem is as follows :
a) Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating the
need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
b) Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms which
will give the desired motion.
c) Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the energy
transmitted by each member.
d) Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the machine.
e) Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the machine by
considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses for the material used.
It should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible
limit.
f) Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by consideration
of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
g) Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly of the
machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes suggested.
h) Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the workshop.

1.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OR CHARACTERISTICS WHICH INFLUENCE

THE DESIGN OF AN ELEMENT OR ENTIRE SYSTEM

Usually a number of these have to be considered in a given design situation. Sometimes one
of these will turn out to be critical, and when it is satisfied, the others no longer need to be
considered.

These can be grouped as follows;

1.6.1. Mechanical factors

These include strength and stress; factor of safety; friction, wear and lubrication;
serviceability; reliability; longevity; maintainability; etc

1.6.2 Thermal Properties

Such as corrosion; heat conductivity and refractory properties.

1.6.3 Physical considerations

e.g. weight; volume; noise - vibration ; size ; stiffness and flexibility etc

1.6.4 Electrical and magnetic properties

Such as conductors and non-conductors of electricity

1.6.5 Consumer considerations

 Such as Ergonomics (control, shape); styling; appearance etc.

1.6.6 Economic considerations

Such as: cost of materials, labour, transportation, and productivity

1.6.7. Legal considerations

- Codes of practice standards

-Liability.
CHAPTER 2

MATERIAL SELECTION

OBJECTIVE:

To obtain a knowledge of the characteristics of various materials and their behaviour under
specific working conditions.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design engineer.
The machine elements should be made of such a material which has properties suitable for
the conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design engineer must be familiar with
the effects which the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the properties of
the materials. The selection of the correct materials is very critical in the design process. It is
also the most difficult since there are varied materials available.

2.2 Classification of Engineering Materials

The engineering materials are mainly classified as :

a)Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
b)Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.

The metals may be further classified as :

(i) Ferrous metals, and
(ii) Non-ferrous metals.

The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,
wrought iron and steel. The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron
as their main constituent,
such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.

2.3 Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes

The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most difficult
problem for the designer. The best material is one which serve the desired objective at the
minimum cost. The following factors should be considered while selecting the material :
a)Availability of the materials,
b)Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
c)The cost of the materials.
The important properties, which determine the utility of the material are physical, chemical
and mechanical properties. We shall now discuss the physical and mechanical properties of
the material in the following articles.

2.4 Mechanical Properties of Metals

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability of the
material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of the metal
include strength,
stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep
and
hardness. We shall now discuss these properties as follows:
a) Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces without
breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an externally applied force is
called stress.
b) Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The modulus of
elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
c) Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for materials used in tools
and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than rubber.
d) Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced under load
permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on
coins and in ornamental work.
e) Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application
of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is usually
measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area. The ductile
material commonly used in engineering practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild
steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin and lead.
f) Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of
breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to
tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle material.
g) Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled or
hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be
so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering practice (in order of
diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.
f) Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by
the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed up
to the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact
loads.
g) Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with which a
material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a number of
ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to
remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to remove a unit volume of the
material. It may be noted that brass can be easily machined than steel.
h) Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within
elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
i) Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep. This
property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
j) Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the
yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue. The failure is
caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic
size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.
k) Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal.
The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method of making
the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests :
(i)Brinell hardness test,
(ii)Rockwell hardness test,
(iii)Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(iv)Shore scleroscope.

2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS

Only basic considerations for material selection will be considered here, more can be
obtained from books.

2.2.1 Cost, Availability and Mass

Use of most cost effective, readily available and low mass material is of paramount
importance. It is advisable to select the most basic material for a specific application in order
to avoid undesirable phenomena normally associated with sophisticated special purpose
materials. Use light and appropriately strong materials should be considered for any design.

2.2.2 Strength

Strength and rigidity are factors that will influence the size of the various components in a
design.

Recall the stress-strain diagrams for ductile and brittle materials indicating the ultimate
(tensile) strength (  u t ) and tensile yield strength (  y t )(Engineering Science).

Materials are normally classified as being either ductile or brittle. materials with a percentage
elongation of less than 10% or with a Brinell hardness larger than 300, are said to be brittle.

High strength materials are available with some steels having an ultimate tensile strength of
1550MPa and more. A steel should never be used in its maximum strength condition, i.e. as
quenched, but should be tempered back sufficiently to obtain the necessary toughness
required.

2.2.3 Factor of safety (n)

Machine elements are often misused or accidentally subjected to stresses greater than the
design stress. A factor of safety is used to reduce the possibility of unexpected failure of a
component, due to internal flaws, which will gradually propagate if the induced stresses are
too large and other factors.

The allowable working stress of a component based on the ultimate strength.

is given by:

 ut
  …………………………………………….2.1
s

Alternatively it is based on the yield strength and the theory of elastic failure.

y
 …………………………………………………….2.2
s

Where s is the yield strength in tension, compression or shear, depending on the specific case.

Generally the factor of safety is obtained by dividing the ultimate strength by the working or
allowable stress of the material under consideration.

 ut
Thus n 
 all

2.2.4 Stiffness of a material

Most metals are elastic and obeys Hooke‘ s law ―the strain is directly proportional to the

applied stress‖ thus constant, E  .


Where E is the modulus of elasticity which determines the stiffness of a material and  is the
strain.

Most steels have approximately the same stiffness hence there is no gain in substituting an
inexpensive low carbon steel with an expensive alloy steel. For plastics the elastic moduli are
much smaller than steel, hence much thicker sections are required to carry the same load on
bending. Honey combs or carbon fibre layers can be used to strengthen them.

2.2.5 Fatigue

Fatigue failure is fracture due repeated loading at a stress level below the ultimate tensile
stress. The fatigue strength is measured by the number of repetitions of stress before fracture
occurs.

2.2.6 High temperature applications

Two factors, high temperature strength and oxidation resistance should be considered during
designing. Most steels can be used at temperatures up to 3500 c, above which loss in yield
strength and elastic properties occur and creep becomes significant. For use above 3500 c
molybdenum can be added as an alloying element to improve creep resistance while for
temperatures exceeding 5000 c, chromium as alloying element is required to provide
oxidation resistance.

The operating temperature of quenched and tempered steels should be at least 50 0 c lower
than the tempering temperature.

2.2.7 Weldability

In some cases this may be an important selection criterion. For steels this determined by the
carbon equivalent (CE) given by;

% Mn %Cr  V  Mo %Cu  Ni
CE  %C    .......... .......... .......... .......... ......... 2.3
6 5 15

Generally;

CE  0.41 No special precautions required

0.41  CE  0.45 Low hydrogen electrodes or pre-heat

CE  0.45 Low hydrogen electrodes and pre-heat

CE  0.8 Special procedures required.

2.2.8 Corrosion

Corrosion is active under different conditions such as;

(i) Atmospheric corrosion in air, water and the soil (Rusting),

(ii) Stress corrosion cracking confined to alloy/environment combinations e.g. brasses
in ammonia, austenitic stainless steels in chlorine containing media, high strength
aluminium in humid air and carbon steel in concentrated caustic,
(iii) Pitting, localised attack, mostly on passive materials, e.g. stainless steels and
aluminium,
(iv) Intergranular corrosion often takes place along sensitised grain boundaries and a
important case in hand in some welded austenitic and ferritic steels in slightly
corrosive media,
(v) Galvanic corrosion can occur where materials with substantial difference in
corrosion tendencies are coupled in suitable media,
(vi) Crevice corrosion in many respects similar to pitting.

CHAPTER 3
GEARING

OBJECTIVE

To be able to design a spur gear drive for transmission of motion.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Gears are mainly used fro transmission of power and motion, the accuracy of which depends
upon the precision with which gears are manufactured. Gears are used when positive drives
are necessary and when the centre distances are relatively short. Gears can be used for
transmission of power from parallel, intersecting or skew shafts. The most commonly used
forms of gears are (i) involute and (ii) cycloidal. The involute tooth is derived from the trace
of the point on a straight line, which rolls without slipping around a circle which the base
circle, or it could be defined as the locus of point on a piece of string which is unwounded
from a stationary cylinder. The cycloidal tooth is derived from the curve which is the locus of
a point on a circle rolling on the pitch circle of the gear.

Involute gears are also called straight tooth or spur gears and mainly used for general purpose
in precision engineering. The cycloidal gears are not generally used in modern engineering,
but used for some crude purposes where heavy and impact loads act on the machine.

3.2 ADVANTAGES OF INVOLUTE GEARS:

a) Variations in the centre distance between two gears have an effect on the velocity
ratio between a pair of involute gears,
b) The involute rack has straight teeth. Thus the complex involute form on gear can be
generated from a simple cutter.
0
01
c) The involute system has a standard pressure angle which is either 20 or 14
2
whereas on the cycloidal system the pressure angle varies from zero at the pitch line
to a maximum at the tips of teeth.
d) In the cycloidal system for achieving correct meshing the gears must be operated on
centre that will maintain theoretical pitch circles in exact contact which is not
necessary in involute system.

3.3 TYPES OF GEAR FORMS

(i) Spur gear:

It is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are straight lines parallel to the gear axis.
Spur gears can be used only for connecting shafts whose axis are parallel. These
can have internal or external teeth.
(ii) Rack :
This is a spur gear of infinite diameter. Its pitch line is a straight line and pitch
surface is a plane surface.
(iii) Helical gear:
 It is cylindrical gear whose traces are straight helices, i.e. teeth are inclined at an
angle to the gear axis.
(iv) Herringbone gear:
In the case of spur gears, the tooth forces act only normal to the gear axis, whereas
in the case of helical gears, an additional component of force along the gear axis
also acts. If power to be transmitted is large then this axial component may be
very high requiring for good thrust bearings. This effect can however be
eliminated by using two gears of opposite helix together, a gear may be fabricated
such that half of width is cut with helix in one direction and the other half the
teeth are cut in the opposite direction. Such s gear is called the Herringbone gear.
(v) Straight bevel gear:
This a gear whose tooth traces are straight line generators of a cone. It is conical
in form operating on intersecting axes usually at right angles.
(vi) Spiral bevel gears:
The tooth traces of such gears are curved and oblique lines. These can carry more
load, run quietly, but thrust load in these is greater.
(vii) Hypoid gear:
These are similar to spiral bevel gears but the axes of their shafts do not intersect.
(viii) Worm gear:
The worm and mating worm wheel have their axes non-parallel and non-
intersecting. These are used when high speed reduction (more than (10 :1) are
required. They transmit very high loads.

3.4 THE INVOLUTE CURVE

A gear is a component which transmit rotary motion via the action of meshing teeth.

The meshing gears are termed pinion (driving gear) and wheel (driven gear)

Gear systems are used mainly for the following reasons;

a) To change the speed of a machine

b) To change the direction of rotation of a machine

c) To increase the torque capacity of a machine.

3.4.1 TOOTH FORMS

A meshing tooth action will inevitably be a combination of rolling and sliding

The sliding produces frictional losses and therefore inefficiency in the machine. Hence the
principal objective of the gear design is to minimize the sliding effect. Modern tooth form or
shape is based on a curve known as the inviolate.

3.4.2.GENERATION OF AN INVOLUTE CURVE

An involute is by definition the path described by a point on a thin inextensible cord
when the latter is unwound from a given curve. The circle about which the cord (line)
unwinds is called the base circle. At any point of unwinding the straight line is of course a
tangent to base circle.

3.4.3 GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION OF FULL INVOLUTES

PROCEDURE

a) Draw the base circle,

b) Divide it into twelve equal parts

c) Determine the circumference of the dace circle and divide it into equal parts say twelve

d) Draw tangents from each circle division,

e) Mark off increasing circumferential distances along each succeeding tangent,

f) Sketch the curve between the tangent markings

Figure 3.1: Full involute

3.4.5 PART INVOLUTE

The profile of a gear tooth is of course only a small part of the complete involute. To
construct an accurate part involute, the following procedure may be adopted;

a) Draw the base circle arc

b) Mark off a number of equal small angles (say 10o),

c) Draw tangents from each angular division,

d) Determine circumferential arc distances of angular divisions

e) Mark off increasing arc distances along each succeeding tangent,

f) Sketch the part involute curve between the tangent markings.

Figure 3.2: Part involute

3.5 INVOLUTE GEAR PROPORTIONS, NOTATION & DEFINITIONS

 Figure 3.3: Gears in mesh

a) Pitch circle diameter (D, d):

This is the diameter of the circle about which the gears make their full rolling action with the
absence of any sliding. These diameters also affect the centre distance between gears.

b) Centre distance (C):

This is the perpendicular distance between the axes of the gears and the sum of pitch circle
radii.

C = (r + R)

c) Outside diameter (OD , Od)

This is the largest diameter of each gear measured from the tip of the tooth.

d) Root diameter
This is the diameter of full tooth depth, i.e. the diameter that contains the bottom of the tooth
spaces.

e) Addendum (A)

This is the depth of tooth above the pitch circle that is;

Outside diameter =PCD + 2A

f) Dedendum (De)

This is the depth of tooth beneath the pitch circle or the radial distance from the pitch circle to
the bottom of the tooth spaces. Thus;

Root diameter = PCD - 2De

The ratio between the addendum and dedendum is given by ;

De = 1.25A

g) Whole tooth depth;

This is the sum of the addendum and the dedendum; (De + A)

h) Clearance:

This the difference between the dedendum and addendum;

C = De - A

i) Module (m);

The module value gives the indication of tooth size. This is ratio between the pitch circle
diameter and the number of teeth in the gear.

D
Thus; m =
T

Where

D - pitch diameter and T - number of teeth

This ratio is equivalent to the value of the module.

Thus m = A

j) Circular pitch (c);

 Figure 3.4: gear notations

This makes the circumferential distance along the pitch circle between corresponding points
on the faces of adjacent teeth.

C = m =  D / T

k) Circular tooth thickness:

This is the thickness of the tooth measured along the circumference of the pitch circle.

It is half the circular pitch

l) Pitch point;

This is point of contact between intersecting pitch circle. When two gears are in contact at the
pitch point, the tooth action is entirely rolling. Sliding of teeth takes place before and after
contact at the pitch point.

m) Base circle;

This is the circle about which the involute curve is constructed. The diameter of the base
circle is called the base circle diameter Do

n) Line of action:

This makes the line along which contact between teeth of meshing gears takes place. The line
of action passes through the pitch point and is tangential to the two base circles.

o) Pressure angle: ()

This is the angle between the line of action and a common tangent to the pitch circles passing
through the pitch point.

For reasons of strength and meshing efficiency, the pressure angle of the involute gears is
standardized to 200
3.5.1 Relationship between pitch circle diameter and base circle diameter:

Figure 3.5: Relationship between pitch and base circle diameters.

The pressure angle may be used to calculate the base circle diameter for any required pitch
circle diameter.

Cos() =DO/D

D0 = D Cos()

3.5.2 Gear speed ratios:

The ratio of speeds between the driving pinion and driven gear wheel is in proportion to the
number of teeth in the gear and the pitch circle diameters.

N 1 T2 D
 
N 2 T1 d

3.5.3 Conjugate tooth action

An important requirement for rotary meshing action is that uniform tangential motion,
transmitted at the pinion pitch circle, is maintained as uniform motion when transferred to the
gear wheel. This condition would theoretically be satisfied by a pure rolling contact action
when slip zero.

Meshing teeth conforming ideally to this condition are called conjugate teeth The similarity
of involute tooth action with that pure conjugate teeth has contributed a lot to the evolution of
the involute curve of the basic gear profile.

3.5.4.Construction of involute gear teeth

This is best done on tracing paper.

Illustration example
An involute gear system requires a 1:1 speed ratio and 20 teeth per gear. If the module is
10mm and the pressure angle is 200, draw five meshing teeth of the system.

Procedure

1. Determine the centre distance and draw in the pitch circle on a piece of tracing paper.

2. Mark the pitch point and the common tangent.

3. Draw the line of action for given pressure angle.

4. Calculate the base circle diameter and draw in the base circle (check that they are
tangential to the line of action).

5. Calculate the addendum and draw the outside diameters.

6. Calculate the dedendum and draw the root circles.

7. Calculate the circular tooth thickness and step off several compass settings from the pitch
point around each pitch circle.

8. Draw a part-involute to one base circle at a remote point from the pitch point using the
procedure described before.

9. Reproduce the involute form on a small piece of tracing paper.

10.Trace the involute at each tooth -thickness marking and complete the tooth forms.

3.6 GEAR TOOTH FORMS

Figure 3.6: Gear tooth forms

The involute gear tooth takes on many different forms. The most common types being;

3.6.1 SPUR GEARS

They are the simplest and the most common type of involute gearing systems. Teeth lie at
right angles to the gear face and parallel to the shaft axis. These will transmit motion between
two parallel shafts lying in the same plane. They are cheap to produce but can be noisy.
3.6.2 HELICAL GEARS

They have the same involute as spur gears but, instead of the teeth lying parallel to the axis of
the shaft, they form part of a helical curve. This type of arrangement produces more gradual
engagement and disengagement of teeth than that of spur gears. Hence they produce a
smoother drive, less vibration and noise a more evenly spread tooth load. Thus they have a
higher load carrying capacity.

However, there is an axial thrust load due to the tooth helix which will be transmitted to the
shaft bearings and thus bearing selection is of importance in a helical drive.

To eliminate this double helical gears are often used since these produce opposed thrust loads
of equal magnitude, which thus cancel each other out.

3.6.3 BEVEL GEARS

These transmit motion between two shafts in the same plane but at right angles to each other.
The involute teeth lie along part of a cone whose apex if produced, would lie at the
intersection of the shaft axes.

Such gears are termed straight bevel gears.

The tooth thickness thus diminishes as the centre is approached.

Spiral bevel gears are similar to helical gears for aright angle drive and thus have the same
smooth running advantages as helical gears.

However, both forms produce thrust loading which must be considered during choice of
bearings.

They are more difficult to manufacture and assemble, have non-uniform distribution of load,
hence less load carrying capacity.

3.6.4 WORM AND WHEEL GEARS

These produce a right-angle drive for shafts, which are not in line. The worm is a screw
thread with an involute form, which engages in teeth on the wheel.

The main advantage of these is that they produce a very large reduction from a single
reduction system. These can carry much greater loads.

However, the tooth action is entirely sliding, hence the least efficient of the gear systems and
prone to tooth wear.

3.6 MODES OF TOOTH FAILURE

When a pair of spur gears transmit a torque, T there will arise a normal force, Fn, at the contact
of two conjugate tooth profiles. This opposes the rotation of the pinion and coincides in
direction with the driven gear wheel giving rise to contact stresses (H) at the active surfaces
and bending stresses (b) at the roots of the teeth.

These stresses fluctuate following a cyclic pattern and may, therefore cause a fatigue failure.
Short-time overloads both static and dynamic (impacts) as well as frictional component due
to slip should not be overlooked in evaluating the operating conditions of a gear drive.

3.7.1 FAILURE DUE TO BENDING STRESSES

This includes;

a) Fracture due to overload of dynamic (impacts) or even static nature,

b) Fatigue fracture due to long-time exposure to reversed stresses.

Increasing the gear module and providing fillets at the tooth roots to eliminate stress
concentration can prevent these.

3.7.2 FAILURE DUE CONTACT OF ACTIVE SURFACES

This owes its existence to contact stresses and friction and may manifest itself in pitting,
abrasive and seizure.

3.8 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SPUR GEARS IN TERMS OF FATIGUE

3.8.1 FORCES IN THE MESH:

Figure 3.7: Forces in the mesh

From the diagram shown above;

The normal force Fn is directed along the line of action (common normal to the active
surfaces of the teeth).The forces acting in the mesh are usually applied at the pitch point (P).
Revolving Fn we will get a tangential component (Ft) and a radial component (Fr). Then if
the torque Tand the pitch diameter of the pinion d are known.

2T T
Ft  
d r

hence Fr = Ft tan and

 Ft
Fn 
cos

3.8.2 FORCE DISTRIBUTION

Figure 3.8: Force distribution

For a drive to operate continuously and without impacts, the condition  1must is satisfied.

g
Where    is the contact ratio of the profiles .
pm

g = length of the path of contacts

p m = base pitch (measured along the base circle )

Under that condition, when one pair of teeth is just entering contact, another pair, already in
contact, will not get have reached the point above contact ends .Thus there are two pairs of
teeth in contact .

Hence :

Fn
force on two meshing pairs and Fn force at or near the pitch point
2

3.9 LEWIS FORMULAR

Lewis used the cantilever theory to understand and calculate the gear tooth failure. The gear
tooth is considered to be a cantilever with a load applied to the top of the tooth. The final
equation derived is as given below. 1892

Ft
b 
mbYk v

Where ;

b - face width m -module

Y -Lewis form factor kv - velocity factor

Ft - transmitted load Standard gear module

Table 3.1: Standard gear module

1 2 4 8 16 32

1.25 2.5 5 10 20 40

1.5 3 6 12 25 50

Table 3.2: Values for Y

Number Pressure angle = 200 Pressure angle = 250

of teeth
A=m A=m

De = 1.25A De =1.25A

15 0.26622 0.32009

20 0.30769 0.36916

30 0.35510 0.42530

45 0.39093 0.46774

50 0.39860 0.47681

60 0.41047 0.49086

75 0.42283 0.50546

100 0.43574 0.52071

Table 3.3 Velocity factors

Gear formation Pitch line velocity (  ) of Velocity factor

pinion

Ordinary commercial gears Up to 7.5m/s 3

kv 
3 v

Accurately cut gears Up to 12.5m/s 4. 5

kv 
4 .5  v

Accurately cut gears Up to 20m/s 6

kv 
6v

Precision cut gears (lapped) Up to 20m/s 0.75

kv 
0.75  v

For non-metallic gears 0.75

kv   0.25
0.75  v
The following table contains s few of the locally available materials for gear manufacturing,
more materials can be obtained from suppliers.

Table 3.4: Materials for gear manufacturing

Material Characteristic  ut (MPa )

PB102 (BS2870) 5% Phosphor Bronze, Friction Resistant 430

826M31(En 25) Shock Resistant 1010

832M13 (En 36C) Shock Resistant 1000

653M31 (En 23) Withstand low Temperature Impact 760

530A40 (En18D) Shock and Wear Resistant 620

214M15 (En 20) Light duty pinions 550

3.10 ESTIMATING GEAR SIZE

The gear size is obtained using iteration because both the transmitted load and the velocity
depend directly and indirectly, on the module (m).

The given information is usually

Power
The speed N rev/min
Lewis from faster Y
The permissible bending stress
When estimating gear sizes the factor of safety must be n  3 depending upon the material
and applications.

The calculation procedure is to select a trial value of module and to make the following
successive calculations.

Steps

1Find the pitch diameter in (m) D= mT.

2 Find the pitch line velocity v (m/s) v =r

3. Find the transmitted load Ft (N)

4. Calculate the velocity factor ( k v )

5. Calculate the face width (b) mm

6. The minimum and maximum face widths are 3p and 5p respectively (mm)
 Thus 3p  b  5p

3.11 WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 3.1

A pinion with 25 teeth cut on it runs at 1000rpm to transmit 30kW to a gear wheel. The speed
reduction is to be 1,5 to 1. If the induced bending stress is 40x106N/m2, and the pressure
angle 200.

a) the pitch diameters of the gears

b) number of teeth on driven gear wheel
c) the outside diameters of the gears
d) the root diameters of the gears
e) the base circle diameters of the gears
f) the acceptable gear face width

Solution

a) Selecting a module of 5mm then;

d  mT1  (5)(25)  125mm
N 1 D T2 1.5
But speed ratio is given by;     1.5
N 2 d T1 1
 D  1.5d  (1.5)(125)  187.5mm
b) T2  1.5T1  (1.5)(25)  37.5  38teeth
c) Since m  A
Od  d  2 A
Od  125  2(5)
Od  135mm
OD  D  2 A  187.5  (2)(5)  197.5mm
d) De  1.25A
Rd  d  2 De  125  (2)(1.25)(5)  112.5mm
RD  D  2 De  187.5  (2)(1.25)(5)  175mm

d o  d cos  125cos 200  117.462mm

e)
Do  D cos  187.5 cos 200  176.192mm
Ft
f)  b 
mbYk v
Lewis form factor by interpolation:
20 25 30
0.30769 Y 0.35510
 30  20 0.35510  0.30769

25  20 Y  0.30769
10 0.04741

5 Y  0.30769
2(Y  0,30769)  0.04741
2Y  0.04741 0.61538
Y  0.331495

P T
Ft  
v r
2N 2 (1000)
v  r  r (0.0625)  6.544m / s
60 60
30x103
 Ft   4584.352N
6.544
3
kv   0.314
3  6.544
4584.352
 40x106 
(0.005)(0.314)(0.331395)b
20811.606b  4584.352
b  220.279mm

Example 3.2

A gear drive comprising two involute gears is to have a speed reduction of 1.5 to 1. The
driving pinion has 20 teeth and revolves at 120rev/min. if the gears have a module of 2mm,
determine;

a) The speed of the driven gear wheel

b) The number of teeth on the driven gear wheel
c) The pitch diameters of both gears and the centre distance
d) The circular pitch
e) The clearance

Solution

a)
N 1 T2 D 1.5 120
    N2   80rpm
N 2 T1 d 1 1 .5
b) T2  1.5T1  1.5(20)  30teeth
d  mT1  ( 2)(20)  40mm
c)
D  mT2  1.5d  1.5( 40)  60mm

C
1
d  D   40  60  50mm
2 2
 d) Circular pitch (c p )  m  2  6.28mm
e) Clearance ( c )  De  A
De  1.25 A
But A  m
 c  1.25( 2)  2  0.5mm

Example 3.3

Estimate the power output capacity of a 200 pressure angle involute gear set manufactured
from 653M31 (En 23) steel alloy. The 18 teeth pinion meshes with a 34 tooth gear. The dear
are cut with a module is 2.5 mm and the face width is 34mm. the pinion rotates at 1440rpm.
A factor of safety of 9 may be assumed.

Solution

Given;

  200 , 653M31 (En23), T p  18 , Tg  34 , m = 2.5mm, b = 34mm,

N = 1440rpm, n = 9, P=?

 ut
760  106
   84.444  106 (From table 3.4)
n 9

Lewis form factor (Y) = 0.29327 (From table 3.2 calculated by interpolation)

d  mT  2.5(18)  45mm

2N 2 (1440) 45
Pitch line velocity (  )  r  r ( )  3.393m / s
60 60 2000

3 3
Velocity factor ( k v )    0.469 (From table 3.3)
3   3  3.393

Ft

mbYk v
Ft
84.444x106 
0.0025(0.034)(0.29327)(0.469)
Ft  987.252N

P  Ft    987.252(3.393)  3.35kW

Example 3.4
In order to obtain the required speed ratio it is required to mesh a 38 tooth pinion with a 67
tooth gear accurately cut with a module of 5mm and a gear width of 60mm. The pressure
angle is 200. The power to be transmitted is form a 530A40 (En18D) steel pinion input of
85kW at 1300rpm to a PB102 (BS2870) 5% phosphor bronze gear. Determine the factor of
safety guarding against tooth failure under steady load conditions.

Solution

Given;

Tp  38 , Tg  67 , m = 5, b = 60mm,

 p  620MPa ,  g  430MPa (from table 3.4)

By interpolation from table 3.2;

60 67 75

0,41047 Y 0.42283

75  60 0.42283 0.41047

67  60 Y  0.41047
Y  0.416238

P 85000(60)
Torque ( T )    624.377Nm
 2 (1300)

d  mTp  5(38)  190mm

2N 2 (1300)
Pitch line velocity (  )  r  r (0.095)  12.93m / s
60 60

6 6
Velocity factor ( k v )    0.317
6  v 6  12.93

d  mTp  5(38)  190mm

T 2T 2(624.377)
Ft     6572.389N
r d 0.19
 Ft

n mbYk v
430  106 6572.389

n 0.005(0.06)(0.416238(0.317)
 430  106 (0.005)(0.06)(0.41623)(0.317)
n
6572.389

n  2.6

3.12 SELF STUDY

QUESTION 1

a) List the advantages of helical gear drives over spur gears

b) Withthe help of a sketch explain how to construct a part involute curve
c) A gear drive is to transmit 25kW at 400rpm, The gears are precisely generated with a
module of 8mm, Lewis form factor 0,8 and a gear face width of 160mm. If the gear ratio
is to be 1.5 to 1 and the pinion has 30teeth, calculate the pitch diameters of the gears and
the induced bending stress on the pinion teeth.

QUESTION 2

A gear drive comprises two involute gears of module 12mm. A pinion of 30 teeth transmits
45kW at 600rpm to a wheel running at 150rpm, determine

a) the pitch diameters of the gears

b) the centre distance
c) the addendum
d) the outside diameters of the gears
e) the dedendum
f) the root diameters of the gears
g) the circular pitch
h) the whole tooth depth
i) the base diameters for a pressure angle of 200
j) the bending stress induced on the teeth roots of the pinion of face width 180mm.

QUESTION 3

A gear drive connected to a motor 18.65kW running at 1400rpm drives a compressor to run
at 350rpm. The centre distance between motor shaft and compressor shaft is 400mm. the
pinion is to be made of forged steel having allowable stress of 2000kg/cm2 and the gear
wheel is to be made from cast steel having permissible stress of 1350kg/cm2. Assuming
medium shock conditions giving a power factor for 8hr/day for compressor of 0.65, module
 0.684
of 4mm and given that the Lewis form factor is given by Y   0.124  where T is
 T 
the number of teeth, calculate;
a) number of teeth on each gear (40teeth; 160teeth)
b) the permissible gear face width (53mm)
Question 4
Select a suitable material for the manufacturing of a steel pinion with the following
characteristics:
- Number of teeth = 16
- Module = 6mm
- Pressure angle = 250
The pinion runs at 1200rpm and transmits 82kW. Assume the gear face width to be
75mm.

[832M13(En36C) (866.9MPa)]

Question 5

Determine a suitable pitch circle diameter, module and face width for a pinion required to
transmit 76kW at 24oorpm. If the pinion teeth are 250full depth involute profile, have
standard addendum and dedendum values, design for a minimum number of teeth. Take
the pinion material to be 823M13(En25) steel.

[d = 60mm. m = 5mm, b = 64.9]

DESIN OF HELICAL GEARS

Since the teeth on a helical gear are cut in the form of a helix about the axis of rotation, the
contact occurs only at the point of the leading edge of the tooth when such gears begin to
mesh, which extends gradually along a diagonal line across the tooth as gears rotate. This
leads to;

1. less dynamic stress

2. lesser noise than spur gears
3. evenly spread tooth load hence high load carrying capacity
4. higher speed (1200 to 2500 rpm)

Letting p be circular pitch and pa the normal circular pitch ( plane normal to the teeth) then;

pn  p cos
p where α is the helix angle
pa  ( axial  pitch)
tan 

Similarly if m represents the transverse module or simply module in the plane of rotation and
mn the normal module in the normal plane, then;

mn  m cos
If φn is the pressure angle ( in the normal plane) and φ is transverse pressure angle or simply
pressure angle or pressure angle in the diameteral plane then;

tan  n  tan  cos

In order that contact may be maintained across the entire active face of the gear (ω), the
minimum value of the width should at least be equal to p/tanα.

Letting Tg and Tn be the numbers of teeth of gear and pinion respectively then;

pn  p cos

DCos
pn 
Tg

The centre distance will be given by;

m n T g  Tn 
C
2Cos

Addendum by;

 T 
A  mn   2
 Cos 

Dedendum by;

 T 
De  m n   2 .5 
 Cos 

T being the minimum number of teeth in straight teeth gear to avoid interference.

The smallest number of teeth T1 for the helical gears adopted to avoid interference is given
by;

T 1  TCos 3

The velocity ratio is given by;

Tg D g Cos g

Tp D p Cos p

T
The tangential force; Ft 
r

The end thrust or axial load; Fa  Ft tan 

Since the thrust load increases with the helix angle, it should be limited to between 15 to 230.

Ft
The radial force; Fr 
tan 

The strength of helical gears is given by;

ym
Ft  kv
Cl

yield..stress
where,  
 allowable.stress
factor..of ..safety

ω-active face width along the axis of rotation

y-form factor for the pressure angle and number of teeth

m-module and kv-velocity factor

CL-lubrication factor ( 1.15 for enclosed gears under continuous lubrication and 1.35 for
indifferent lubrication)
43
Kv  .. for..speed..above..1200rpm
43  v
363
Kv  .. for.. peripheral..velocity.. from..300m / min ..to..600m / min
363  v
6
Kv  .. for..5m / sec ..to.10m / sec
6v
15
Kv  .. for..10m / sec ..to..20m / sec
15  v
0.75
Kv  .. for..above..20m / sec
0.75  v
0.75
Kx   0.25.. for..non..metallic.. gears
1 v

The dynamic load on helical gears may be found from the following expression;

0.112v(Cos 2  Ft )Cos
Fd  Ft 
0.112v  (CCos 2   Ft )

Wear of helical gears can be checked by the expression;

D p S e Sin  1 1 
2
2T g
F   
1.4Cos  2
T p  T g  E p E g 

Seω-surface endurance limit (kg/cm) obtained from tables

CHAPTER 4 SHAFTS , COUPLINGS AND KEYS

OBJECTIVES

1. To be able to design the correct diameter of shaft to ensure satisfactory strength and
rigidity
2. To be able to design suitable rigid couplings
3. To be able to design and choose the correct way of fixing a torque transmitting
component to a shaft.
4.1 SHAFTING

4.1.1 Introduction

A shaft is a rotating machine element which is used to transmit power from one place to
another. The power is delivered to the shaft by some tangential force and the

resultant torque (or twisting moment) set up within the shaft permits the power to be
transferred to various machines linked up to the shaft. In order to transfer the power fromone
shaft to another, the various members such as pulleys, gears etc., are mounted on it. These
members along with the forces exerted upon them causes the shaft to bending.

In other words, we may say that a shaft is used for the transmission of torque and bending
moment. The various members are mounted on the shaft by means of keys or splines.

In machinery, the general term `SHAFT refers to a member usually of circular cross section,
which supports gears, wheels, rotors etc. and is subjected to torsion and to transverse or axial
loads acting singly or in combination.

Specifically a shaft is a member which rotates and is subjected to torsion accompanied by

transverse or axial loads.

An axle, though similar in shape to the shaft, is a stationary machine element and is used for
the transmission of bending moment only. It simply acts as a support for some rotating body
such as hoisting drum, a car wheel or a rope sheave

A spindle is a short shaft that imparts motion either to a cutting tool (e.g. drill press spindles)
or to a work piece (e.g. lathe spindles).

Most shafts are stepped to provide shoulders for locating gears, pulleys, bearings or other
attached or contacting parts.

4.1.2 Materials

The material used for shafts should have the following properties :

a) strength for power and loading requirements;

b) good machinability.
c) low notch sensitivity factor.
d) good heat treatment properties.
 e) high wear resistant properties.
f) stiffness as affecting , for instance bearing performance, gear operation, timing
and critical speeds;

g) weight and space limitations;

h) stress concentration
The most common shafting material is mild-steel.

For high strength requirements, an alloy steel such as Nickel, Nickel-chromium or

Chrome-vanadium steel is used.

4.1.3 Manufacturing of Shafts

Shafts are generally manufactured by hot rolling and finished to size by cold drawing or
turning and grinding. The cold rolled shafts are stronger than hot rolled shafts but with
higher residual stresses.

The residual stresses may cause distortion of the shaft when it is machined, especially
when slots or keyways are cut. Shafts of larger diameter are usually forged and turned to
size in a lathe.

4.1.4 Types of Shafts

Shafts can be divided into two types:-

a) Transmission shafts. These shafts transmit power between the source and the
machines absorbing power. The counter shafts, line shafts, over head shafts and all
factory shafts are transmission shafts. Since these shafts carry machine parts such as
pulleys, gears etc., therefore they are subjected to bending in addition to twisting.
b) Machine shafts. These shafts form an integral part of the machine itself. The crank
shaft is an example of machine shaft.
4.1.5 Stresses in Shafts

The following stresses are induced in the shafts :

a) Shear stresses due to the transmission of torque (i.e. due to torsional load).

b) Bending stresses (tensile or compressive) due to the forces acting upon machine

elements like gears, pulleys etc. as well as due to the weight of the shaft itself.

c) Stresses due to combined torsional and bending loads.

4.1.6 Maximum Permissible Working Stresses for Transmission Shafts

According to American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) code for the design

of transmission shafts, the maximum permissible working stresses in tension or

compression may be taken as
 a) 112 MPa for shafts without allowance for keyways.

b) 84 MPa for shafts with allowance for keyways.

For shafts purchased under definite physical specifications, the permissible tensile

stress (  t ) may be taken as 60 per cent of the elastic limit in tension (  el ), but not

more than 36 per cent of the ultimate tensile strength (  ut ). In other words, the

permissible tensile stress,  t = 0.6  el or 0.36  ut , whichever is less.

The maximum permissible shear stress may be taken as

a) 56 MPa for shafts without allowance for key ways.

b) 42 MPa for shafts with allowance for keyways.

For shafts purchased under definite physical specifications, the permissible shear

stress (  ) maybe taken as 30 per cent of the elastic limit in tension (  el ) but not more

than 18 per cent of the ultimate tensile strength (  ut ). In other words, the permissible

shear stress,  = 0.3  el or 0.18  ut , whichever is less.

Shafts may be subjected to various combinations of axial, tensile and compressive loads as
well as torsion and bending and these may be applied under gradual, sudden, shock or
cyclic loading conditions.

4.1.7 Advantages of circular shafts

(i) Can be centred easily

(ii) Natural in balance
(iii) Bearings fitting is ease
(iv) Their plane cross-section remain plane even under torsion
(v) Have a good torsional stiffness to weight ratio
(vi) Safer to use in the work place than non-circular shafts.
4.1.8 Design considerations

Design of Shafts

The shafts may be designed on the basis of

 a) Strength, and

b) Rigidity and stiffness.

In designing shafts on the basis of strength, the following cases may be considered (a)
Shafts subjected to twisting moment or torque only,

(b) Shafts subjected to bending moment only,

(c) Shafts subjected to combined twisting and bending moments, and

(d) Shafts subjected to axial loads in addition to combined torsional and bending
loads.

(e) the weakening effects at points of stress concentration due to key-ways and
shoulders

In many cases the rigidity of the shaft is an important design feature. The twisting of the shaft
may be limited in order to provide accurate prescribed timing or motions, as in the camshaft
of an I.C.E.

Transverse deflections may be limited, for instance, to maintain proper bearing clearances or
gear-tooth alignment.

Both torsional and transverse rigidity are important in vibration.

Angle of twist is obtained from;

TL

GJ

Where;

  Angle of twist in radians

T- Torque transmitted in Nm.

l- Length of shaft in m

G- Modulus of rigidity in N/m2

J- second polar moment of area

The twist should not exceed 0,250/m for machine tools and 30/m for line shafts.


For solid shaft: J  d4
32


For hollow shafts: J 
32
D 4
 d4 
4.1.9 Determination of shaft sizes on the basis of strength

The action of forces on a shaft is generally one of the following

a) Torsion only

b) Bending only

c) Torsion combined with bending

d) Torsion with axial tension or compression

4.1.9.1 Shafts subjected to torsion only

For a simple twisting moment, Mt or T on a solid circular shaft of diameter, d, the

working shear stress will be given by ;

  all
Mt

Z

Alternately the general torsion formula is given by;

T  G
 
J R l

For solid shafts the polar section modulus is given by;

d 3
Z therefore;
16

  all
16M t
 
d 3
For hollow shafts;

 D 4  d 4 
Z
16D


J
32
D 4
d4 

  all
16M t
Therefore; 
 (D4  d 4 )

Where;  - induced shear stress T = M t -Twisting moment

d- diameter of shaft r – radius of shaft

 all - allowable shear stress D – Outside diameter of shaft.

The power formula is given by;

2NT 60P T
P  Ft v or T  ; and Ft 
60 2N r

Where;

P – transmitted power in kW

N – speed of shaft in rpm

Ft – tangential force on shaft in N

v – velocity of shaft in m/s

But;

2N
v  r And 
60

Where r is the radius of curvature

4.1.9.2 Shafts subjected to bending only

When the shaft is subjected to a bending moment only, then the maximum stress (tensile or
compressive) is given by the bending equations below.

M b
 Where;
I y

M = Bending moment,

I = Moment of inertia of cross-sectional area of the shaft about the

axis of rotation,

 b = Bending stress, and

y = Distance from neutral axis to the outer-most fibre.

For a round solid shaft, moment of inertia,

 d
I d 4 and y 
64 2

Substituting into above equation;

M b 
 M  T   bd 3
 d 32
d4
64 2
 
Letting d3  Z
32

Mb
 b    b all
Z

For a hollow shaft;


I [D 4  d 4 ]
64

M b  D4  d 4
 or M  b [ ]
 D 32 D
[D  d ]
4 4
2
64

32M
 b   [ b ]all
 D4  d 4 
 
 D 

  D4  d 4 
Letting
32  Z
D 

  b all
Mb
b 
Z

4.1.9.3 Shafts subjected to combined twisting moment and bending moment

When the shaft is subjected to combined twisting moment and bending moment, then the
shaft must be designed on the basis of the two moments simultaneously. Various theories
have been suggested to account for the elastic failure of the materials when they are subjected
to various types of combined stresses. The following two theories are important from the
subject point of view :

a) Maximum shear stress theory or Guest's theory. It is used for ductile materials such as
mild steel.
b) Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine‘s theory. It is used for brittle materials
such as cast iron.
Let  be the Shear stress induced due to twisting moment, and

 b Bending stress (tensile or compressive) induced due to bending

moment.

As already seen, most rotating shafts carry gears, pulleys, sprockets, etc that cause bending of
the shaft in torsion. An effort should be made to mount the gears, pulleys etc as near as
possible to the bearings in order to reduce the bending moment.
Guest‘s or Tresca‘s maximum shear stress theory of failure.

If the maximum shear stress generated in the material of a shaft by the action of combined
bending and twisting is equal to a shear stress generated by a twisting moment (torque) acting
singly, the latter twisting moment referred to as equivalent torque and denoted by Te .

The design of shafts made of ductile materials is based on the maximum shear stress theory;
hence it is necessary to determine the maximum combined shear stress in the shaft due to the
applied twisting and bending moments. Thus,

  2 
 max   2  b    b 2  4 2

 4 

Substituting the values of  and b from the above equations the maximum shear stress
becomes;

 max 
16
d 3
M t
2
 Mb
2

The term Te  Mt  Mb
2 2
is called the equivalent twisting moment and is defined as the
fictitious twisting moment that will induce the same action of the actual twisting and bending
moments.

Maximum normal stress theory or Rankine‘s theory of failure

Now according to maximum normal stress theory, the maximum normal stress in the shaft,

1 1
 b max   b   b 2  4 2
2 2

Substituting the values of  b and  we get;

32  1  
 b max  3  
M b  M b  T 2 
2

d  2  

d 3
 b max   M b  M b 2  T 2 
1
32 2 

The expression to right hand is known as equivalent bending moment and is denoted

by Me. The equivalent bending moment may be defined as that moment which when acting
alone produces the same tensile or compressive stress  b as the actual bending moment. By
limitingthe maximum normal stress [  b max ] equal to the allowable bending stress [  b ]all ,
then the above equation may be written as;
 d 3
 b max   M b  M b 2  T 2 
1
Me 
32 2 


In the case of hollow shafts; Te  M b  T 2 
2
 D 4  d 4 
16

1   D4  d 4 
Me  Mb  Mb T 2   b 
2

2   32 
 D 

It is suggested that the diameter of the shaft may be obtained by using both the theories and
the larger of the two values is adopted.

For brittle materials;

16  16  M b 2 
 max   M b  M b  M t   max    Mb  Mt 
2 2 2
and,
d 3
  d  2
3


If a shaft is subject to cyclic torque and bending moment, stress concentration should be
considered. In this case shock and fatigue factors should be introduced as Kt combined
torsional shock and fatigue factor and Kb combined bending shock and fatigue factor, hence;

 max 
16
K b M b  2  ( K t M t ) 2
d 3

The following table give values for K b and K t , for rotating shafts:

The table below give values of these factor depended of the type of loading.

Table 4.1: Combined shock and fatigue factors

Shaft loading Kb Kt

Gradual 1.5 1.0

Minor shock 2.0 1.5

Major shock 3.0 2.5

Table 4.2: Standard round solid bar diameters

Diameter

From Increment Up to
1 0.5 10

10 1 50

50 2 300

300 25 600

Table 4.3: Steels under normal temperatures

Material Heat  yt HB LRS

Treatment
MPa MPa mm

BS970 070M20 N 215 125 63

BS970 070M55 Q and T 595 248 19

480 223 63

BS970 080M40 Q and T 490 201 19

435 179 63

BS970 709M40 Q and T 955 311 19

770 269 63

BS970 817M40 Q and T 1250 444 19

850 293 63

N - Normalised

T- Tempered

Q – Quenched

LRS – Limiting ruling section refers to the maximum value of the external diameter of a shaft
for which the listed stress is applicable
Table 4.4: Effect of temperature on the yield stress of steels.

Material Heat  yt
Treatment

MPa MPa MPa

BS970 709M40 Q and T 680 680 310

2000C 4000C 5500C

BS970 080M40 N 340 293

240C 2500C

BS970 817M40 Q and T 790 670 650

2000 3000C 3500C

[N – Normalised; T – Tempered; Q – Quenched]

According to Von Mises criteria the relationship between the ultimate tensile strength (  ut )
and Brinell hardness (BHN ); tensile yield strength (  yt ) and torsional yield strength (  sy )
are given below and applicable and should be used only if the required data is not available.

 ut  3.45  BHN
 sy  0.557 yt

4.1.9.4 Torsion combined with axial tension or compression

This type of loading can occur in propeller shafts in which case;

The tensile or compressive stress will be given by;

4P
t/c 
d 3

and the shear stress will be given by;

16M t
s 
d 3
2
16  Pd 
Combining these stresses we get;  max  Mt 
2

d 3  8 
4.1.9.5 Shaft design guidelines

a) Keep shafts short and minimize cantilever designs.

b) Hollow shafts have better stiffness/mass ratios, but aremore expensive.
c) Configure shaft geometry to reduce stress concentrations.
d) Remember that gears can produce radial, tangential, and axial loads.
e) Be aware of maximum shaft deflection requirements of bearings.
f) Shaft natural frequency should be as high as practical.

4.2 COUPLINGS

When it is necessary to join or fasten together the ends of two shafts so that power can be
transmitted directly from one shaft to the other couplings as well as clutches are used.

Couplings are considered as permanent fastenings and are used under the following
conditions;

a) with shafts having collinear axes; rigid or flexible couplings are used,

b) with shafts having intersecting axes; universal couplings are used,

c) with shafts whose axes are parallel and at a relatively small distance apart; double-slider
crank principle of mechanism is used.

4.6.1 SLEEVE OR MUFF COUPLING

This is the simplest form of rigid coupling and is most often constructed of cast iron. It is
more safe since it has no projecting parts. The sleeve acts as a section of a hollow shaft in
transmitting the torque through its self from one shaft to the other.

Hence; T  M t  Z

 D 4  d 4 
but, Z
16D
 16M t D
 
 D 4  d 4 

D =2d +12. 5mm

L  3. 5d

Factors of safety for keys, pins and splines

In practice these should be obtained from suppliers or design codes specified by clients.

The table below give some of the factors of safety for various conditions:

Type of load / safety factor

Uniform Light shock Intermittent Heavy shock

shock
Power source (generator, Fan) (oscillating (punches,
pumps, etc. (Actuating shears, etc)
pumps, etc.

Uniform 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7

(turbine,
electric motor)

Light shock 1.8 2.0 2.7 3.1

(Hydraulic
motor)

Medium shock 3.0 3.3 3.6 4.2

(internal
combustion
engine)

Table 4.6 : Factors of safety for keys. Pins and splines

4.6.2 STRENGTH OF RECTANGULAR (SQUARE OR FLAT) KEYS

A key is a wedge-like steel fastening that is inserted within two machine or structural parts to
prevent them from having relative motion with respect to each other. These cause the two
members to act as a unit or single part. These can be saddles, flat, square, pin etc.
From the diagram; the tangential force set at the outside of the shaft, Pt =T/r.

But this tangential force is a shearing load on the key over its rectangular area bl, parallel to
the direction if the load.

  sk 
Pt
Hence the shear stress on key will be;  sk 
bl

The same load is resisted by the area 1/2 (tl) perpendicular to the direction of this load which
tends to compress or crush this area of the key against the shaft.

Hence;

2 Pt
 ck    ck 
tl

It therefore follows that

As sk  Ac  ck
1
 bl sk  tl ck
2
 sk t

 ck 2b

since;

Pt  bl sk
T
Pt 
r
 Tk  blr sk  Ts
This is known as the moment of the shearing resistance of key which is equal to the torque
transmitted.

1
Similarly; T tlr ck
2

This is known as the moment of the crushing resistance of the key also equal to torque
transmitted.

4.6.2.1 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS

1
The width of key (b) = d
4

The minimum length of key (l)  1.5d

4.6.2.2 EFFECT OF KEYWAYS

Key-ways cut into the shaft affects the strength of the shaft due to stress concentration at and
near the corners of the key-way. The effect is more pronounced when the shaft is subjected to
shock and fatigue loads. The effect can be computed by the following expression;

C = 1.0 - 0.2 w/d - 1.1h/d

Where;

C -factor similar to stress concentration factor

w -width of the key-way

h -depth of key-way

d -diameter of the shaft.

If there is a key-way the design stress must be divided by the factor C.

The length of the key does not affect the strength of the shaft.

4.7 FLANGE COUPLING

These are adapted to heavy loads and hence are used almost exclusively on rather large
shafting. Accurate alignment of shafts is essential as for all rigid couplings.

4.7.1 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS

B =3d bolt circle diameter,

H =1.5d +12.5mm hub diameter

Assuming the shafting to be transmitting a torque T, then there will arise at the bolt circle a
tangential force Pt such that;

T 2T
Pt  
r B

The area of bolt under shear is;

nd b
2

A n being the number of bolts.

4

nd b sb
 Pt 
4

nd b  sb  B 
2

T  rPt   
4 2

Since the torque transmitted is equal to the torque resisted by the bolts then,

d 3 nd b  sb B
2

 ss   sb  
16 4 2

The same tangential force Pt also produces compression of the bolts, whose area involved is
the area of cylindrical surface given by tdb
Hence Pt  ntbb cb

where t is the thickness of flange

4.8 WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 4.1

Design a solid shaft required to transmit 25 kW at a speed of 200rpm. Take a factor of safety
of 8 and the ultimate shear strength of steel as 85107N/m2.

Solution

P 25000(60)
T  Mt    1193.66Nm
 2 ( 200)

 us 85x107
Safe working stress  s    10.625x107 N / m 2
n 8

Mt d 3
But  s  and for a solid shaft Z 
Z 16

16M t
10.625x107 
d 3
10.625x107 d 3  16(1193.66)
d  38.5mm

Example 4.2

A solid steel shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 12100 Nm and a twisting moment of
5600N.m. If the allowable shear stress is 800MPa what diameter of shaft is needed?

Solution

16
 seq  Mt  Mb
d 3
800x106 d 2  16 (12100) 2  (5600) 2

16 (12100) 2  (5600) 2
d 3
800x106 
d  44mm

Example 4.3
 A nickel steel shaft carries two gears, C and D located at distances 250mm and 400mm
respectively as shown in the diagram. Gear C is 600mm in diameter and gear D is 200mm in
diameter. The distance between the centre lines of bearings is 2.4m. The shaft transmits
15kW at 100rpm. The power is delivered to the shaft at gear C and taken out at gear D in
such a manner that the tooth pressures Pt c and Pt d which become loads supported by the
shaft ,act vertically downward as shown in the end view. Find the diameter of shaft, if the
ultimate shear stress is 900mpa and the factor of safety is 8 and gears C and D weigh 20kg
and 7kg respectively.

Solution

P 15000(60)
T   1432.39Nm
 2 (100)

T 1432.39
Tangential force on gear C; ( Ptc )    4774.633N
rc 0 .3

T 1432.39
Tangential force on gear D; ( Ptd )    14323.9 N
rd 0 .1

Total vertical force at C ( Fc )  4774.635  20(9.81)  4970.833N

Total vertical force at D ( Fd )  14323.9  7(9.81)  14392.57N

Determining the bearing reactions;

Taking moments about B;

M B 0
R A ( 2,4)  4970.833( 2.15)  14392.57(0.4)  0
R A  6851.7996N

F v 0
6851.7996  4970.833  14392.57  RB  0
RB  12511.6034N
Neglecting weight of shaft, maximum bending moment will occur at either C or D.

At C:

M bC  R A (0.25)  6851.7996(0.25)  1712.950Nm

At D;

M bD  RB (0.4)  5004.64Nm

Or

M bD  R A ( 2)  Ftc (1.75)
M dB  6851.7996( 2)  4970.833(1.75)
M dB  5004.64 Nm

See diagram below

Maximum bending moment occurs at D  5004.64Nm

 us
900x106
s    11.25x106 N / m 2
n 8
16
11.25x106  3 M t  M b
2 2

d
11.25x106 d 3  16 (143239) 2  (5004.64) 2
d  62mm

Example 4.4

A transmission hollow shaft is to be specially manufactured annealed stainless steel with a

yield stress of 310 MPa under pure torsion, for a 430kW marine engine rotating at 170rpm.
The diameter ratio of the shaft is to be 5 to 9, and the maximum torque exceeds the mean by
15%. Design a suitable shaft for this application. Determine also the weight saving
percentage obtained by using the hollow shaft instead of a solid shaft for this application.

Solution

Given

5
 yt  310 MPa P = 430kW N = 170 rpm d D Tmax  1.15Tmean
9

Torsional shear stress ( sy  0.557(310)  178.9MPa

P 60(430  103 )
Mean torque T    24.15kN .m
 2 (170)

Tmax  1.15(24.15)  27.78kNm

  
J holloow  D 4
 d 4 
5 4
 ( D  ( D) 
32 
4

32 9 
J hollow  D  0.095D  0.905D
4 4 4

T 

J R
27.78  103 178.9  106

 ( D 4  d 4 ) / 32 D/2
D  95.6mm
5
d  (95.6)  53.12mm
9

For solid shaft

T 

J R
27.78  103 178,9  106

d 4 d
32 2
d  92.48mm

Since both shafts are of the same density and length, there weight will be a direct function of
the cross sectional area, hence, % weight saving is given by;
 d 2  D2  d 2 
   
Asolid  Ahollow 4  4  100
  100 
Asolid d 2

4
92.48  (95.6  53.12
2 2 2
 100
92.482
 26.13%

Example 4.5

A solid shaft required to drive a crusher, is to be mounted between two self aligning bearings
0.8 m apart, and will be driven off a 115kW power source, rotating at 270 rpm to a 288 mm
pitch circle diameter gear situated between the bearings and 0.3 m from the left hand bearing.
The gear pressure angle is 200. The shaft is to be manufactured from BS970: 070M20 steel
(normalised) and a crusher shaft may be considered as subjected to major shock. Ignoring the
weight of the shaft and gear, determine a suitable shaft diameter by using a factor of safety of
2. Make use of the maximum shear stress theory of failure.

Solution

Given;

P = 115kW, N = 270 rpm, d = 288 mm, l = 0.8 m, n = 2,   200

For steel of type BS5970:070M20;

BHN = 125, LRS = 63,  yt  215 MPa

P 60(115 103 )
T   4.067kNm
 (2)270
Normal force between gears;

T  Fn  r cos
T 4067
Fn    30.06kN
r cos 0.144cos200

Maximum bending moment;

M A 0
30.06  0.3  0.8RB
RB  11.3Kn

RA  30.06  11.3  18.8kN

 M b max  18.8(0.3)  5.64kNm or M b max  11.3(0.5)  5.65kNm

For major shock kb = 3 and kt = 2.5

Te  k b M b max  k t M t 
Te  3  556402  2.5  40672  10730Nm

 ut  3.45BHN  3.45(125)  431MPa

 431
 working  ut   216MPa
n 2
 sy  0.577 yt

Torsional shear stress = 0.577 Tensile yield stress

  0 / 577( 216)  124MPa
d 3 max
Te 
16
124  106 d 3
19730 
16
d  93.2mm

Example 4.6

A solid steel shaft with a safe shearing stress of 70X106N/m2 transmits a torque of 10500Nm.

a) Find the diameter of the shaft.

b) Find the induced shear and compressive stresses in a square key to be used

c) Are the stresses in b safe if the ultimate shear and compressive stresses are

500x106N/m2 and 600x106N/m2 while the factor of safety is 3

Solution

Given:- T = 10500Nm;  s haft  70MPa ;  c( key )  600Mpa;

 skey  500 MPa n=3

a)
T s Z
d 3
10500  70  106
16
d  0.0007643
3

d  91mm

b) For square key

d 91
bt   22.75mm
4 4

l k  1.5d  1.5(91)  136.5mm

T 10500
Ft    230769.231N
r 0.0455

Ft 230769.231
 skey    74.313MPa
blk (0.02275)(0.1365)

2 Ft 2(230769.231)
 ckey    148.626MPa
tl 0.02275(0.136)
  max 500  106
c) n   6.76  7 Safety factor greater than the given hence key safe
 skey 74.313 106
for shear.
 c max 600  106
n   4.1  4 Safety factor greater than the given hence key
 ckey 148.626  106
safe for crushing.

Example 4.7

It is required to connect two 100mm shafts by means of a cast iron flange coupling which
employs 6 bolts. The allowable shearing stress of bolt material 6MPa.while that of the
shafting is 8MPa, Find

a) the diameter of bolts to used,

b) the induced compressive stress if the thickness of the flange is 16mm,

c) is the stress in b , a safe one for a factor of safety of 3 and ultimate compressive stress

26MPa.

Solution

Given:- d =100mm; number of bolts (nb) = 6; thickness of flange (t) =16mm; n =

3;  s. shaft  8MPa ;  sbolt  26 MPa

a) Bolt diameter

B  3d  100(3)  300mm

T   s. shaft  Z

d 3  (0.1) 3
T  sshaft  8  106  1570.796Nm
16 16

But the torque transmitted by the shaft is the torque resist by the coupling

d b
T n  sbolt B
4
d b2 0.3
1570.796  6 (6  106 )( )
4 2
d b  34.111mm

b) Compressive stress
 B
T  nd b t c
2
0.3
1570.796  6(0.034111)(0.016)( ) c
2
 c  3.198MPa

 c max 26MPa
c)  cworking    8.667MPa
n 3
 c   cworking
3.198MPa  8.667MPa

The bolts are safe

4.8 SELF STUDY

QUESTION 1

A line shaft running at 150 rpm is to transmit 44.7kw and may be regarded as subject to
torsion only. The shaft is of mild steel, having an ultimate shearing stress of 345MPa. Using a
factor of safety of 6, calculate its diameter. [d = 65mm (63mm)

QUESTION 2

Design a shaft to transmit power from an electric motor to a lathe head stock through a
pulley by means of a belt drive. The pulley weighs 20kg and is located at 100mm from the
centre of the bearing. The diameter of the pulley is 200mm. The maximum power transmitted
is 1118.55W at120rpm. The angle of contact of the belt is 1800, the coefficient of friction
between the belt and pulley is 0,3 and the stress contraction factors in bending 1,5 and in
twisting 2,0. The allowable shear stress in the shaft material is 2,4 MN/m2

QUESTION 3

A shaft is supported on two bearings A and C and drives a sheave loaded as shown below.

Determine a suitable standard steel bar shaft diameter if the limiting shear stress is 80MPA.
For the specific application, the weight of the mechanism is an important consideration and
applications elsewhere proved that it would be safe to increase the limiting shear stress to
90MPa. It was therefore decided to replace the solid shaft with a hollow shaft. Space
limitations, however, prevent a larger diameter shaft. Determine the internal diameter of the
hollow shaft. Also determine the percentage weight saving on the shaft. [D= 90mm (88.2); d
= 57.27mm; 40.49%]

QUESTION 4

A40kW motor runs at 2350 rpm at full load. The motor is required to operate under pure
torsion at a temperature not exceeding 2000 c. Determine a standard solid shaft diameter from
BS970: 070M40 steel (oil quenched and tempered at 5900c). Take a factor of safety of 2.5 to
the yield strength of the shaft material. [d = 18 mm (17.41mm)

QUESTION 5

A solid steel shaft is supported on two bearings 1800mmm. apart and rotates at 250rpm. A
200 involute gear D, 300mm in diameter is keyed to shaft as shown. Two pulleys B and C are
located as shown in the diagram. The diameters of the pulleys are 750mm and 600mm
respectively. 30kW is supplied to the shaft at gear D, out of which 19kW is taken off in
pulley C and 11kW from B. The drive in B is vertically downward while from C the drive is
downward at an angle of 600 to the horizontal. In both cases the tension ratio is 2. The
combined fatigue and shock factors for torsion and bending may be taken as 1.5 and 2.0
respectively. Design a suitable shaft taking the working stress in shear to be 41MPa.

QUESTION 6

A sleeve coupling is to connect two 60mm, shafts whose shearing stress is 10x106N/m2.

a) What torque is transmitted by the shafting?

b) To what torsional moment is the coupling subjected?

c) Find the outside diameter and length of the coupling,

d) Find the induced shear stress in the sleeve

e) If a cast-iron sleeve of ultimate shearing stress of 20MPa is used find the value of the

factor of safety
f) The length of key being half length of sleeve, find the induced shear and crushing

stresses in a 12mm square key to be used.

Question 7

In a flanged shaft coupling having a 38mm bore, it is desired that the torsional stress in the
shaft will not exceed 25MPa.There are three 16mm bolts on a bolt circle 68mm in radius. The
radial flange thickness is 19mm. Determine,

a) the stress in the bolts ,

b) the shearing stress in the bolts
c) the bearing pressure on the bolts.
CHAPTER 5 - JOINTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Every machine is made up of a number of parts which may be manufactured separately and
joined together to perform the duties of the machine.

Joints can be classified as;

a) Detachable joints: These allow for disassembling without destroying the connecting
components or the fastened elements hence replacements, repair, transportation, etc. are
made easier.
Examples are; threaded, keyed, pined cotter joints

b) Permanent joints; These cannot be disassembled without destroying the connecting

components.
Examples are; welded, brazed, soldered, adhesive, riveted, interference fit joints

5.2 DETACHABLE JOINTS

5.2.1 THREADED JOINTS

These are highly reliable in operation, can be obtained in a wide range adapted to various
operating conditions and are relatively cheap to produce due to standardization and
employment of highly efficient manufacturing process.

The main disadvantage is stress concentration on the threaded portions which are
vulnerable under cyclic loads.

5.2.2 DEFINITIONS

Bolt—is a bar with a thread for the nut at one end and head at the other end.

Stud---is a bar threaded at both ends. The mating end of the stud is screwed into a tapped
hole in one of the parts to be connected while the nut is screwed on the other end.

Screw-this differs from a bolt in that its threaded portion is screwed into one of
the fastened parts without the nut

Nut – has a threaded hole to engage the threaded ends of the bolt or stud and is a locking
part of the system.

Students should recall types of screws, nuts and thread

Pitch of thread (p) – this the distance from a point on one thread to a corresponding

point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis of the screw.

Lead of thread (l) – this is the distance that the helix of the thread advances parallel to

its axis in one turn about that axis.

Locking devices- nuts on moving parts of engines and machinery and those subjected to
machinery and those subjected to vibrational disturbing forces require locking.

Examples are lock nuts, castle nuts, slotted nuts

Washers- formed by cold rolling they are placed below a nut in order to;

- spread the pressure of the nut over a greater area thereby avoiding distortion of plates

- prevent the nut from cutting into or scoring the softer material.

- provide a flat seat for the nut on rough surfaces.

Helical spring lock washers act as take up devices to compensate for developed looseness and
the loss of tension between component parts of an assembly. It helps increase friction
between the threads of the bolt and nut. It also facilitate assembly and disassembly of bolted
fastenings by decreasing the frictional resistance between the bolted surface and the bearing
face of the bolt head or nut.

5.2.2 MATERIALS

Most bolts are made of steel for reasons of strength. However many factors should be
considered for the selection of materials.

5.2.3 LOAD ON BOLTS

Bolts in assemblies can be subjected to any of the following types of loads;

a) pure axial tensile loads-as in bolts supporting brackets, foundation bolts, cylinder cover
bolts etc.
b) pure shear loads- in couplings, eccentrically loaded brackets etc.
c) torsion combined with axial loads- as in turnbuckle, tightening of the bolts when they are
pre-stressed.

d) bending loads- as in flexible couplings where there is large clearance in

the bolted assemblies.

e) bending combined with shearing loads-as in shafts carrying components such as gears,
pulleys
f) cyclic loads- as in connecting rods, in couplings when the are shafts are not co-axial
In most cases threaded joints are pre-stressed that is they are tightened before the load is
applied.

The strength or strength and tightness are the design criteria.

5.2.4 DESIGN OF BOLTS SUPPORTING AXIAL OR TENSILE LOAD ONLY

In this case the load is supported by the threaded portion of the bolt. Design is based on the
strength of the smallest section at the root of the thread. The induced tensile stress will be

  c 
4P
t 
d c 2
given by;

Where

P-axial force

dc –core diameter of bolt

5.2.5 DESIGN OF BOLTS UNDER SHEAR LOAD

When bolts are subjected to pure shear load P then the shear stress is given by;
   s 
4P
s 
d 2

In this case the area involved is the body area and not the root area and the bolt should fit
snugly in its hole. Threads must not be loaded. Hence the diameter is that of shank.

5.2.6 DESIGN OF BOLTS WITH TIGHTENING STRESS

Considering a turn buckle above the stress due to axial force on the threaded section is given
by;

4P

d c 2

Pd p
T tan(   )
2
If a torque T is required to drive or pull the rods closer then;

Where

dp pitch diameter of threaded section

 lead angle of the helix

 angle of friction
tan =  and for ISO threads tan =  /Cos30

The shear stress is then given by;

Td p 32P tan(   )
 
2J d p 2

Principal stresses are then given by;

 1
 1, 2 
2

   2  4 2 
From these equations the nominal diameter is obtained and corrected to the nearest higher
standard value.

5.2.7 DESIGN OF BOLTS WITH INITIAL STRESSES

In a joint which requires initial load (tightening) as in a gasket for a cylinder cover, bolts are
subjected to pre-stressing.

Letting;

F-external load on joint due to the pressure in the cylinder

F1-initial load on the joint due to tightening

F2-residual load on joint after the external load is applied

Kb-stiffness of bolt material = (AE /L)

Kg-stiffness of gasket

Then the initial deformation of the bolt will be

F1
eb1 
Kb

And that of gasket will be

F1
e g1 
Kg
When external load is applied, the load on the bolt will be = P +F2

Due to this there will be an increase in the load on the bolt given by = P + F2 –F1

And a decrease of load on the gasket of = F1 - F2

 F  F2  F1
eb 2 
Kb
Therefore;

Extra deformation of the bolt will be

And decrease of load on gasket will be

F1  F2
eg2 
Kj

Equating deformations of bolt and gasket

F  F2  F1 F1  F2

Kb Kg

 1 1  F
( F  F2 )  
K Kb  K
 g  b

PK g
F1  F2 
K g  Kb

The residual load required as per design practice F2 =F

Where  is an experimental coefficient (0.2 to 1.8)

The maximum load on the bolt = F+ F2

= F + F

= F(1+)

then the initial tightening required will be given by;

 FK g  Kg 
F1  F2   F   
K g  Kb  K  K 
 g b 

To ensure tight joints  = 1.5 to 1.8

Taking into account the friction of bolt the equivalent tightening load can be obtained by
multiplying the above equation by 1.3.

Alternatively the change in length of bolt and gasket due to the application of the external
force F will be given by;

F
l 
E g Ag Eb Ab

lg lb
Where

Eg and Eb-are the modulus of elasticity of gasket and bolt respectively

Ag and Ab-are load carrying areas of gasket and bolt respectively

Lg -gasket thickness and lb bolt length from head to nut

The resultant force or load on bolt will be given by;

E b Ab
F
lEb Ab lb  Kb 
FR  F1   F1   F   F1  F1  KF
lb E g Ag E b Ab K K 
  b g 
lg lb

Where

K- constant which varies form 0 to 1

K = 1 for very soft gasket material (stiffness is very small)

K 1 for thin hard gasket of large area (stiffness high)

K =0 if no gasket is used ( metal to metal contact)

DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS

For joints to be leak proof;

Pitch of the bolts = 35d to 55d mm d being diameter of bolt in mm.

Edge distance = 1.5d

Bolt circle diameter (PCD) = D + 2d + 2t

D- cylinder diameter

t- thickness of cylinder

dc – core diameter of bolt

dc = 0.84d

outer diameter of the flange of the cylinder cover (D0 ) =PCD +3d

5.2.8 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED BOLTED CONNECTIONS

a) LOADING PARALLEL TO THE AXIS OF BOLT

Shown in the diagram is a load F acting in a vertical plane of joint between the foot of the
bracket and the face of the wall or column held by two bolts placed diagonally as shown.

Each bolt will be under two shear loads thus;

The direct shear load given by:

F1 = F/n where n is the number of bolts

If all bolts take up equal share of the load then the eccentricity of F tends to cause rocking
about the CG. The shear load in the bolt is this case will be proportional to its distance from
the CG. Assuming F1 (N/m) to be the shear load per unit distance due to the turning effect
and taking moments about

F 1l1  F 1l 2  Fl
2 2

From which

F2  F 1l 2

This will be the greatest load on bolt or bolts at the greatest distance from the CG, (ie l2 11)

The resultant if F1 and F2 can be obtained by the parallelogram of forces.

b) LOADING PERPENDICULAR TO AXIS OF BOLT

In this case in addition to the shear load as seen above there will be a tensile force in each
bolt due the rocking tendency of the bracket about O.

Thus

Fs = F/n and Ft = F1l2 if l2 is greater than l1

Since Fs and Ft are perpendicular to each other then;

The equivalent tensile load will be given by:

1
Fet  Ft  Ft  4 Fs
2

And the equivalent shear load

 1
Fes  Ft  4 Fs
2 2

The equivalent tensile stress will be given by;

t t2 1
 te   2  t   t 2  4 2
2 4 2

5.3 PERMANENT JOINTS

5.3.1 WELDED JOINTS

Welding is a process of joining metals in which the parent metals are fused together to
form a single piece.
Welding can be used for the following reasons;

1. As an alternative method for casting or forging, the choice depending on the overall cost,
equipment involved and serviceability,

2. As a fabrication method to join parts permanently and to form built-up members,

3. As a fabrication method to replace use of use of fasteners like rivets and bolts as it is
much stronger and saves in weight, however it is costly.
4. As a repair medium to reunite metal at cracks and to build up a small part that has broken
off.
Welding is divided into two groups;

1. that requiring both heat and pressure such as forge, spot, seam, projection and flash
welding

2. that requiring only heat such as thermit, gas and arc welding

Practically, all metals can be welded by one process or the other, but some are more readily
welded than others.

Low carbon steels are most readily weldable, while plain carbon steels with the exception of
spring steel and tool steel can satisfactorily welded.

5.3.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF WELDED JOINTS

1. welded joints can be made more than 100% strong i.e. the joint will never fail,
2. there is no need of patterns, moulds etc. with the adoption of welding,
3. lighter construction and material saving during fabrication by welding,
4. with the modern welding techniques it is possible to add the specific material with desired
characteristics to any potion of the machine part.
5.3.1.2 TYPES OF WELDS
For general machine elements most welds are fillet welds, though butt welds are used a great
deal in designing pressure vessels.
 a) FILLET WELDS

b) BUTT OR GROOVE WELDS

Special butt or groove welds can also be T joint for thick plates, U and V welds for thick
plates, corner weld and edge welds for sheet metal.

During the welding process the generated heat may cause metallurgical changes in the parent
metal in the vicinity of the weld. Residual stresses may also be introduced because of
clamping or holding.

These may be corrected by a light heat treatment after welding.

5.3.2 DESIGN OF BUTT AND FILLET WELDS

The strength of a welded joint depends on:

a) the skill of the operator

b) the type loading- (steady or fatigue)
c) whether shielded or unshielded welding is done
d) the type of the joint
e) the type of stress existing within the joint.

5.3.2.1 BUTT WELD

Shown in the diagram is a single V butt weld loaded by a tensile force F. For either tension or
compression the normal stress will be given by;

F

hl

Where

h- weld throat

l-length of the weld

NOTE:

The weld throat h does not include the reinforcement which is desirable in order to
compensate for flows. If there are fatigue loads it is good practice to grind or machine off the
reinforcement.

The stress due to s shear load will be by:

F

hl

5.3.2.2 FILLET WELD

The size of the weld is based upon the magnitude of the stress on the throat area DB in
welding engineering design, fig.1

From the free-body portion of the weld, fig. 2

The throat area A= hlCos450 = 0,707hl

Therefore the normal stress on area DB is given by;

F F
x  
A 0.707hl

This stress has two components which are:

F
   x Cos 45 0 
hl
1, a shear stress given by:

2. a normal stress given by

F
   x Cos 45 0 
hl

Although a Mohr1s circle diagram could be used to show that the largest principal stress is
 2 2
F  F  F F
1         1.618
2hl  2hl   hl  hl
And that the maximum shear stress is

2 2
 F  F F
 max        1.118
 2hl   hl  hl
For design purposes it is customary to base the shear stress on the throat area and to neglect
the normal stress altogether. Hence for fillet welds

F 1.414F
 
0.707hl hl

5.3.3 TORSION IN WELDED JOINTS

Shown in the diagram is a cantilever of length l welded to a column by two fillet welds. The
reaction at the support of a cantilever consists of a shear force Fs and a moment M.

The shear force produces a primary shear in the welds given by:

Fs
1 
A

Where, A is the area of all the welds.

The moment at the support produces secondary shear or torsion of the welds whose stress is
given by:

rM
 11 
J

Where,

J is the second polar moment of area of the weld group about the centroid of the group

r is the distance from the centroid of the weld group to the point of the weld of interest.

The maximum shear stress will be the combination of the above stresses.

Also J = 0.707hJu where Ju is the unit polar moment of inertia, when the weld is treated as a
line.

LIST OF THROAT AREAS AND UNIT SECOND POLAR MOMENTS OF AREA

FOR COMMON FILLET WELDS USED.

Throat area Location of G Unit second polar moment of

Weld area

x= 0

A = 0.707hd d3
Ju 
12
d
y
2

x
b
Ju 
3b 3

d3 d
2 6
A = 1.414hd
 d
y
2

x
b2
b  d  Ju 
b  d 4  6b 2 d 2
A = 0.707h(2b+d)
2 12b  d 
d2
y b  d 
2

b2
x
2b  d 
8b 3  6bd 2  d 3 b4
Ju  
d 12 2b  d
A = 0.707h(2b+d) y
2

b
x
2
d Ju 
b  d 3
y 6
A = 1.414h(b+d) 2
5.3.4 BENDING IN WELDED JOINTS

Shown is a cantilever welded to a support by fillet welds at top and bottom.

There will arise a shear- force reaction Fs and a moment reaction M.

As already seen, the primary shear due to the reaction will give rise to a stress given by:

Fs

A

The moment M will produce a normal bending stress  in the welds. From the diagram,
treating the welds as lines, the unit second moment of area will be;

bd 2
Iu  and therefore;
2

bd 2
 I  0.707h
2

The normal stress can be found by:

d
M 
Mc 2 1.414M
    
I h bdh
0.707bd 2  
 2

The second moment of area is based on the distance d between the two welds.
If the moment is found by treating the two welds as rectangles the distance between the welds
centroid is (d + h).

LIST OF BENDING PROPERTIES OF FILLET WELDS

Weld Throat area Location of

G Iu

x=0 d2
Iu 
12
A = 0,707hl d
y
2

A = 1.414dh b d3
x Iu 
2 6
d
y
2

A = 1.414bh b bd 2
x Iu 
2 2
d
y
2

b2 d2
x Iu  6b  d 
2b  d 12
A = 0.707h(2b+d)
d
y
2

b
x
2 2d 3
A = 0.707h(b + 2d)
d 2 Iu   2dy  b  2d  y 2
y 3
b  2d
 A = 1.414h(b + d) b
x
2
d2
y
d Iu  3b  d 
2 6

A = 0.707h(b +2d) b
x
2
2d 3
d2 Iu   2d 2 y  b  2d  y 2
y 3
b  2d

A = 1.414h(b +d) b d2
d
x
2
Iu  3b  d 
6
d
y
2

A=1.414hrπ I u  r 3

5.3.5 COMPOUND FILLET WELDED JOINTS

This is known as a compound fillet weld because the are both shear and tensile stresses that
arise in the joint. The double parallel fillet is in shear while the single transverse fillet will be
in tension.

Hence:

F = 0.707tl2t + 2x0.707t l1s

In this case L2 is normally the width of plate hence l1 can be found.

Normally all the welds should be placed symmetrically about the axis of the welded part
unless the loading is unsymmetrical.

In determining the length of weld required, about 12.5mm should be added to the length of
each weld to allow for starting and stopping of the bead.

5.3.6 WELDED JOINTS OF UNSYMMETRICAL SECTIONS SUBJECTED TO

AXIAL LOADS

In this case the weld lengths should be proportional such that the sum of the resisting
moments of the welds about the centre of gravity axis is zero. If l is the total length for
welding requirements then for equal stress in both sections of the weld;

t  a  la = tb lb and la = bl/(a + b) and lb = a l/(a + b)

5.3.7 ECCENTRICALLY LOADED WELDS

In this case the effect of the turning moment should be taken into account as well as the direct
load.

When more than one welds form a joint the turning moment stress at any point is directly
proportional to the distance from the C.G. of the total weld areas.
From the above diagram the stresses due to the force F acting eccentrically at a distance e
from the C.G. of the weld will be:

1) the primary shear stress 1 proportional to F

2) the secondary shear stress 2 proportional to the distance of the weld section from the
C.G. and is obviously maximum at the corners of the weld.

Letting the weld (dotted) be one of a group of the total weld areas with their C.G. at O.

The turning moment stress  acting perpendicular to the radius (moment arm) r on an
elementary area A will be given by;

  rC where C is a constant of proportionality.

The torque will be given by;

T
T   rdA  c  r 2 dA  cJ 
r

Where;

J - polar moment of inertia

r- the farthest distance from the C.G. at O.

The resultant stress will be the vector sum of the direct stress due to the direct load and the
turning moment stress.

For static loads the direct stress is assumed uniformly distributed.

The value of J can also be obtained the parallel axis equation about O. For the above weld;
J  I p  Ar1
2

Where;

A – the throat area of the weld,

The 450 inclination of the area in fillet welds is neglected for simplicity.

Ip – polar moment of inertia of the single weld area about its own centre O1

Al 2
Ip 
12

or

lt 3
I xx 
12

And

tl 3
I yy 
12

Therefore

I p  I xx  I yy

Or

Ip 
12

tl 2 2
t l 
Since t is very very small t2 can be neglected, hence;

tl 2 tl 3 Al 2
Ip  l  
12 12 12

The value if J for each weld can be calculated by the above equation and their total sum
obtained.

However this method is not an exact analysis of weld stresses.

5.3.8 A GENERAL CASE OF ECCENTRIC LOADING

Shown are the primary and secondary shear stresses with their resultant (maximum) shear
stress,

The maximum (resultant) shear stress will be obtained by resolving 2:

 max   1 2   2 2  2 1 2 Cos

But from the right-angle triangle ABO above;

 b
Cos 
a  b2
2

and
F
1 
tlCos450

Where;

l –is the total length of all the three welds

To obtain 2 we use the diagram below

Let τ be the shear stress due to the moment eF in an element at a distance r from C.G.

M  rA
Since the shear stress at any section is proportional to the distance from the C.G. then,

 2

r r2

Where r2 is the distance of the weld from CG and 2 is the maximum shear stress due to the
moment Fe.

But from the diagram;

2 2
a b 1
r2        a2  b2
 2  2 2
  2 2
 
r a2  b2
and
2 2

a2  b2
2 2 r 2
M  A
a2  b2
2 2
 M  T  Fe  r
2
dA
a b2 2

but

r dA  J
2

Fe a 2  b 2
 2 
2J

With the values of τ1 and τ2 the above equation can be used to obtain the weld throat
VALUES OF J

tb 3
J
12

J

bt 3a 2  b 2 
6

J

at a 2  3b 2 
6

t a  b 
3
J
6

ta 3
J
12

5.4 WORKED EXAMPLES JOINTS

Example 1

A valve of size 25cmx20cm is installed in a pipe carrying water at a pressure of 10kg/cm 2.

The coefficient of friction between the valve and seat is 0.2. Determine the diameter of the
steel spindle if the stress at the bottom of the screw thread should not exceed 500kg/cm2
tension.

Solution
Area of valve face (A)  25(20)  500cm 2

Normal force acting on valve Pn  A  p  500(10)  5000kg  49050N

Tangential (Frictional) force exerted by spindle ( Ft )  Pn  0.2(49050)  9810N

d c 2
Ft  A t  t
4
d c 2
9810  5  106
4
d c  49.981mm
d c  50mm

Example 2

In a steam cylinder of diameter 250mm, the steam pressure acting on the cylinder head is
0.75x106. The cylinder head is held in position by 12 bolts with initial tension due to
tightening of 512200N and a soft copper gasket of K = 0.5 is used. If the stress bolt area is
1.92x10-4m2. Determine the stress produced in the bolts. (275MN/m2)

Solution

d 2  (0.25) 2
External Load on each bolt ( F )  A  p 
4n
p
4(12)
0.75 10   3067.962N
6

Resultant force on each bolt ( FR )  F1  kF  51200 0.5(3067.962)  52733.981N

FR 52733,981
Shear stress in each bolt  sb    275MPa
A 1.92  10 4

Example 3
A pulley bracket as shown below is supported by 4 bolts, 2 at AA and 2 at BB The weight
of Pulley and bracket Wb is 900N and the load P on the rope is 22500N. If the allowable
tensile stress of the bolt material is 35MN/m2, find the diameter of bolts to be used.

Solution

Total force on bracket ( Fmax )  2 P  Wb  2(22500)  900  45900N

Fmax 45900 14610.424

Direct shear stress on bolts ( sb )   
A  d 2  d2
4 
 4 

Taking moments about the pivot point of rocking and letting F 1 be the load per unit length
N / m
Load on each bolt at BB ( FBB )  75F 1

Load on each bolt at AA ( FAA  525F 1

 2 F 1 (525) 2  2 F 1 (75) 2  900(375)  2( 22500)(450)

F 1  36.6 N / mm

FBB  75(36.6)  2745N

FAA  525(36,6)  19105.2 N

The maximum load occurs at AA: F = 19105.2N

 F 19105.2( 4)
t  
A d c 2
24325.496
t  2
dc

t t2
Principal stress in each bolt ( eq )     2
and d  0.84d c
2 4

2 2
24325.496  14601.424(0.84)   24325.416 
35  10 
6
    
2  2   4d 2 
2d c  d c   c 
2 2
12162.748  12265.196   6081.104 
35  10 
6
    
2  2   d 2 
dc  dc   c 
2 2 2

35  10    121622.748    122652.196    6081.2374 
6 2

 dc   dc   dc 
12162.748  12265.196  6081.374
35  106  2
dc
d c  29.52mm
dc 30
d   35.71mm
0.84 0.84

Example 4

A plate 90mm wide and 15mm thick is joined to another plate by a single transverse weld and
a double parallel fillet weld. The tensile and shear stresses in the joint are 70MN/m2 and
56MN/m2 respectively. Determine the length of the parallel fillet ,

a) when the joint is subjected to static loading

b) when the joint is subjected to fatigue loading and stress concentration factors are taken as
1.5 for transverse fillet and 2.7 for parallel fillet welds.
Solution

Length of weld for transverse weld = b-12.5

= 90-12.5

=77.5mm

Maximum load carried by plate(F) = bt t

= 0.09x0.015x70x106

= 945000N
letting l f be the length of parallel fillet welds

Load on single transverse weld(Ft) = tlt  t Cos450

= 0.015x0.0775x70x106Cos450

= 57540.814

Load on double fillet welds(Ff) = 2tl f  s Cos450

= 2x0.015x56x106lCos450

= 1187939.4l

but
F  Ft  F f
945000  57540.814  1187939.4l
 l  3121mm

final..length(l f )  l  12.5
l f  31.21  12.5
l f  43.61mm

In case of fatigue loading;

 t   70 MN / m 2
1.5

and

 s  
56
 20.741MN / m 2
2.7
57540.814 1187939,4l
 94500  
1,5 2,7

94500 = 383600,543 + 439977,50l

l = 0,128m
 l f  l  12,5mm
Final

= 128 + 12,5

= 140mm

Example 5

A 125x95x10 mm angle iron is to be welded to a steel plate by two parallel fillet welds along
the edges of the 125mm leg as shown below. The angle channel is subjected to a tensile load
of 18000kg. Determine the lengths placed as shown below assuming an allowable static load
per mm of 48kg.

Solution

18000kg
Total length of the weld required =  375mm
48Kg / mm

375x37
 l a x125  375x37  l a   111mm
125

 a final  111 12,5  123,5  125mm

375x88
l b x125  375x88 l b   264mm
125

l b final  264  12,5  277mm

Example 6

A 105x95x10 mm angle iron is welded to its support by two 10mm fillet welds. A load of
1575kg is applied normal to the gravity axis at a distance of 300mm from the C.G. of the
welds. Determine the maximum shear stress in the welds, assuming each weld to be 100mm
long and parallel to the axis of the angle iron.

Solution

Primary shear  1  
F 15750
  7,875x106 N / m 2
2t 2 x0,01x0,1

a2  b2
Secondary shear  2   Fxe
2I p

15750x0,3x 0,1252  0,12


2I p

J  Ip 

bt 3a 2  b 2 

 
(0.1)(0.01) 3(0.125) 2  (0.1) 2
 9.4771x10 6
6 6

15750x0.3 x 0.1252  0.12

 2 
2(9.4771x10  6 )

= 39,90MPa

 max   1 2   2 2  2 1 2 Cos
 b 0.1
Cos    0.625
a2  b2 0.1252  0.12

 max  (7.9 x10 6 ) 2  39.9 x10 6 ) 2  2(7.9 x10 6 )(39.9 x10 6 )(0.625)  46.26MPa

Example 7

A force F of 9000N is applied at distance e of 150mm as shown in the diagram. Distances a

and b are 100mm and 62.5 mm respectively. If the allowable shear stress is 98MN/m2,
determine the size of the weld required for the dead loading

Solution

bt(3a 2  b 2 )
J
6

working length of the weld (b)= 62.5 – 12.5 = 50

J 

0.05t 3(0.1) 2  (0.05) 2 
 2.71tx10  4
6

1 1
radius to the furthest area (r)= a2  b2  0.12  0,05 2  0.0559
2 2

F 9000 90000
1   
2bt 2(0,05)t t

F 9000 90000
1   
2bt 2(0,05)t t

 max =  1   2  2 1 2 Cos
2 2
 2 2
 90000  27.85   90000 27.85 
 max       2  Cos63.4
 t   t   t  t 

 8.1x10 9   775.623   2244616.3 

 max       
   
2 2
 t  t t2
8.1022454x10 9 90012.47354
.......  
t2 t
900124.47354
max imum..stress 
tCos45 0
127296.8609
 98x10 6 
t
t  1.299mm

Example 8

Determine the size of the weld for a bar of cross section 50x30mm shown in the diagram
below, when an axial load of 80000N is applied taking the allowable stress in the weld to be
90MN/m2.

Also determine the induced stress in the 5mm thick weld when a transverse load of 2000N is
applied at a distance of 250mm from the weld area.

Solution

a)

  
F

A
A  2ltCos45  2(0.05)tCos45  0.070711t
80000
  90x10 6
0.070711t
t  12.571mm

b)  
F
2e 2 
b  t  2

teb  t  2
b = 30mm thickness of plate

t-thickness of weld taking 5mm


2000
2(250) 2 
30  5  16.164MPa
(5)(250)(30  5) 2

5.5 SELF STUDY

QUESTION 1

The cylinder head of a steam engine is subjected to a pressure of 1MN/m 2 and is held in
position by means of 12 bolts. The effective diameter of cylinder is 300mm. A soft copper
gasket is used to make the joint leak proof K= 0.5. Determine the size of the bolts so that the
stress in the bolts will not exceed 100MN/m2. The initial tension due to tightening is
284times the shank diameter. (d = 7.29mm or dc =6.124mm)

QUESTION 2

A casting weighing 3tones is lifted by means of an eye bolt. The bolt extends 40mm into the
casting. If the bolt core diameter is 25,71mm find the direct tensile and shear stresses in the
threaded portion of the bolt. (t = 56.69MN/m2 ,  = 9.111MN/m2)

QUESTION 3

Two shafts are connected by means of a coupling to transmit 36kW at 1440rpm. The flanges
of the coupling are fastened by means of 4 bolts at a radius of 300mm. If the allowable shear
stress in the bolts is 30MN/m2, calculate the diameter of the bolts to be used. (d = 9.19mm)

QUESTION 4

A mild steel cover plate is attached to a cast iron cylinder of 100mm diameter by means of 6
studs placed at a radius of 150mm. If the maximum pressure inside the cylinder is 400kN/m 2,
the yield strength of bolt material is 16MN/m2 the thickness of the cover plate 15mm, factor
of safety 2, pitch diameter of threaded section 14.701mm, thread pitch 2mm and E =
2x106N/m2. If the design load must be 1.3 times the maximum load on bolts when tightening
is taken into account, calculate;

a) the diameter of the bolts (16.783mm)

b) the amount of pre-stressing required (1360.436N)
c) the tightening torque required for a coefficient of friction of 0.2 (2.77Nm)
QUESTION 5

The bracket shown below is fastened to the flange by means of 4bolts B1, B2, B3 and B4. The
load F of 10000N is acting at a distance l = 400mm. The distances to the center line of bolts
from the edge AB are l1 = 50mm and l2 =300mm. Determine the size of the bolts if the
maximum allowable stress in the bolt material is 50MN/m2.
CHAPTER 6

HOISTS AND POWER TRANSMISSION CHAINS

6.1 HOISTS (LIFTING TACKLE OR WIRE ROPES)

6.1.1 CONSTRUCTION

A hoisting tackle consists of a rope which passes over a sheave or pulley so that a load Q may
be raised by a downward effort P. see figure below

To reduce the effort an arrangement of pulley blocks may be used as shown in the figures 2a
and 2b below in which the lower or hook block and the upper block each has two sheaves.
The hoist above is known as four-part line hoist, since four lines of rope lead to the hook
block.

The more the lines of rope leading to the hook block , the less will be the effort P required to
raise a load Q, but more rope must be reeled off at P to raise the load a given distance.

The rope is constructed of strands, each of which is made of several wires twisted together.
The strands are then twisted around a core of fiber or metal to form a rope. The constructions
allow the rope to be wrapped on a sheave or drum without undue bending stress occurring in
the wires.

6.1.2 TYPES OF WIRING

Lay, describe the manner in which the wires and strands are twisted.

(a) Regular lay: In this case the wires and strands are twisted in opposite directions.
(b) Lang lay: The wires and strands are twisted in the same direction.
The regular lay will not spin or untwist as much as the long lay, but experiments have shown
that it has a shorter life span.

The size of a rope is indicated by the diameter which encloses all the strands and the type by
two figures followed by a bracketed array of figures describing the wire arrangement in the
strands. This is followed by the core type.

Example

25mm 6x19 (12/6/1)/F

means a rope –25mm in diameter

-made up 6 strands

-each strand made of 19 wires

-arranged as 12 wires over 6 wires over 1 wire over a central fibre core

Standard wire rope data can be found from catalogues.

MINIMUM FACTORS OF SAFETY

APPLICATION MINIMUM FACTOR

OF SAFETY

Haulages, cranes and derricks 6

Guy ropes 3,5

Miscellaneous hoisting ropes 5

Elevators 12 – 18
Slings 8

Small hoists 7

Hot ladle cranes 8

Mine shafts up to 200m 8

up to 600m 7

over 1000m 5

Track cables 3,5

6.1.3 PULLEY (SHEAVE) CONSTRUCTION

The groove of the pulley should be wide enough not to pinch the rope which rests on the
bottom. In general the softer the groove the longer the life span of the rope.

6.1.4 RATIO OF ROPE TENSIONS

When a loaded rope passes over a stationery pulley the loads T1 and T2 are equal and the
pulley shaft reaction is 2T1.

The moments are also equal thus T1r = T2r

However when the load is being lifted the effort P becomes greater than Q.

The increase in P is due to:

a) friction at the pulley bearing

b) bending of the rope when entering the pulley
c) straightening of the rope as it leaves the pulley
When multiple pulley blocks are used this difference can be appreciable and should be
allowed for in design calculations if only to be precise.

Experiments have shown that;

P =c Q

Where c has a value greater than unit and is in function of the size of rope, the relative size of
pulley and the coefficient of friction.

6.1.5 LOADS AND EFFICIENCY

Given a hoist arrangement below

a) RAISING THE LOAD Q

With the tensions labeled as shown and from the above equation we get

P = cT5 = c5T1

T5 = cT4 = c4T1

T4 = cT3 = c3T1

T3 = cT2 = c2T1

T2 = cT1
But for equilibrium of forces on the lower block
Q = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5

Q = T1 + cT1+ c2T1 +c3T1 + c4T1 = T1(1 + c + c2 + c 3 + c4)

T1 c 5  1 P
Q      but    T1  5
c 1 c

P (c 5  1) Qc 5 (c  1)
Q 5 P 
c (c  1) c 5 1

Neglecting friction then the ideal effort will be given by P1= Q/5

Therefore the efficiency will be given by

P 1  unitdis tan ce c 5 1
 
P  unitdis tan ce 5c 5 (c  1)

b) lowering the load Q

For this case T1 = cT2

T2 = cT3

T3 = cT4

T4 = cT5
 T5 = cP

c 1
P Q
c(c 5  1)
Similarly

For any pulley arrangement with n number of pulleys or lines of rope leading to hook block
the number 5 in the above equations can be replaced by n.

NOTE

In raising the load the rope P is the maximum loaded one while in lowering the load the rope
T1 is the maximum loaded one.

6.1.6 FAILURE OF WIRE ROPES

This is generally due to fatigue and wear. The bending and straightening of the wires result in
a varying stress and a continual readjustment of the wires within the rope.

Sliding of the wires on each other and the abrasion between wires and sheaves result in the
wearing away of the load carrying material.

A fatigue failure first appears as a few broken wires on the surface of the rope.

Research has shown that this type of failure is a function of the pressure of the rope on the
pulley.

The pressure is given by:

2F
p
Dd

Where F is the tensile force on the rope

D is the pulley diameter

d is the rope diameter

Dividing both sides of the above equation by the breaking stress of the wires b we get

p 2F

b Dd b
The left hand side of the equation is a ratio (dimensionless). The right hand side contains data
relative to the design requirements. Experiments and research has shown that failure is
unlikely if the value given by the above equation is less than 0.0013

Therefore for indefinite life which is represented by 106 bends we can write

2F
0.0013 
Dd b

6.1.7 FACTOR OF SAFETY

The factor of safety given in the table above is found from

breakingload
n
workingload

However it may be prudent to use

availablestrength
n
workingload

The available strength is the difference between the breaking load Fa and the bending load Fb.

The working load Fw is the sum of the dead (mg) and accelerating (ma) loads.

The bending load is given by

dw
Fb  E r A
D

Where Er –rope modulus (not the wire modulus)

A ---metallic area of the rope

D ---pulley diameter
 dw –wire diameter

Fa  Fb
n
Fw

In high lift applications the mass of the rope could be a significant fraction of the total dead
weight and calculations must take this into account.

The mass per unit length (kg/m) =kd2

Where

breakingforce
k
uts  d 2

6.1.8 THE BREAKING FORCE

Letting Pa be the required breaking force in kN, m be the mass of the loaded conveyance in
tones, n the factor of safety, L the length of the suspended rope in m and K the efficiency
factor for the rope in Nm/kg (breaking force per kilogram per meter)

Then

Kmgf .o.s.
Fa 
K  Lgf .o.s.

This equation is particularly useful for mining ropes.

Values of K are for 1750x106N/m2 steel K=150x103------154x103

for 1800x106 N/m2 steel K=156x103------160x103

Generally for design purpose

 Fmax
Fw  Fb 
f .o.s.

6.2 POWER TRANSMISSION CHAINS

6.2.1 ADVANTAGES:

1) the are adopted to long as well as short centre distances,

2) they provide positive drive,
3) one chain can be arranged to drive many units,
4) they operate at high efficiency (up to 98%) and require low maintenance cost if properly
selected, installed and lubricated,
5) they transmit more power than belt drive,
6) they can be operated under adverse temperature and atmospheric conditions,
7) they do not exert high pressure on the shafts and bearings,
8) they permit high speed ratio of 8 to 10 in one step
The main disadvantage is that shafts must always be in good alignment.

6.2.2 CLASSFICATION

Chain drives can be classified as;

1) roller chains
2) silent or inverted tooth chains

6.2.3 COMPONENTS AND CONSTRUCTION

Simple chain drives are made of two sprockets and the transmitting chain. In cases idlers are
used as tensioning devices. The chain is made up of links pins and bushings all fabricated
from high grade steel with the pins and bushings ground to ensure accuracy in pitch.

6.3.4 CHAIN SPEED

The action of a chain as it runs with the sprocket may be similar to that of a non-slipping belt
running with a prism, the sides of prism being equivalent to one pitch length of the chain.
Considering a sprocket with teeth ABCD, driving the chain as shown in the diagram above.
At this position the tooth C starts driving the chain. For constant angular velocity of the
sprocket the velocity of tooth C is constant and given by

Vc  r

From the diagram it can be seen that only the horizontal component of the velocity of tooth C
will be given to the chain. Therefore the velocity of chain at tooth C will be;
   
V  V c Cos   rCos 
2 2

Where  is the angle subtended by adjacent teeth.

Hence

360

T

It can be seen that the velocity of the chain is not constant but varies from rCos(/2) being a
minimum to r being maximum.

This fluctuation can be minimized by reducing the value of  that is by increasing the
number of teeth on the sprocket.

6.2.5 NUMBER OF TEETH ON SPROCKET

Experiments have shown that a variation of speed of 40% is obtained for a sprocket having
11 teeth.
Corresponding values for 17 teeth and 24 teeth are 16% and 10% respectively. Hence a
minimum number of sprockets teeth of 17 teeth or preferably 24 is to be used for smooth
operation.

However increase in the number of teeth increases the sprocket size and chain speed though it
is recommended that sprockets should not have more than 100 to 120 teeth for roller chain
drives and 120 to 140 for silent chain drives because the stretched chain can easily slip off the
sprocket or break.

The relationship between the sprocket pitch diameter and the number of teeth on it can be
deduced from the diagram below.

From the figure above;

 p P
Sin( )   D 
2 D 180
Sin( )
T

6.2.6 LENGTH OF CHAIN AND CENTRE DISTANCE

The length of the chain may be approximated by using the following expression;
 T  T2 2C p  T1  T2 
2

L 1  
2 p C  2 

Where L - length of chain in links (pitches)

T1 and T2 – numbers of sprocket teeth on pinion and wheel sprockets

C –center distance

p – pitch

In order to balance the length of chain should be a multiple of even numbers of pitches. If the
length is corrected to the nearest even number then the center distance should be corrected to;

e  (e 2  8m)
C 
1
pitches
4

Where

T  T2  T  T2 
2

e  L 1 and ________m   1 
2  2 

It is usually desirable to use small pitches to prevent sagging of the chain. However,
excessively small pitches may increase the initial cost unnecessarily. In order to
accommodate initial sag the center distance should by decreased by an amount C = 0.5S
where S = 0,02C1 ----sag.

6.2.7 FAILURE OF CHAIN DRIVES

Chain drives usually fail due to the chain elongation, failure of joints and plates and wear of
the sprocket teeth.

Elongation is caused by increased pitch due to wear under tension and dynamic loads.

Due to wear the pitch increases and it fails to match the sprocket teeth and may run off the
sprockets. Elongation must be limited to 3%.
Pitting may occur at the surface of rollers and bushes due to dynamic and repeated loads,
resulting in surface roughness.

Strong knocks may even split the rollers or bushes.

Wear of sprocket is due to relative motion between bush and teeth

Hence the main design criterion for the operating ability of the drive is wear resistance of the
chain joints.

For this the bearing pressure (stress) on the roller must be determined and checked using the
following expression;

  c 
F
c 
wd r
Where

F- load on the chain

dr-diameter of roller

w- width of roller

6.3 WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 1

A mine hoist uses 40mm 6x 25(12/6/6/1)/F steel wire rope with the following characteristics;

Metallic stress area 0,352d2

Wire diameter 2.6mm

Rope modulus 100GN/m2

Breaking load 1049kN

Head pulley diameter 2,25m

Maximum acceleration 0,6m/s2

The rope is to haul six tones total load (including the masses of the skip, rope and pay load)
determine,
a) the maximum stress in the rope (226,46x106N/m2)
b) the pressure between the rope and the pulley (2,834x106N/m2)
c) the factor of safety (15,75)

Solution
 a) Total load ( Ft )  mg  ma  FB
mg  6000(9.81)  58860N
ma  6000(0.6)  3600N
dw 0.0026
Fb  EA  100  109 (0.352  0.042 )  65081N
D 2,25

Ft  58860 3600  65081 127541N

Ft 127541
 t max    226.46MPa
A 0.352(0.04) 2

2 Ft 2(127541)
b) p    2.834MPa
dD 2.25(0.04)
F  Fb
c) n  a
Fw
Fw  ma  mg  3600  58860  62460
1049000 65081
n 
62460
n  15.75

Example 2

A 6x19(9/9/1)/F 1770x106N/m2 maximum stress steel wire rope with the following
characteristics;
Metallic stress area 0,337d2, wire diameter 0.08d, pulley diameter 58d, rope modulus
40GN/m, factor of safety 15,5 , c = 1.090 and load to be raised 6 tones in the pulley
arrangement shown below. Determine the diameter d of the steel wire rope for the pulley
arrangement below.

Solution
 c n ( c  1)
Fw  n Q
c 1
c 4 ( c  1) 1.0904 (1.090  1)
 Fw  4  (60000)  18520.120N
c 1 1.0904  1

Fmax  A max  0.337d 2 (1770106 )  596.49 106 d 2

dw 0.08d
Fb  EA  40  109 (0.337d 2 )  18593103.45d 2
D 58d

Fmax
Fw  Fb 
n
596.49  106 d 2
18520.120  18593103.45d 2 
15.5
18520.120  19761090.1d 2
d  30.614mm

Example 3

A chain is to actuate a compressor from an electric motor rated at 11.2kW at 970rpm, the
compressor speed being 350rpm. If the minimum centre distance should be 550mm. The
pitch 19.05mm, the roller diameter 12.07mm, the minimum width of roller 11.68mm, the
maximum (breaking) load 5900kg and the sprocket pinion has 25 teeth, calculate;

a) the pitch diameters of the pinion and wheel sprockets

b) the factor of safety
c) the bearing pressure on the roller
d) the length of the chain
e) the actual centre distance

Solution

N 1 970
a)   2.77
N 2 350
360 360
   14.4 0
T1 25

p 19.05
d   151.995mm
   14.4 
sin  sin 
2  2 
D  2.77(151.995)  421.2433mm
 Fmax
b) n 
Fw
P P 60(11.2  103 )
Fw     1450.788N
v r 2 (0.076)(970)
5900(9.81) 57879
n  
1450.788 1450.788
n  39.9

c)

T2  2.77T1
T2  2.77( 25)  69.25  70teeth

T  T2 2C p  T1  T2 
2

L 1    
2 p C  2 

25  70 2(550) 19.05  25  70 
2

L    
2 19.05 550  2 
L  47.5  57.74  1.82
L  107.059
L  108 pitches
L  108(19.05)
L  2057.40mm

d) C 1 
e e 2
 8m 
4
T  T2
e  L 1
2
25  70
e  108 
2
e  60.5
  T  T2 
2

m 1 
 2 
 25  70 
2

m 
 2 
m  51.294

60.5  60.5  8(51.294) 

C 1 
4
C  82.199 pitches
1

C 1  19.05(82.199)
C 1  1565.893mm

6.4 SELF STUDY

QUESTION 1

A block and tackle having three pulleys at the top block and three at the hook block with the
rope anchored at the top block is reeled with a wire rope.

a) deduce the equation for the effort P required to raise the load Q in terms of Q and the
coefficient c
b) determine the force P needed to raise a load Q = 2000kg assuming c=1.076 (4192.741N)
c) the efficiency of the hoist (78%)
QUESTION 2

A mine hoist uses 60mm 6x25(12/6/6/1)/F 1600x106N/m2 breaking stress steel wire rope.
The rope is used to lift 10 tones. The head pulley has a diameter of 2.5m and the maximum
acceleration is 0,8m/s2. If the metallic stress area is 0,352d2, Er=100GN.m2, wire diameter
3mm, rope mass 6.455kg/m and mine depth 200m. determine,

a) the maximum stress in the rope (214 54x10N/m2)

b) the pressure between the rope and the pulley (2,134x10N.m2)
c) the factor of safety (16)
QUESTION 3

A 19kW squirrel-cage induction motor running at 1150rpm is to be connected to a centrifugal

pump by means of a roller chain. The pump operates at a speed of 400rpm and is located
762mm approximately centre to centre from the motor. A service factor of 1.2 may be
assumed. If the bearing stress on the roller is 8x106N/m2, the roller diameter 15.88mm, the
pitch 25.4mm, and the pinion sprocket teeth are 21, determine;

a) the pitch diameters of the sprockets

b) the width of the rollers
c) the length of chain
QUESTION 4

A blower is to run at 10rps. Power to the blower is available from a motor rated at 10kW. If
the centre distance is to be 800mm when the pitch is 12.7mm, the roller diameter 8mm, the
width of roller 7.8mm and the number of teeth on pinion sprocket is 25, determine;
a) the pitch diameters of sprockets
b) the length of the chain
c) the corrected centre distance

CHAPTER 7 SPRINGS
OBJECTVE

To design helical springs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
A spring is an elastic member which stores energy and provides a force over a distance by
elastic deflection. Springs are characterized by their ability to withstand relatively large
deflection elastically.

7.2 USES OF SPRINGS

a) To cushion, absorb or control energy due to shock or vibration, such as in railway

wagons, automobiles, shock absorbers etc.

b) To exert a force, as in spring loaded safety valve, clutches etc.

c) To support moving masses or to isolate vibration.

d) To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements, as in

the case of cam and follower etc.

e) To measure forces

f) To store energy as in clocks, toys and motors.

Of all types of springs, helical springs of circular section and leaf springs are widely used.

Helical springs are made up of round or rectangular wire wound to form a helix.

The spring may be wound in hot or cold condition depending on the application and the
material.

7.3 Types of Springs

Though there are many types of the springs, yet the

following, according to their shape, are important from the

subject point of view.

a) Helical springs. The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a
helix and is primarily intended for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of
the wire from which the spring is made may be circular, square or rectangular. The
 two forms of helical springs are compressionhelical spring as shown in Fig. 7.2 (a),
and tension helical spring as shown in Fig. 7.1 (b).

Fig. 7.1.Helical springs.

The helical springs are said to be closely coiled when the spring wire is coiled so close
that the plane containing each turn is nearly at right angles to the axis of the helix and
the wire is subjected to torsion. In other words, in a closely coiled helical spring, the
helix angle is very small, it is usually less than 10°. The major stresses produced in
helical springs are shear stresses due to twisting. The load applied is parallel to or
along the axis of the spring.

In open coiled helical springs, the spring wire is coiled in such a way that there is a
gap between the two consecutive turns, as a result of which the helix angle is large.
Since the application of open coiled helical springs are limited, therefore our
discussion shall confine to closely coiled helical springs only.

The helical springs have the following advantages:

(i) These are easy to manufacture.

(ii) These are available in wide range.

(iii) These are reliable.

(iv) These have constant spring rate.

(v) Their performance can be predicted more accurately.

(vi) Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

b) Conical and volute springs. The conical and volute springs, as shown in Fig. 23.2, are
used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a spring with a spring rate
that increases with the load is desired.
 Fig. 7.2.Conical and volute springs

The conical spring, as shown in Fig. 7.2 (a), is wound with a uniform pitch whereas
the volute springs, as shown in Fig. 7.2 (b), are wound in the form of paraboloid with
constant pitch and lead angles. The springs may be made either partially or
completely telescoping. In either case, the number of active coils gradually decreases.
The decreasing number of coils results in an increasing spring rate. This characteristic
is sometimes utilised in vibration problems where springs are used to support a body
that has a varying mass. The major stresses produced in conical and volute springs are
also shear stresses due to twisting.

c) Torsion springs. These springs may be of helical or spiral type as shown in Fig. 7.3.

(a) Helical torsion spring. (b) Spiral torsion spring.

Fig. 7.3.Torsion springs.

The helical type may be used only in applications where the load tends to wind up the
spring and are used in various electrical mechanisms. The spiral type is also used
where the load tends to increase the number of coils and when made of flat strip are
 used in watches and clocks. The major stresses produced in torsion springs are tensile
and compressive due to bending.

d) Laminated or leaf springs. The laminated or leaf spring (also known as flat spring or
carriage spring) consists of a number of flat plates (known as leaves) of varying
lengths held together bymeans of clamps and bolts, as shown in Fig. 7.4.

Fig. 7.4.Laminated or leaf springs. Fig. 7.5.Disc or bellevile springs.

These are mostly used in automobiles.

The major stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and compressive stresses.

e) Disc or bellevile springs. These springs consist of a number of conical discs held
together against slipping by a central bolt or tube as shown in Fig. 7.5. These springs
are used in applications where high spring rates and compact spring units are required.
The major stresses produced in disc or bellevile springs are tensile and compressive
stresses.
f) Special purpose springs. These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring
springs etc. The fluids (air or liquid) can behave as a compression spring. These
springs are used for special types of application only.
7.4MATERIALS

The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience
and it should be creep resistant. It largely depends upon the service for which they are used
i.e. severe service, average service or light service.

Severe service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of minimum to maximum

load (or stress) is one-half or less, as in automotive valve springs.

Average service includes the same stress range as in severe service but with only intermittent
operation, as in engine governor springs and automobile suspension springs.

Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very infrequently varied, as
in safety valve springs.

The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to 0.70 per
cent carbon and 0.60 to 1.0 per cent manganese. Music wire is used for small springs. Non-
ferrous materials like phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, monel metal, brass etc., may be
used in special cases to increase fatigue resistance, temperature resistance and corrosion
resistance.

The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed depending upon the size of the wire.

Wires of small sizes (less than 10 mm diameter) are usually wound cold whereas larger size
wires are wound hot. The strength of the wires varies with size, smaller size wire have greater
strength and less ductility, due to the greater degree of cold working.

Table 7.1. Values of allowable shear stress, Modulus of elasticity and Modulus

of rigidity for various spring materials.

Standard Size of Spring Wire

The standard size of spring wire may be selected from the following table :

Table 7.2. Standard wire gauge (SWG) number and corresponding diameter of spring wire.

7.5 TERMS USED IN COMPRESSION SPRINGS

The following terms used in connection with compression springs are important from the
subject point of view.

a) Solid length. When the compression spring is compressed until the coils come in
contact with each other, then the spring is said to be solid. The solid length of a spring
is the product of total number of coils and the diameter of the wire.
 Fig. 7.6.Compression spring nomenclature.

Mathematically,

Solid length of the spring,

LS = n'd

where n' = Total number of coils, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

b) Free length. The free length of a compression spring, as shown in Fig. 7.6, is the
length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition. It is equal to the solid length
plus the maximum deflection or compression of the spring and the clearance between
the adjacent coils (when fully compressed).
Mathematically, Free length of the spring,

LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + Clearance between adjacent coils (or

clash allowance)

LF= n'd + δmax + 0.15 δmax

The following relation may also be used to find the free length of the spring, i.e.

LF = n'd + δmax + (n' – 1) × 1 mm

In this expression, the clearance between the two adjacent coils is taken as 1 mm.

c) Spring index. The spring index is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil
to the diameter of the wire. Mathematically,
Spring index, C = D / d

Where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and

d = Diameter of the wire.

d) Spring rate. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined as the load
required per unit deflection of the spring.
Mathematically,

Spring rate, k = W / δ

where W = Load, and

δ = Deflection of the spring.

 e) Pitch. The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state. Mathematically,
Free  length
Pitch of the coil, p =
n 1

The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the following relation, i.e.

LF  LS
Pitch of the coil, p = d
n1

Where LF = Free length of the spring,

LS = Solid length of the spring,

n' = Total number of coils, and

d = Diameter of the wire.\

In choosing the pitch of the coils, the following points should be noted :

(a) The pitch of the coils should be such that if the spring is accidently or carelessly
compressed,

the stress does not increase the yield point stress in torsion.

(b) The spring should not close up before the maximum service load is reached.

Note : In designing a tension spring (See Example 7.8), the minimum gap between two coils
when the spring is in the free state is taken as 1 mm. Thus the free length of the spring,

LF = nd + (n – 1)

LF
and pitch of the coil, p =
n 1

7.6 END CONNECTIONS FOR COMPRESSION HELICAL SPRINGS

The end connections for compression helical springs are suitably formed in order to apply the
load. Various forms of end connections are shown in Fig. 7.7.
 Fig 7.7.End connections for compression helical spring.

In all springs, the end coils produce an eccentric application of the load, increasing the stress
on one side of the spring. Under certain conditions, especially where the number of coils is
small, this effect must be taken into account. The nearest approach to an axial load is secured
by squared and ground ends, where the end turns are squared and then ground perpendicular
to the helix axis. It may be noted that part of the coil which is in contact with the seat does
not contribute to spring action and hence are termed as inactive coils. The turns which impart
spring action are known as active turns.

As the load increases, the number of inactive coils also increases due to seating of the end
coils and the amount of increase varies from 0.5 to 1 turn at the usual working loads. The
following table shows the total number of turns, solid length and free length for different
types of end connections

Table 7.3. Total number of turns, solid length and free length fordifferent types of end
connections.

Where n = Number of active turns,

p = Pitch of the coils, and

d = Diameter of the spring wire.

7.7 END CONNECTIONS FOR TENSION HELICAL SPRINGS

Fig. 7.8.End connection for tension Fig. 7.9.Compression spring for helical

springs. carrying tensile load

The tensile springs are provided with hooks or loops as shown in Fig. 7.8. These loops may
be made by turning whole coil or half of the coil. In a tension spring, large

stress concentration is produced at the loop or other attaching device of tension spring.

The main disadvantage of tension spring is the failure of the spring when the wire breaks. A
compression spring used for carrying a tensile load is shown in Fig. 7.9

7.8 STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF CIRCULAR WIRE

Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected to an axial load W,
as shown in Fig. 7.10 (a).

Let D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,

d = Diameter of the spring wire,

n = Number of active coils,

G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,

W = Axial load on the spring,

τ = Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,

C = Spring index = D/d,

 p = Pitch of the coils, and

δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an axial load W.

(a) Axially loaded helical spring. ( b) Free body diagram showing that wire is

subjected to torsional shear and a direct

shear.

Fig. 7.10

Now consider a spring of wire diameter d and coil mean diameter D subjected to an axial
load F as shown in figure 7.10 b.

FD
Torque on spring; T  W=F
2

Tr
Shear stress due to the torque;  s 
J

d d 4
Where; r  and J 
2 32

Therefore;

8 FD
1 
d 3

The torsional shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 7.11 (a).

In addition to the
acton the wire :

1. Direct shear stress due to the load W, and

2. Stress due to curvature of wire.

Direct shear stress due to the force F will be given by;

F 4F
2  
A d 2

The direct shear stress diagram is shown in Fig. 7.11 (b) and the resultant diagram of
torsionalshear stress and direct shear stress is shown in Fig. 7.11 (c).

The resultant or total shear stress will be given by

8FD 4 F
 s max   1   2  
 d 3 d 2

The positive sign is used for the inner edge of the wire and negative sign is used for the outer

edge of the wire. Since the stress is maximum at the inner edge of the wire, therefore

8FD
 s max 
 1 
d 3  1  
 2c 

 1 
 1   is known as shear multiplication factor Ks
 2c 

The above stress equation holds if the wire is a straight one.

Due to the curvature of the wire, the stress does not remain uniform, it increases on the inside
layers of the wire and decreases slightly on the outside layer. Hence a factor Kc to account for
the effect of curvature is used to find the maximum shear stress as follows;

8FD
 s max  K K
d 3 s c

Ks Kc = K (Wahl correction factor)

4c  1 0.615
K 
4c  4 c

8FDK
 s max 
d 3
 Fig. 7.11. Superposition of stresses in a helical spring.

In the case of rectangular section;

FDK r
 s max 
2hb2

Where; h –dimension of wire in axial direction

b – dimension of wire in radial direction

b
Kr – experimental factor depending on
d

b
1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 infinite
d

Kr 4.79 4.35 4.05 3.71 3.52 3.35 3.25 3.20 3.00

7.9 DEFLECTION ANALYSIS

As the axial load increases linearly from zero to F, the work required to compress the spring
F F
is average times the deflection; i.e.
2 2

The strain energy in the twisted wire by a torsional moment (T) through angle  is
T
2

If n is the number of active turns, then the total active length if spring will be,

n D
Cos

Where  - is the lead angle of helix which for close coiled springs is of the order of 50

Hence Cos = 1

The angular deflection   

Tl
JG
1
But, T  FD
2

16FD 3 n

Gd 4

1
The work done by a force F in deflecting the spring through   F
2

1 1
Equating the potential energy due to twisting of wire (i.e. x FD to the
2 2

work done buy the load F.

1 1  16FD 3 n  1
x FD 4
  F
2 2  Gd  2

8 FD 3 n
 
Gd 4

F Gd 4
k 
 8D 3 n

This shows that the stiffness of spring is the function of the geometrical dimensions of the
spring and the material of the spring.

FD 3 n
For rectangular springs,   Kd
4Gh 3 b

Where K d depends on the ratio b h

b 1,0 1,5 2,0 3,0 4,0 6,0 8,0 10,0 Infinite
h

Kd 7,09 5,10 4,36 3,80 3,56 3,36 3,26 3,21 3,00

7.11 ENERGY STORED IN HELICAL SPRINGS

From the above analysis energy stored U  

1
F if the force F is applied gradually.
2

In the case of force F being due to a weight P falling freely from a height of h then;

P h    
1
F
2

But

8FDK
 s max 
d 3

d 3 s max
F 
8 DK

8 FD 3 n
and  
d 4G

8d 3 s max D 3 n
Hence  
8Dkd 4 G

 s max D 2 n

KdG

1 d 3 s max  s max D 2 n
U  ( )( )
2 8DK KdG

 s max 2  d 2 
U 2 Dn 
4K G  4 

 s max 2

U V
4K 2G

Where V is the volume  Al 

 s2
Hence energy stored per unit volume =
4K 2G
7.12 SPRINGS IN COMBINATION

Because of space limitations springs are often used in combinations, hence more efficient
than a single equivalent spring.
a) SPRINGS IN PARALLE

F12  F1  F2

 12   1   2
k12  k1  k 2

If two or more springs are used in parallel, the total load equals the sum of the loads of the
individual springs. The total deflection is the same as the deflection of the individual springs.
The total gradient is the sum of the individual springs.
b) SPRINGS IN SERIES

F12  F1  F2

 12   1   2
1 1 1
 
k12 k1 k 2
The deflection is the sum of the deflections of individual springs. The total gradient is
the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual springs.
c) SERIES AND PARALLEL SPRINGS

F123  F1  F2  F3

 123   1   23
 23   1   3
1 1 1
 
K123 K1 K 23

K 23  K 2  K 3

7.13 FLAT OR LEAF SPRINGS

These function as structural members in addition to being energy absorption devices and find
widespread use in automobiles. Laminated steel spring is usually of semi-elliptical type. The
leaves are usually held together by a centre bolt and are prevented from lateral shifting by
clips. A leaf spring can be compared to an equivalent cantilever as shown below in figures 1
and 2.
 My
The stress in such a spring as shown above will be give by;  
I

bt 3 t
But  and y 
12 2

M t
  2  6M
3
bt bt 2
12

and M  PL

6 FL
 b 
nbt2

Where n- number of strips

b- width of strip

t- thickness of strip

Thedeflection will be given by:

1 FL3 1 12FL3 4bt 2 L3 2 b L2

 ( ) 3  
3 EI 3 bt E 6nbt 3 LE 3tnE

If the plate is cut into a series of n strips of width b and these are placed as shown above then
the above equations can be transformed to the once below for springs of uniform cross-
section;
 6 FL
b 
nbt 2
4 FL3 2 b L2
 
nbt 3 E 3Et

If a rectangular plate is used as shown below the stress will be uniform throughout.

If the rectangular plate is cut into strips and placed as shown below to form a graduated leaf
spring then;

6 FL
b 
nbt 2
6 FL3  b L2
 
nbt 3 E tE

If bending stress alone is considered, the graduated spring may have zero width at the loaded
end but sufficient metal must be provided to support the shear.

Hence it is necessary to have one or more leaves of uniform cross-section extending clear to
the end. It has been proved that the stress in the uniform section leaves is 50% greater than in
the graduated leaves, assuming that each spring element deflects according to its own elastic
curve.
Letting f - be subscript for full length (uniform section)

g- be ― ― graduated leaves

Then;

3
 bf   bg
2

6F f L 3  6 Fg L 
 2
  
n f bt 2  n g bt 2 

2 ng F f 2n g
From which : Fg  = F
3 nf 2n g  3n f

3n f
and Ff  F
2n g  3n f

6 FL
From b 
nbt 2

6 FL  3n f  18FL
 bf    2
 2n g  3n f  bt 2n g  3n f 
Therefore;
n f bt 2

This gives the relationship between the maximum stress and the load applied at the end of the
spring when all leaves have the same thickness.

The deflection of the spring will be;

12FL3


bt 3 E 2n g  3n f 
7.14 WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 7.1

A compressive helical spring is to carry a load of 1500N. the spring deflection is 40mm.
Considering the space limitations, the spring index may be taken as 5. The shear stress in
spring wire should not exceed 400MN/m2, the modulus of rigidity for the spring material is
80GN/m2. Determine;

a) The wire and the coil diameters

b) The number of active turns of coil
c) The free length of the spring taking 1mm clearance between adjacent coils.

Solution
a)
8KFD
s 
d 3
D  cd  5d
4c  1 0.615
K 
4c  4 c
4(5)  1 0.615
K   1.31
4(5)  4 5

8(1500)(5d )(1.31) 25019.1571

400  106  
d 3 d2
25019.1571
d
400  106
d  7.909mm
d  8mm
 D  5(8)  40mm

8 FD 3 n
 
d 4G
8(1500)(0.043 )n
0.04 
0.0084 (80  109 )
n  17.0667
n  17

b) For square and ground ends total number of turns;

nt  2  d  2  17  19

c) Free length = solid length + compression + clearance

l  nd    c
l  19(8)  40  (19  1)  1
l  210mm

Example 7.2

Determine the width and thickness of the leaves of a six-leaf steel cantilever spring 300mm
long to carry a load of 1500N with a deflection of 30mm. The maximum stress in this spring
should not exceed 320x10 6 N/m2 and E = 200GN/m2.

Solution

Cantilever type of leaf spring

  tl 2

tE
320  106 (0.3) 2
0.03 
200  109 t
t  4.8mm

Also;

 t Nbt 2
F
6l
320  106 (6)(0.0048) 2 b
1500 
6(0.3)
1500(6)(0.3)
b
320  106 (6)(0.0048) 2
b  61mm

Example 7.3

Design a closed ends and ground cylindrical helical spring of circular cross section wire to
carry safely an axial compression load of 500N at a maximum stress of 750x106N/m2. The
spring stiffness should be 25kN/m and other proportions are as follows; spring index 6 to 8,
ratio of closed length to mean diameter of coil 1.7 to 2.3 and G is 75GN/m2. Determine;

a) the mean coil diameter

b) the wire diameter
c) the length of coil when load is applied assuming closed and ground ends
d) the length of coil before the application of the load
Solution

a) Taking spring index as 7

D  cd  7d
8FDK
s 
d 3
4c  1 0.615 4(7)  1 0.615
K     1.21
4c  4 c 4( 7 )  4 7
8(5000)(7 3 D )(1.21)
750  106 
D 3
16601200
D
750  106 
D  83.939mm
D  84mm

D 84
b) d   12mm
c 7
 8 FD 3 n

c) Gd 4

F Gd 4
k 
 8D 3n
75  109 (0.012) 4
 25000 
But 8(0.0843 )n
75  109 (0.012) 4
n
25000(8)(0.084) 3
n  13.1

For closed and ground total turns;

nt  13.1  1.5  14.6  15

nt d 15(12)
   2.14
D 84

This value is within the given limits of 1.7 to 2.3

d) Length of closed coil (when load is applied)

lclosed  nd  12(15)  180mm

e) Free length of spring (before the load is applied);

l free  l closed  
8 FD 3n
 
Gd 4
8(5000)(13.1)(0.0843 )
 
75  109 (0.012) 4
  199.702
  200mm
 l free  200  180  380mm

7.15 SELF STUDY

QUESTION 1:

a) What information should be given to specify a spring completely?

b) How many types of ends are possible in compression springs and how many number of
inactive coils are taken for each?
c) A close coiled spring with 40mm mean diameter is required to work under a load of
600N. The wire diameter is 5mm and the number of active turns is 7. The ends are ground
and square and the modulus of rigidity is 80GN/m2. Determine;

(i) the induced shear stress (579. 918MN/m2)

 (ii) the unit deflection (43,008mm)

(iii) the total number of coils (9)

(iv) the length of spring when under load assuming a 2mm clearance. (61mm)

QUESTION 2.

A railway wagon weighing 20000N and moving at a velocity of 1.5m/s is brought to rest by a
buffer consisting of two helical springs made of square wire. The spring index is 6. The
springs are compressed by 250mm in bringing the boggy to rest. If the shear stress in the wire
is not to exceed 400MN/m2. Find the load in each spring, the coil and wire diameters and the
number of active coils. [9180N; d = 20.6mm; D =123.6mm; n =37.2]

QUESTION 3.

A spring with the following characteristics is designed to fire a 50 N projectile into air:-

Coil diameter 150 mm

Wire diameter 20 mm

Free length 650 mm

Number of coils 24 square and ground

Shear elastic limit 550MPa

Whal factor 1.18

Modulus of rigidity 800GPa

Compression of spring when loaded 200 mm

Determine the height to which the projectile will be fired. Also find the factor of safety of the
spring. [7.90m; 2.48]
CHAPTER 8 BRAKES
Objective

To design block or shoe brakes

8.1 INTRODUCTION

A brake is a device by means of which artificial frictional resistance is applied to a moving

machine member, in order to retard or stop the motion of a machine. In the

process of performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of the moving
member or potential energy given up by objects being lowered by hoists, elevators etc.

The energy absorbed by brakes is dissipated in the form of heat. This heat is dissipated in the
surrounding air (or water which is circulated through the passages in the brake drum)

so that excessive heating of the brake lining does not take place.

The design or capacity of a brake depends upon the following factors :

(i) The unit pressure between the braking surfaces,

(ii)The coefficient of friction between the braking surfaces,

(iii) The peripheral velocity of the brake drum,

(iv) The projected area of the friction surfaces, and

(v)The ability of the brake to dissipate heat equivalent to the energy being absorbed.

The major functional difference between a clutch and a brake is that a clutch is used to keep
the driving and driven member moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a moving
member or to control its speed.

8.2 TYPES OF BRAKES

The brakes, according to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking element,
are classified as :

a)Hydraulic brakes e.g. pumps or hydrodynamic brake and fluid agitator,

b)Electric brakes e.g. generators and eddy current brakes, and

c)Mechanical brakes.

The hydraulic and electric brakes cannot bring the member to rest and are mostly used where
large amounts of energy are to be transformed while the brake is retarding the load such as in
laboratory dynamometers, high way trucks and electric locomotives. These brakes are also
used for retarding or controlling the speed of a vehicle for down-hill travel.
The mechanical brakes, according to the direction of acting force, may be divided into the
following two groups

(i) Radial brakes. In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in radial
direction. The radial brakes may be sub-divided into external brakes and internal
brakes. According to the shape of the friction element, these brakes may be block
or shoe brakes and band brakes.
(ii) Axial brakes. In these brakes, the force acting on the brake drum is in axial
direction. The axial brakes may be disc brakes and cone brakes. The analysis of
these brakes is similar to clutches.
8.3 MATERIALS FOR BRAKE LINING

The material used for the brake lining should have the following characteristics :

a) It should have high coefficient of friction with minimum fading. In other words, the
coefficient of friction should remain constant over the entire surface with change in
temperature.
b) It should have low wear rate.
c) It should have high heat resistance.
d) It should have high heat dissipation capacity.
e) It should have low coefficient of thermal expansion.
f) It should have adequate mechanical strength.
g) It should not be affected by moisture and oil.
Since we have already discussed Band brakes and Clutches in Mechanics of Machines here
we will concentrate on the shoe or block brakes.

8.4 SHOE (BLOCK) BRAKES

In these one or more shoes are forced against a wheel or drum that usually has a cylindrical
surface.

8.5 SINGLE SHOE BRAKE

It consists of a block or shoe which is pressed against the rim of a revolving brake wheel
drum. The block is made of a softer material than the rim of the wheel. This type of a brake is
commonly used on railway trains and tram cars. The friction between the block and the wheel
causes a tangential braking force to act on the wheel, which retard the rotation of the wheel.
The block is pressed against the wheel by a force applied to one end of a lever to which the
block is rigidly fixed as shown in figure 1 below.
 Fig. 8.1

8.6 FORCE ANALYSIS

The shoe is forced against the drum by a radial force F and for the relationship between the
force F and the torque T, let

F = P - operating force on the shoe in a radial direction

T- torque on the drum

D- diameter of drum

- one-half the angle of contact of the shoe

b- width of drum

p- pressure between shoe and drum

- coefficient of friction

Taking a small area of contact A subtending  at the center then

The elementary area of contact A = r b

Normal force on this area =r b p 

The component of this normal force parallel to F = p r b cos

Integrating

 

 dF   pbrCosd    or     F  br  pCosd      1
 

Force of friction on the elementary area =r b pd

Torque on this area = r2pbd

Hence total torque

And

T  r pbd
2


T  br   pd              2
2



To get the expression for the pressure in terms of  we assume that normal wear is
proportional to the work of friction hence from fig. b, as wear occurs the shoe or friction
lining will retain the cylindrical shape of the drum. The component of wear in the direction of
the force F that is ab will be constant.

Therefore normal wear ac = abCos

From this assumption the pressure p will be proportional to abcos or p =kcos where k is
constant of proportionality
Evaluating the integrals 1 and 2 we get

 
F  rb kCos 2d  rbk  Cos 2d
 
Therefore

rbk
F (2  Sin2 )          3
2

And



T  r b 
2
kCosd  br k  Cosd
2



Hence

T  2kbr 2 Sin                4

By making k the subject of equation 3 and substituting into equation 4 we get

4rFSin
T 5
2  Sin2

Since the tangential force F t= T/r then,

4 FSin
Ft 
2  Sin2
From these equations taking

4 Sin
 1
2  Sin2

Then, Ft = 1F where 1 is equivalent coefficient of friction

8.7 FORCES ACTING ON THE LEVER

Taking moments about 0,

Q(a +b) –bF – cFt = 0 but Ft = F1 hence,

Q(a + b) – bF - c1F = 0………………………………………..6

Q ( a  b)
F .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .8
b  c 1
 1Q ( a  b)
Ft  .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 9
b  c 1
r 1Q ( a  b)
T .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 10
b  c 1
Q(a + b) – F(b + c1) = 0……………………………………….7
NOTE:

1.The moment due to tangential or frictional force Ft ( cFt)or µFc can oppose the direction
of the moment due to the operating force Q and hence retards the application of the brake.
The moment of frictional force (µFc) can add to the moment due to the operating force Q.
In other words, the frictional force helps to apply the brake. Such type of brakes are said to
be self energizing brakes. When the frictional force is great enough to apply the brake
with no external force, then the brake is said to be self-locking brake. From the above
expression, we see that ifa ≤ μc, then P will be negative or equal to zero.This means no
external force is needed to applythe brake and hence the brake is self locking.Therefore the
condition for the brake to be self locking is a ≤ μc

The self-locking brake is used only in back-stop applications.

2.The brake should be self-energizing and not the self-locking.

3. In order to avoid self-locking and to prevent the brake from grabbing, a is kept greater

than μc.

4.If Abis the projected bearing area of the block or shoe, then the bearing pressure on the

shoe, pb= F / Ab

Where is given by Ab= Width of shoe × Projected length of shoe = w (2r sin θ)

5.When a single block or shoe brake is applied to a rolling wheel, an additional load is

thrown on the shaft bearings due to heavy normal force (RN) and produces bending of

the shaft. In order to overcome this draw back, a double block or shoe brake, as

discussed in Art. 8.8, is used.

8.8 DOUBLE SHOE SPRING SET BRAKE

For the relation between the spring force S and the torque T on wheel

Taking moments about 01 and 02

M 01  S (a  b)  cFt1  bF1  0    and   M 02  S (a  b)  cFt 2  bF2  0

 = Ft1/F1
1
= Ft2/F2

From the above equations, Ft1 and Ft2 can be determined and hence;

T = (Ft1 + Ft2) r

8.9 WORKED EXAMPLES

Example 8.1

A 700mm diameter brake drum contacts a single shoe as shown below. The brake is to
operate against a 225Nm torque at 500rpm.  = 0.3 determine

a) the normal force F on the shoe (2142,86N)

b) the required force W to apply the brake for clockwise rotation (804,7N)
c) the required force W to apply the brake for anti clockwise rotation (858,1N)
d) the dimension that c would need to be to make the brake self-locking (1183,33mm)
e) the rate of heat generated (11,79kJ/s)
Solution

a) T  Ft  r but Ft  FN
 T  rFR
225  0.3(0.35) FN
FN  2142.86N

b) M 0 0
915W  355FN  38Ft  0
355)2124.86)  38(0.3)(2124.86)
W
915
W  804.7 N

c) M 0 0
915W  355FN  38Ft  0
355( 2124.86)  39().30( 2124.86)
W
915
W  858.1N
 d) Self-locking is possible for clockwise rotation of drum i.e. W  0

 Ft  FN
c  a
a
c

355
c
0 .3
c  1183.33mm

2N
e) Work done against friction (W )  Ft v  Ft r  Ft r
60

2N
 FN r
60
 2 (500) 
 0.3( 2124.86) (0.35)
 60 
11.78kJ / s( kW )

Example 8.2

A shoe type hand brake shown above has a face width of 40mm and a mean coefficient of
friction of 0,25. If the actuating force is 400N, If the drum is rotating in the clockwise
direction, determine the maximum pressure and the braking torque on the shoe (p
=12,966x104 and T = 41,26Nm.)
Solution

Letting F be the normal force between shoe and drum.

M O 0
500( 400)  200F
500( 400)
F   1000N
200

But pressure on surfaces ( p )  k cos

Maximum pressure ( p max )  k When cos  1

rbk
F ( 2  sin(2 )
2
90
  450
2
rbpmax
1000  ( 2  sin(2 )
2
0.150(0,04) p max  45 
1000   (2 )  sin(90) 
2  180 
p max  12.966  104 N / m 2

T  2kbr 2  sin
T  2(12.966  104 )(0.04)(0.1502 )(0.25sin 45
T  41.26NM

Alternatively

4rF sin
T
2  sin 2
4(0.25)(0.150)(1000) sin 450
T
 45 
2   sin(90)
 180 
106.066
T
2.571
T  41.26N / m
Example 8.3

The proposed lay out of a brake to be rated at 2000Nm torque at 1900rpm is shown in the fig.
below. The assumed drum diameter is 200mm, the angle of contact for each shoe is 1200. The
coefficient of friction may be assumed as 0.3 and for the conditions of serves a pV value
65x106m-N/m2 projected area per second may be assumed. Determine thespring force S
required to set the brake and the width of the shoes. Take a = b 150mm, distance between
pivot centers = 100mm

Solution

4 sin
1  
2  sin 2
4 sin(60)
 1  0.3  sin(2  60)
 60 
2 
 180 
 1  0.351

Ft   1 P
Ft Ft
P   2.85Ft
 1
0.351
Taking moments about left hand pivot;

M 0L 0
300S  50FtL  150PL  0
300S  50FtL  150( 2,85) FtL  0
FtL  0.795S

Taking moments about right hand pivot

M 0R 0
300S  50FtR  150PR  0
300S  50FtR  150( 2.85) FtR  0
FtR  0.628S

T  FtR  FtL r
2000  0.975S  0.628S (0.1)
S  14054.81N

(Spring force required to set the brake but when the spring is compressed further to release
the brake the spring force will be greater that this value.)

 PR  PL
Average normal force P 
2

FtL  FtR 
 2.85
2
( 2000/ 0.1)
 2.85
2
28500N

Projected area of shoe;

 x
sin(6) 
r
x  r sin(60)
l  2 x  2 r sin(60)  d sin(60)
A  bl  bd sin(60)
A  0.2b sin(60)
A  0.1732b

2N
Velocity ( v )  r  r
60

2 (1900)
 (0.1)
60
 19.897m / s

F
pv  v
A
28500
65  106  (19.897)
0.173b
b  50.37mm

8.7 SELF STUDY

QUESTION 1

For the single shoe brake below determine the torque that may be resisted assuming the
following; the brake drum diameter 500mm, a = 0.1m, R= 1750N, the angle of contact 90 0
and the coefficient of friction is 0,35.
QUESTION 2

a) The drum of the 80 mm shoe width in the shoe brake shown above rotates in the
clockwise direction. If the coefficient of friction is 0.3, determine the value of the
torque which mat be resisted by the brake. [51500Nmm]
b) Calculate the value of the average normal pressure between the shoe and drum.
[0.115MPa]

QUESTION 3

The double block brake above absorbs 26kW at 300 rpm. The angle of contact is 700 and the
drum diameter is 510 mm. the coefficient of friction is 0.3 and for heavy duty classification a
pV 0f 1.0x106 N/m-m/s is assumed. Determine;
a) The value of W [419.03 N]
b) The minimum shoe width [139.03 mm]
c) The average normal pressure between lining and drum if the shoe width is 150 mm.
Use most heavily loaded shoe. 0.392MPa]
d) The maximum normal pressure between lining and drum if the shoe width is 150
mm. Use most heavily loaded shoe. [0.42MPa]
e) The heat rate being generated [26kJ/s]
f) The total amount of heat generated if the brake has to be applied for 4 seconds at full
capacity to stop the load[52kJ]

QUESTION 4

A single block brake, as shown in Fig. Q4 above has a drum diameter of 720 mm. If the
brake sustains 225 N-m torque at 500 r.p.m.; find :

(a) the required force (P) to apply the brake for clockwise rotation of the drum;

(b) the required force (P) to apply the brake for counter clockwise rotation of the

drum;

(c) the location of the fulcrum to make the brake self-locking for clockwise rotation

of the drum; and The coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.3. [Ans. 805.4 N ;

861 N; 1.2 m ; 11.78 kW]

QUESTIONN 5

The layout and dimensions of a double shoe brake is shown above. The diameter of the
brake drum is 300 mm and the contact angle for each shoe is 90°. If the coefficient of
friction for the brake lining and the drum which is rotating clockwise is 0.4, find the
spring force necessary to transmit a torque of 30 N-m. Also determine the width of the
brake shoes, if the bearing pressure on the lining material is not to exceed 0.28 N/mm2.
[Ans. 99.1 N ; 5 mm]
CHAPTER 10 BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION

10.1 PLAN BEARINGS.

A plain bearing, also known as a plane bearing[ or a friction bearing is the simplest type
of bearing, comprising just a bearing surface and no rolling elements. Therefore the journal
(i.e., the part of the shaft in contact with the bearing) slides over the bearing surface. The
simplest example of a plain bearing is a shaft rotating in a hole. A simple linear bearing can
be a pair of flat surfaces designed to allow motion; e.g., a drawer and the slides it rests onor
the ways on the bed of a lathe.

Plain bearings, in general, are the least expensive type of bearing. They are also compact and
lightweight, and they have a high load-carrying capacity.[

The design of a plain bearing depends on the type of motion the bearing must provide. The
three types of motions possible are:

 Journal (friction, radial or rotary) bearing: This is the most common type of plain
bearing; it is simply a shaft rotating in a bearing.
o In locomotive applications a journal bearing specifically referred to the plain
bearing once used at the ends of the axles of railroad wheel sets, enclosed by
journal boxes.

 Linear bearing: This bearing provides linear motion; it may take the form of a circular
bearing and shaft or any other two matching surfaces (e.g., a slide plate)
  Thrust bearing: A thrust bearing provides a bearing surface for forces acting axial to
the shaft.[3]

Integral

Integral plain bearings are built into the object of use. It is a hole that has been prepared into
a bearing surface. Industrial integral bearings are usually made from cast iron or babbitt and a
hardened steel shaft is used in the bearing.[6][7]

Integral bearings are not as common because bushings are easy to accommodate and if they
wear out then they are just replaced.[3] Depending on the material an integral bearing may be
less expensive but it cannot be replaced. If an integral bearing wears out then the item may be
replaced or reworked to accept a bushing. Integral bearings were very common in 19th-
century machinery but became progressively less common as interchangeable manufacture
permeated the industry.

An example of a common integral plain bearing is the hinge, which is both a thrust bearing
and a journal bearing

Bushing

A bushing, also known as a bush, is an independent plain bearing that is inserted into a
housing to provide a bearing surface for rotary applications; this is the most common form of
a plain bearing.[8] Common designs include solid (sleeve and flanged), split, and clenched
bushings. A sleeve, split, or clenched bushing is only a "sleeve" of material with an inner
diameter (ID), outer diameter (OD), and length. The difference between the three types is that
a solid sleeved bushing is solid all the way around, a split bushing has a cut along its length,
and a clenched bearing is similar to a split bushing but with a clench across the cut. A flanged
bushing is a sleeve bushing with a flange extending radially outward from the ID. The flange
is used to positively locate the bushing when it is installed or to provide a thrust bearing
surface.[9]

Sleeve bearings of inch dimensions are almost exclusively dimensioned using the SAE
numbering system. The numbering system uses the format -XXYY-ZZ, where XX is the ID
in sixteenths of an inch, YY is the OD in sixteenths of an inch, and ZZ is the length in eights
of an inch.[1] Metric sizes also exist.[10]

A linear bushing is not usually pressed into a housing, but rather secured with a radial feature.
Two such examples include two retaining rings, or a ring that is molded onto the OD of the
bushing that matches with a groove in the housing. This is usually a more durable way to
retain the bushing, because the forces acting on the bushing could press it out.

The thrust form of a bushing is conventionally called a thrust washer.

 A solid sleeve bushing

 A flanged bushing

A clenched bushing

Two-piece
Two-piece plain bearings, known as full bearings in industrial machinery,[11] are commonly
used for larger diameters, such as crankshaft bearings. The two halves are called shells.[12]
There are various systems used to keep the shells located. The most common method is a tab
on the parting line edge that correlates with a notch in the housing to prevent axial movement
after installation. For large, thick shells a button stop or dowel pin is used. The button stop is
screwed to the housing, while the dowel pin keys the two shells together. Another less
common method uses a dowel pin that keys the shell to the housing through a hole or slot in
the shell.[13]

The distance from one parting edge to the other is slightly larger than the corresponding
distance in the housing so that a light amount of pressure is required to install the bearing.
This keeps the bearing in place as the two halves of the housing are installed. Finally, the
shell's circumference is also slightly larger than the housing circumference so that when the
two halves are bolted together the bearing crushes slightly. This creates a large amount of
radial force around the entire bearing which keeps it from spinning. It also forms a good
interface for heat to travel out of the bearings into the housing.[12]

Materials

Plain bearings must be made from a material that is durable, low friction, low wear to the
bearing and shaft, resistant to elevated temperatures, and corrosion resistant. Often the
bearing is made up of at least two constituents, where one is soft and the other is hard. The
hard constituent supports the load while the soft constituent supports the hard constituent. In
general, the harder the surfaces in contact the lower the coefficient of friction and the greater
the pressure required for the two to seize.[8][14][15]

Babbitt

Main article: Babbitt (metal)

Babbitt is usually used in integral bearings. It is coated over the bore, usually to a thickness
of 1 to 100 thou (0.025 to 2.5 mm), depending on the diameter. Babbitt bearings are designed
to not damage the journal during direct contact and to collect any contaminants in the
lubrication.[11]

Bi-material

Split bi-material bushings: a metal exterior with an inner plastic coating

Bi-material bearings consist of two materials, a metal shell and a plastic bearing surface.
Common combinations include a steel-backed PTFE-coated bronze and aluminum-backed
Frelon.[16] Steel-backed PTFE-coated bronze bearings are rated for more load than most other
bi-metal bearings and are used for rotary and oscillating motions. Aluminum-backed frelon
are commonly used in corrosive environments because the Frelon is chemically inert.[17]

Bearing properties of various bi-material bearings[17]

PV (max.)
Temperature P (max.) V (max.)
[psi sfm (MPa
range [psi(MPa)] [sfm (m/s)]
m/s)]
Steel-backed PTFE- -328–536 °F / -200– 390 51,000 (1.79
36,000 psi/248 MPa
coated bronze 280 °C (2.0 m/s) MPa m/s)
Aluminum-backed -400–400 °F / -240– 300 20,000 (0.70
3,000 psi/21 MPa
frelon 204 °C (1.52 m/s) MPa m/s)

Bronze

A common plain bearing design utilizes a hardened and polished steel shaft and a softer
bronze bushing. The bushing is replaced whenever it has worn too much.

Common bronze alloys used for bearings include: SAE 841, SAE 660 (CDA 932), SAE 863,
and CDA 954.

Bearing properties of various bronze alloys[18]

P (max.) V (max.) PV (max.)
Temperature range
[psi(MPa)] [sfm (m/s)] [psi sfm (MPa m/s)]
2,000 psi 1,200
SAE 841 10–220 °F (-12–104 °C) 50,000 (1.75 MPa m/s)
(14 MPa) (6.1 m/s)
 4,000 psi
SAE 660 10–450 °F (-12–232 °C) 750 (3.8 m/s) 75,000 (2.63 MPa m/s)
(28 MPa)
4,000 psi
SAE 863 10–220 °F (-12–104 °C) 225 (1.14 m/s) 35,000 (1.23 MPa m/s)
(28 MPa)
CDA Less than 500 °F 4,500 psi 125,000 (4.38 MPa
225 (1.14 m/s)
954 (260 °C) (31 MPa) m/s)

Cast iron

A cast iron bearing is commonly used with a hardened steel shaft because the coefficient of
friction is relatively low. The cast iron glazes over therefore wear becomes negligible.[6]

Graphite

In harsh environments, such as ovens and dryers, a copper and graphite alloy, commonly
known by the trademarked name graphalloy, is used. The graphite is a dry lubricant, therefore
it is low friction and low maintenance. The copper adds strength, durability, and provides
heat dissipation characteristics.

Bearing properties of graphitic materials

P (max.) V (max.) PV (max.)
Temperature range
[psi(MPa)] [sfm (m/s)] [psi sfm (MPa m/s)]
-450–750 °F / -268– 75 12,000 (0.42 MPa
Graphalloy[17] 750 psi/5 MPa
399 °C (0.38 m/s) m/s)
Graphite ? ? ? ?

Unalloyed graphite bearings are used in special applications, such as locations that are
submerged in water.[19]

Jewels

Main article: Jewel bearing

Known as jewel bearings, these bearings use jewels, such as sapphire, ruby, and garnet.

Plastic

Solid plastic plain bearings are now increasingly popular due to dry-running lubrication-free
behavior. Solid polymer plain bearings are low weight, corrosion resistant, and maintenance
free. After research spanning decades, an accurate calculation of the service life of polymer
plain bearings is possible today. Designing with solid polymer plain bearings is complicated
by the wide range, and non-linearity, of coefficient of thermal expansion. These materials can
heat rapidly when used in applications outside the recommended pV limits.
Solid polymer type bearings are limited by the injection molding process. Not all shapes are
possible with this process and the shapes which are possible are limited to what is considered
good design practice for injection molding. Plastic bearings are subject to the same design
cautions as all other plastic parts: creep, high thermal expansion, softening (increased
wear/reduced life) at elevated temperature, brittle fractures at cold temperatures, swelling due
to moisture absorption. While most bearing-grade plastics/polymers are designed to reduce
these design cautions, they still exist and should be carefully considered before specifying a
solid polymer (plastic) type.

Plastic bearings are now everywhere from photocopy machines to the tills in the supermarket.
Other applications include farm equipment, textile machinery, medical devices, food and
packaging machines, car seating, marine equipment and many more.

Common plastics include nylon, polyacetal, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), ultra-high-

molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), rulon, PEEK, urethane, and vespel (a high-
performance polyimide).[20][21][22]

Bearing properties of various plastics[20][21][23]

P (max.) V (max.) [sfm PV (max.) [psi
Temperature range
[psi(MPa)] (m/s)] sfm (MPa m/s)]
-400–500 °F (-240– 140 (0.71)
Frelon[24] 1,500 (10) 10,000 (0.35)
260 °C)[25] (dry)
-20–250 °F (-29– 3,000 (0.11 MPa
Nylon 400 psi (3 MPa) 360 (1.83 m/s)
121 °C) m/s)
MDS-filled nylon -40–176 °F (-40– 2,000 psi 3,400 (0.12 MPa
393 (2.0 m/s)
blend 1 80 °C) (14 MPa) m/s)
MDS-filled nylon -40–230 °F (-40– 3,000 (0.11 MPa
300 psi (2 MPa) 60 (0.30 m/s)
blend 2 110 °C) m/s)
-148–480 °F (-100– 8,500 psi 3,500 (0.12 MPa
PEEK blend 1 400 (2.0 m/s)
249 °C) (59 MPa) m/s)
-148–480 °F (-100– 21,750 psi 37,700 (1.32 MPa
PEEK blend 2 295 (1.50 m/s)
249 °C) (150 MPa) m/s)
-20–180 °F (-29– 1,000 psi 2,700 (0.09 MPa
Polyacetal 1,000 (5.1 m/s)
82 °C) (7 MPa) m/s)
-350–500 °F (-212– 1,000 (0.04 MPa
PTFE 500 psi (3 MPa) 100 (0.51 m/s)
260 °C) m/s)
Glass-filled -350–500 °F (-212– 1,000 psi 11,000 (0.39 MPa
400 (2.0 m/s)
PTFE 260 °C) (7 MPa) m/s)
-400–500 °F (-240– 1,000 psi 10,000 (0.35 MPa
Rulon 641 400 (2.0 m/s)
260 °C) (7 MPa) m/s)
Rulon J -400–500 °F (-240– 750 psi (5 MPa) 400 (2.0 m/s) 7,500 (0.26 MPa
 260 °C) m/s)
-400–500 °F (-240– 1,000 psi 10,000 (0.35 MPa
Rulon LR 400 (2.0 m/s)
260 °C) (7 MPa) m/s)
-200–180 °F (-129– 1,000 psi 2,000 (0.07 MPa
UHMWPE 100 (0.51 m/s)
82 °C) (7 MPa) m/s)
MDS-filled -40–180 °F (-40– 11,000 (0.39 MPa
700 psi (5 MPa) 200 (1.02 m/s)
urethane 82 °C) m/s)
-400–550 °F (-240– 4,900 psi 3,000 300,000 (10.5 MPa
Vespel
288 °C) (34 MPa) (15.2 m/s) m/s)

Others

 Ceramic bearings are very hard and sand and other grit which enter the bearing are
simply ground to a fine powder which does not inhibit the operation of the bearing.
 Lubrite
 Lignum vitae is a self lubricating wood and in clocks it gives extremely long life.

Lubrication

The types of lubrication system can be categorized into three groups:[1]

 Class I — bearings that require the application of a lubricant from an external source
(e.g. oil, grease, etc.).
 Class II — Bearings that contain a lubricant within the walls of the bearing (e.g.
bronze, Graphite, etc,). Typically these bearings require an outside lubricant to
achieve maximum performance.
 Class III — bearings made of materials that are the lubricant. These bearings are
typically considered "self-lubricating" and can run without an external lubricant.

Examples of the second type of bearing are Oilites and plastic bearings made from
polyacetal; examples of the third type are metalized graphite bearings and PTFE bearings.[1]

Most plain bearings have a plain inner surface, however some are grooved. The grooves help
lubrication enter the bearing and cover the whole journal.[27]

Self-lubricating plain bearings have a lubricant contained within the bearing walls. There are
many forms of self-lubricating bearings. The first, and most common, are sintered metal
bearings, which have porous walls. The porous walls draw oil in via capillary action[28] and
release the oil when pressure or heat is applied.[29] Another form is a solid one-piece metal
bushing with a figure eight groove channel on the ID that is filled with graphite. A similar
bearing replaces the figure eight groove with holes that are plugged with graphite; this allows
the bearing to be lubricated inside and out.[30] The last form is a plastic bearing, which has the
lubricant molded into the bearing. The lubricant is released as the bearing is run in.[31]
There are three main types of lubrication: full-film condition, boundary condition, and dry
condition. Full-film conditions are when the bearing's load is carried solely by a film of fluid
lubricant and there is no contact between the two bearing surfaces. In mix or boundary
conditions, load is carried partly by direct surface contact and partly by a film forming
between the two. In a dry condition, the full load is carried by surface-to-surface contact.

Bearings that are made from bearing grade materials always run in the dry condition. The
other two classes of plain bearings can run in all three conditions; the condition in which a
bearing runs is dependent on the operating conditions, load, relative surface speed, clearance
within the bearing, quality and quantity of lubricant, and temperature (affecting lubricant
viscosity). If the plain bearing is not designed to run in the dry or boundary condition it will
wear out and have a high coefficient of friction. Dry and boundary conditions may be
experienced even in a fluid bearing when operating outside of its normal operating
conditions; e.g., at startup and shutdown.

Fluid lubrication

Fluid lubrication results in a full-film or a boundary condition lubrication mode. A properly

designed bearing system reduces friction by eliminating surface-to-surface contact between
the journal and bearing through fluid dynamic effects.

A schematic of a journal bearing under a hydrodynamic lubrication below shows how the
journal centerline shifts from the bearing centerline.

Fluid bearings can be hydrostatically or hydrodynamically lubricated. Hydrostatically

lubricated bearings are lubricated by an external pump which always keeps a static amount of
pressure. In a hydrodynamic bearing the pressure in the oil film is maintained by the rotation
of the journal. Hydrostatic bearings enter a hydrodynamic state when the journal is
rotating.[11] Hydrostatic bearings almost always use oil, while hydrodynamic bearings can use
oil or grease.[citation needed] An example of a hydrostatic bearing is the heavily-loaded bearings
(main, connecting rod big-end and camshaft) in an automobile engine, which are usually fed
oil via a hole in the bearing.

Hydrodynamic bearings require greater care in design and operation than hydrostatic
bearings. They are also more prone to initial wear because lubrication does not occur until
there is rotation of the shaft. At low rotational speeds the lubrication may not attain complete
separation between shaft and bushing. As a result, hydrodynamic bearings are often aided by
secondary bearings which support the shaft during start and stop periods, protecting the fine
tolerance machined surfaces of the journal bearing.[citation needed]

In the hydrodynamic state a lubrication "wedge" forms, which lifts the journal. The journal
also slightly shifts horizontally in the direction of rotation. The location of the journal is
measured by the attitude angle, which is angle formed between the horizontal and a line that
crosses through the center of the journal and the center of the bearing. The attitude angle is
dependent on the direction of rotation, oil pressure (in hydrostatic bearings), and
electromagnetic forces (in electromagnetic equipment).[11]

One disadvantage specific to fluid-lubricated journal bearings is oil whirl, also known as oil
whip. Oil whirl is when a lubrication wedge cannot form, but instead "whirls" around the
bearing. This leads to direct contact between the journal and the bearing, which quickly wears
out the bearing. Moreover, the journal precesses in the opposite direction of rotation, causing
the friction to increase.[11]

A lemon bore

One design used to minimize this problem is called the lemon bore or elliptical bore. In this
design, shims are installed between the two halves of the bearing housing and then the bore is
machined to size. After the shims are removed, the bore resembles a lemon shape, which
decreases the clearance in one direction of the bore and increases the pre-load in that
direction. The disadvantage of this design is its lower load carrying capacity, as compared to
typical journal bearings. It is also still susceptible to oil whirl at high speeds, however its cost
is relatively low.[11]

A pressure dam

Another design is the pressure dam or dammed groove,[32] which has a shallow relief cut in
the center of the bearing over the top half of the bearing. The groove abruptly stops in order
to create a downward force to stabilize the journal. This design has a high load capacity and
corrects most oil whirl situations. The disadvantage is that it only works in one direction.
Offsetting the bearing halves does the same thing as the pressure dam. The only difference is
the load capacity increases as the offset increases.[11]

A more radical design is the tilting-pad design, which uses multiple pad that are designed to
move with changing loads. It is usually used in very large applications.

Oil Lubrication
Oils are used in journal bearings when cooling is required or contaminants or debris need to
be flushed away from the bearing. High-speed journal bearings are always lubricated with oil
rather than a grease. Oil is supplied to the bearing by either a pressurized oil pump system, an
oil ring or collar or a wick. Grooves in the bearing shell are used to distribute the oil
throughout the bearings‘ surfaces.

The viscosity grade required is dependent upon bearing RPM, oil temperature and load. The
bearing speed is often measured strictly by the revolutions per minute of the shaft, with no
consideration of the surface speed of the shaft, as per the ―ndm‖ values calculated for rolling
bearings. Table 1 provides a general guideline to selecting the correct ISO viscosity grade.
The ISO grade number indicated is the preferred grade for speed and temperature range. ISO
68- and 100-grade oils are commonly used in indoor, heated applications, with 32-grade oils
being used for high-speed (10,000 RPM) units and some outdoor low-temperature
applications. Note in the table that the higher the bearing speed, the lower the oil viscosity
required; and that the higher the operating temperature of the unit, the higher the oil viscosity
that is required. If vibration or minor shock loading is possible, a higher grade of oil than the
one indicated in Table 1 should be considered.

Bearing
Bearing / Oil Temperature (°C)
Speed
0 to
(rpm) 60 75 90
50
100 to
300 to 1,500 - 68 -
150
32 to
~1,800 32 68 to 100 100
46
68 to
~3,600 32 32 46 to 68
100
~10,000 32 32 32 32 to 46

Table 1. Journal Bearing ISO Viscosity Grade Selection

Another method of determining the proper viscosity grade is by applying minimum and
optimum viscosity criteria to a viscosity-temperature plot. A generally accepted minimum
viscosity of the oil at the operating temperature for journal bearings is 13 cSt, although some
designs allow for an oil as thin as 7 or 8 cSt at the operating temperature. The optimum
viscosity at operating temperature is 22 to 35 cSt, for moderate-speed bearings if no shock
loading occurs. The optimum viscosity may be as high as 95 cSt for low-speed, heavily
loaded or shock-loaded journal bearings.

Using this method requires some knowledge of the oil temperature within the bearing under
operating conditions, which can be difficult to determine. Fortunately, an accurate oil
temperature is not needed for most viscosity determinations. It is common to determine the
temperature of the outer surface of the pipes carrying oil to and away from the bearing. The
temperature of the oil inside of the pipes will generally be higher (5 to 10°C, 10 to 18°F) than
the outer metal surface of the pipe. The oil temperature within the bearing can be taken as the
average of the oil entering versus the temperature exiting the bearing.4

A third and more complex method is to calculate the oil viscosity needed to obtain a
satisfactory oil film thickness. Persons wishing to learn more about this method should seek
information regarding the Sommerfeld equation and either eccentricity ratios or Reynolds
Numbers.4

If the oil selected is too low in viscosity, heat will generate due to an insufficient film
thickness and some metal-to-metal contact will occur. If the oil is too high in viscosity, heat
will again be generated, but due to the internal fluid friction created within the oil. Selecting
an oil which is too high in viscosity can also increase the likelihood of cavitation. The high-
and low-pressure zones, which are created within the oil on each side of the area of minimum
film thickness, can cause oil cavitation in these bearings. Cavitation is a result of expansion
of dissolved air or a vapor (water or fuel) in the low-pressure zone of the bearing. The
resulting bubble implodes, causing damage, as it passes through the high-pressure portion of
the bearing. If the implosion or collapse of the vapor bubble occurs next to the metal surface,
this can cause cavitation pitting damage to the metal. If the implosion of the bubble occurs
within the oil, a micro hot spot or micro-dieseling can occur, which may lead to varnishing
within the system.

Typically, a rust and oxidation (R&O) inhibited additive system is used in the oils employed
in these applications. Antifoam and pour point depressant additives may also be present.
Antiwear (AW) hydraulic oils may also be used as long as the high-temperature limit of the
zinc AW component is not exceeded and excessive water is not present. R&O oils tend to
have better water separation characteristics, which is beneficial, and the AW properties of a
hydraulic oil would be beneficial only during startup and shutdown, assuming a properly
operating bearing.

Grease Lubrication
Grease is used to lubricate journal bearings when cooling of the bearing is not a factor,
typically if the bearing operates at relatively low speeds. Grease is also beneficial if shock
loading occurs or if the bearing frequently starts and stops or reverses direction. Grease is
almost always used to lubricate pins and bushings because it provides a thicker lubricant than
oil to support static loads and to protect against vibration and shock-loading that are common
in many of these applications.

Lithium soap or lithium complex thickeners are the most common thickeners used in greases
and are excellent for most journal bearing applications. The grade of grease used is typically
an NLGI grade #2 with a base oil viscosity of approximately 150 to 220 cSt at 40°C. Greases
for low-speed, high-load, high temperatures and for pins and bushings may use a higher
viscosity base oil and be formulated with EP and solid additives. Greases for improved water
resistance may be formulated with heavier base oils, different thickeners and special additive
formulations. Greases for better low-temperature dispensing may incorporate a
lowerviscosity base oil manufactured to an NLGI #1 specification. Bearings lubricated by a
centralized grease dispensing systems typically use a #1, 0 or 00 grade of grease.

The apparent viscosity of grease changes with shear (pressure, load and speed) that is, greases
are non-Newtonian or thixotropic. Within a rotating journal bearing, as the bearing rotates
faster (shear rate increases), the apparent viscosity of the grease decreases and approaches the
viscosity of the base oil used in grease. At both ends of the bearing shell, the pressure is
lower and therefore the apparent viscosity remains higher. The resulting thicker grease at the
bearing ends acts as a built-in seal to reduce the ingression of contaminants.

Greasing Procedures
The greasing procedures for journal bearings and pins and bushings are not as well-defined or
as critical as for rolling bearings because the grease is not subjected to the churning action
created by the rolling elements. The volume of grease to inject and the frequency of
application are dictated more by trial and error. Generally, most journal bearings cannot be
overgreased. Caution must be taken when pumping grease into a bearing that is fitted with
seals, so they are not damaged or displaced by the force and volume of the incoming grease.
The harshness of the environment, shock loading and especially the operating temperature
will be major factors in determining the frequency of relubrication.

Journal bearings are generally a simpler design and not as difficult to lubricate as rolling
element bearings. The proper viscosity matched to the operating conditions and a clean and
dry lubricant will usually suffice to form a full fluid lubricating film and provide excellent
bearing life.

10.2 Rolling-element bearing

A rolling-element bearing, also known as a rolling bearing,[1] is a bearing which carries a

load by placing round elements between the two pieces. The relative motion of the pieces
causes the round elements to roll with very little rolling resistance and with little sliding.

One of the earliest and best-known rolling-element bearings are sets of logs laid on the
ground with a large stone block on top. As the stone is pulled, the logs roll along the ground
with little sliding friction. As each log comes out the back, it is moved to the front where the
block then rolls on to it. It is possible to imitate such a bearing by placing several pens or
pencils on a table and placing an item on top of them. See "bearings" for more on the
historical development of bearings.

A rolling element rotary bearing uses a shaft in a much larger hole, and cylinders called
"rollers" tightly fill the space between the shaft and hole. As the shaft turns, each roller acts
as the logs in the above example. However, since the bearing is round, the rollers never fall
out from under the load.

Rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff between cost, size, weight,
carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on. Other bearing designs are often
better on one specific attribute, but worse in most other attributes, although fluid bearings can
sometimes simultaneously outperform on carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction,
rotation rate and sometimes cost. Only plain bearings are used as widely as rolling-element
bearings.

Design

Typical rolling-element bearings range in size from 10 mm diameter to a few metres

diameter, and have load-carrying capacity from a few tens of grams to many thousands of
tonnes.

A particularly common kind of rolling-element bearing is the ball bearing. The bearing has
inner and outer races and a set of balls. Each race is a ring with a groove where the balls rest.
The groove is usually shaped so the ball is a slightly loose fit in the groove. Thus, in
principle, the ball contacts each race at a single point. However, a load on an infinitely small
point would cause infinitely high contact pressure. In practice, the ball deforms (flattens)
slightly where it contacts each race, much as a tire flattens where it touches the road. The race
also dents slightly where each ball presses on it. Thus, the contact between ball and race is of
finite size and has finite pressure. Note also that the deformed ball and race do not roll
entirely smoothly because different parts of the ball are moving at different speeds as it rolls.
Thus, there are opposing forces and sliding motions at each ball/race contact. Overall, these
cause bearing drag.

Most rolling element bearings use cages to keep the balls separate. This reduces wear and
friction, since it avoids the balls rubbing against each other as they roll, and precludes them
from jamming. Caged roller bearings were invented by John Harrison in the mid-18th century
as part of his work on chronometers.[2]

Types of rolling elements

There are five types of rolling-elements that are used in rolling element bearings: balls,
cylindrical rollers, tapered rollers, spherical rollers, and needles.

Ball

A ball bearing
Ball bearings use balls instead of cylinders. Ball bearings can support both radial
(perpendicular to the shaft) and axial loads (parallel to the shaft). For lightly loaded bearings,
balls offer lower friction than rollers. Ball bearings can operate when the bearing races are
misaligned. Precision balls are typically cheaper to produce than shapes such as rollers;
combined with high-volume use, ball bearings are often much cheaper than other bearings of
similar dimensions. Ball bearings may have high point loads, limiting total load capacity
compared to other bearings of similar dimensions.

Cylindrical roller

A roller bearing

Common roller bearings use cylinders of slightly greater length than diameter. Roller
bearings typically have higher load capacity than ball bearings, but a lower capacity and
higher friction under loads perpendicular to the primary supported direction. If the inner and
outer races are misaligned, the bearing capacity often drops quickly compared to either a ball
bearing or a spherical roller bearing.

Roller bearings are the earliest known type of rolling-element-bearing, dating back to at least
40 BC.
Needle

A needle roller bearing

Needle roller bearings use very long and thin cylinders. Often the ends of the rollers taper to
points, and these are used to keep the rollers captive, or they may be hemispherical and not
captive but held by the shaft itself or a similar arrangement. Since the rollers are thin, the
outside diameter of the bearing is only slightly larger than the hole in the middle. However,
the small-diameter rollers must bend sharply where they contact the races, and thus the
bearing fatigues relatively quickly.

Tapered roller
Tapered roller bearings

Tapered roller bearings use conical rollers that run on conical races. Most roller bearings only
take radial or axial loads, but tapered roller bearings support both radial and axial loads, and
generally can carry higher loads than ball bearings due to greater contact area. Taper roller
bearings are used, for example, as the wheel bearings of most wheeled land vehicles. The
downsides to this bearing is that due to manufacturing complexities, tapered roller bearings
are usually more expensive than ball bearings; and additionally under heavy loads the tapered
roller is like a wedge and bearing loads tend to try to eject the roller; the force from the collar
which keeps the roller in the bearing adds to bearing friction compared to ball bearings.

Spherical roller
Spherical roller bearings

Spherical roller bearings use rollers that are thicker in the middle and thinner at the ends; the
race is shaped to match. Spherical roller bearings can thus adjust to support misaligned loads.
However, spherical rollers are difficult to produce and thus expensive, and the bearings have
higher friction than a comparable ball bearing since different parts of the spherical rollers run
at different speeds on the rounded race and thus there are opposing forces along the
bearing/race contact.

Configurations

The configuration of the races determine the types of motions and loads that a bearing can
best support. A given configuration can serve multiple of the following types of loading.

Thrust loadings
A thrust roller bearing
Thrust bearings are used to support axial loads, such as vertical shafts. Commonly spherical,
conical or cylindrical rollers are used; but non-rolling element bearings such as hydrostatic or
magnetic bearings see some use where particularly heavy loads or low friction is needed.

Radial loadings

Rolling element bearings are often used for axles due to their low rolling friction. For light
loads, such as bicycles, ball bearings are often used. For heavy loads and where the loads can
greatly change during cornering, such as cars and trucks, tapered rolling bearings are used.

Linear motion

Linear motion roller-element bearings are typically designed for either shafts or flat surfaces.
Flat surface bearings often consist of rollers and are mounted in a cage, which is then placed
between the two flat surfaces; a common example is drawer-support hardware. Roller-
element bearing for a shaft use bearing balls in a groove designed to recirculate them from
one end to the other as the bearing moves; as such, they are called linear ball bearings[3] or
recirculating bearings.

Bearing failure
A prematurely failed rear bearing cone from a mountain bicycle, caused by a combination of
pitting due to wet conditions, improper lubrication, and fatigue from frequent shock loading.

Rolling-element bearings often work well in non-ideal conditions, but sometimes minor
problems cause bearings to fail quickly and mysteriously. For example, with a stationary
(non-rotating) load, small vibrations can gradually press out the lubricant between the races
and rollers or balls (false brinelling). Without lubricant the bearing fails, even though it is not
rotating and thus is apparently not being used. For these sorts of reasons, much of bearing
design is about failure analysis.
There are three usual limits to the lifetime or load capacity of a bearing: abrasion, fatigue and
pressure-induced welding. Abrasion occurs when the surface is eroded by hard contaminants
scraping at the bearing materials. Fatigue results when a material becomes brittle after being
repeatedly loaded and released. Where the ball or roller touches the race there is always some
deformation, and hence a risk of fatigue. Smaller balls or rollers deform more sharply, and so
tend to fatigue faster. Pressure-induced welding can occur when two metal pieces are pressed
together at very high pressure and they become one. Although balls, rollers and races may
look smooth, they are microscopically rough. Thus, there are high-pressure spots which push
away the bearing lubricant. Sometimes, the resulting metal-to-metal contact welds a
microscopic part of the ball or roller to the race. As the bearing continues to rotate, the weld
is then torn apart, but it may leave race welded to bearing or bearing welded to race.

Although there are many other apparent causes of bearing failure, most can be reduced to
these three. For example, a bearing which is run dry of lubricant fails not because it is
"without lubricant", but because lack of lubrication leads to fatigue and welding, and the
resulting wear debris can cause abrasion. Similar events occur in false brinelling damage. In
high speed applications, the oil flow also reduces the bearing metal temperature by
convection. The oil becomes the heat sink for the friction losses generated by the bearing.

ISO has categorised bearing failures into a document Numbered ISO 15243.

Constraints and trade-offs

Caged radial ball bearings

All parts of a bearing are subject to many design constraints. For example, the inner and outer
races are often complex shapes, making them difficult to manufacture. Balls and rollers,
though simpler in shape, are small; since they bend sharply where they run on the races, the
bearings are prone to fatigue. The loads within a bearing assembly are also affected by the
speed of operation: rolling-element bearings may spin over 100,000 rpm, and the principal
load in such a bearing may be momentum rather than the applied load. Smaller rolling
elements are lighter and thus have less momentum, but smaller elements also bend more
sharply where they contact the race, causing them to fail more rapidly from fatigue.
Maximum rolling element bearing speeds are often specified in 'DN', which is the product of
the diameter (in mm) and the maximum RPM. For angular contact bearings DNs over 2.1
million have been found to be reliable in high performance rocketry applications.[4]

There are also many material issues: a harder material may be more durable against abrasion
but more likely to suffer fatigue fracture, so the material varies with the application, and
while steel is most common for rolling-element bearings, plastics, glass, and ceramics are all
in common use. A small defect (irregularity) in the material is often responsible for bearing
failure; one of the biggest improvements in the life of common bearings during the second
half of the 20th century was the use of more homogeneous materials, rather than better
materials or lubricants (though both were also significant). Lubricant properties vary with
temperature and load, so the best lubricant varies with application.

Although bearings tend to wear out with use, designers can make tradeoffs of bearing size
and cost versus lifetime. A bearing can last indefinitely—longer than the rest of the
machine—if it is kept cool, clean, lubricated, is run within the rated load, and if the bearing
materials are sufficiently free of microscopic defects. Note that cooling, lubrication, and
sealing are thus important parts of the bearing design.

The needed bearing lifetime also varies with the application. For example, Tedric A. Harris
reports in his Rolling Bearing Analysis[5] on an oxygen pump bearing in the U.S. Space
Shuttle which could not be adequately isolated from the liquid oxygen being pumped. All
lubricants reacted with the oxygen, leading to fires and other failures. The solution was to
lubricate the bearing with the oxygen. Although liquid oxygen is a poor lubricant, it was
adequate, since the service life of the pump was just a few hours.

The operating environment and service needs are also important design considerations. Some
bearing assemblies require routine addition of lubricants, while others are factory sealed,
requiring no further maintenance for the life of the mechanical assembly. Although seals are
appealing, they increase friction, and in a permanently-sealed bearing the lubricant may
become contaminated by hard particles, such as steel chips from the race or bearing, sand, or
grit that gets past the seal. Contamination in the lubricant is abrasive and greatly reduces the
operating life of the bearing assembly. Another major cause of bearing failure is the presence
of water in the lubrication oil. Online water-in-oil monitors have been introduced in recent
years to monitor the effects of both particles and the presence of water in oil and their
combined effect.

Designation

Metric rolling-element bearings have alphanumerical designations, defined by ISO 15, to

define all of the physical parameters. The main designation is a seven digit number with
optional alphanumeric digits before or after to define additional parameters. Here the digits
will be defined as: 7654321. Any zeros to the left of the last defined digit are not printed; e.g.
a designation of 0007208 is printed 7208.[6]

Digits one and two together are used to define the inner diameter (ID), or bore diameter, of
the bearing. For diameters between 20 and 495, inclusive, the designation is multiplied by
five to give the ID; e.g. designation 08 is a 40 mm ID. For inner diameters less than 20 the
following designations are used: 00 = 10 mm ID, 01 = 12 mm ID, 02 = 15 mm ID, and 03 =
17 mm ID. The third digit defines the "diameter series", which defines the outer diameter
(OD). The diameter series, defined in ascending order, is: 0, 8, 9, 1, 7, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The fourth
digit defines the type of bearing:[6]

0. Ball radial single-row

 1. Ball radial spherical double-row

2. Roller radial with short cylindrical rollers

3. Roller radial spherical double-row

4. Roller needle or with long cylindrical rollers

5. Roller radial with spiral rollers

6. Ball radial-thrust single-row

7. Roller tapered

8. Ball thrust, ball thrust-radial

9. Roller thrust or thrust-radial

The fifth and sixth digit define structural modifications to the bearing. For example, on radial
thrust bearings the digits define the contact angle, or the presence of seals on any bearing
type. The seventh digit defines the "width series", or thickness, of the bearing. The width
series, defined from lightest to heaviest, is: 7, 8, 9, 0, 1 (extra light series) , 2 (light series), 3
(medium series), 4 (heavy series). The third digit and the seventh digit define the
"dimensional series" of the bearing[6][7]

There are four optional prefix characters, here defined as A321-XXXXXXX (where the X's
are the main designation), which are separated from the main designation with a dash. The
first character, A, is the bearing class, which is defined, in ascending order: C, B, A. The
class defines extra requirements for vibration, deviations in shape, the rolling surface
tolerances, and other parameters that are not defined by a designation character. The second
character is the frictional moment (friction), which is defined, in ascending order, by a
number 1–9. The third character is the radial clearance, which is normally defined by a
number between 0 and 9 (inclusive), in ascending order, however for radial-thrust bearings it
is defined by a number between 1 and 3, inclusive. The fourth character is the accuracy
ratings, which normally are, in ascending order: 0 (normal), 6X, 6, 5, 4, T, and 2. Ratings 0
and 6 are the most common; ratings 5 and 4 are used in high-speed applications; and rating 2
is used in gyroscopes. For tapered bearings, the values are, in ascending order: 0, N, and X,
where 0 is 0, N is "normal", and X is 6X.[6]

There are five optional characters that can defined after the main designation: A, E, P, C, and
T; these are tacked directly onto the end of the main designation. Unlike the prefix, not all of
the designations must be defined. "A" indicates an increased dynamic load rating. "E"
indicates the use of a plastic cage. "P" indicates that heat-resistant steel are used. "C"
indicates the type of lubricant used (C1–C28). "T" indicates the degree to which the bearing
components have been tempered (T1–T5).[6]
 While manufacturers follow ISO 15 for part number designations on some of their products,
it is common for them to implement proprietary part number systems that do not correlate to
ISO 15.[8]

Lubrication of Rolling Bearings - Technical Solutions for Critical Running Conditions


Michael Weigand, Lubricant Consult GMBH
Tags: bearing lubrication

Grease is the most common type of lubricant used for rolling element bearings today. About
90 percent of all bearings are lubricated in this manner. It is important to select the right
grease for specific requirements and to calculate the lubricant life cycle. For accurate
calculation of grease service life, it is necessary to know and apply limiting factors. The
correct calculation will enable minimum quantity lubrication (MQL).

Ball and cylindrical roller bearings used in electric motors are an example of rolling bearings
with MQL. If, however, these bearing types are subjected to negative influences, the effective
grease lifetime can be rapidly reduced and bearing damage can occur. This article discusses
some of these negative influences and their effects based on practical examples. Practical
implication will be introduced through the issue of electric continuity (bearing currents or
bearing spark erosion) and the effect on the grease and rolling bearings.
Grease and Grease Lubrication of Rolling Bearings
Lubricating grease for rolling element bearings consists of thickener, oil and selected
additives to improve desired properties. The actual lubricant for a rolling bearing is oil, which
can be a mineral oil, fully synthetic or a blend of the two. Different types of additives are
added to these oils to influence the corrosion resistance properties and/or build layers that
protect the metal surface under extreme conditions. Additives also improve the viscosity
behavior at different temperatures.

The task of the thickener is to absorb the oil and release it in small quantities to the bearing
element over a long period.

In practice, only a few grams of grease are used for lubricating rolling element bearings and
this quantity typically lasts a long time. An exact calculation of the grease service life is
consequently of particular importance.

Calculating Grease Service Life

The grease service life for rolling bearing lubrication depends on the selection of grease, type
of bearing, working conditions and environmental influences.

The basis for the grease service life calculation can be seen in the generally accepted diagram
(Figure 2).
This diagram contrasts what is often called a ―general-purpose grease‖ (a mineral oil-based
lithium grease, Grease A) with the grease service life curve of a high-quality,
polyureathickened, synthetic ester oil-based grease (Grease B).

The advantages of polyurea-thickened, synthetic oils increase at higher temperatures. They

can easily achieve grease lifetimes which are 20 times higher than standard greases,
depending on the temperature. This means the user may be able to increase the safety margin
for lubricant-related bearing damage and simultaneously increase relubrication intervals.

The so-called bearing type value (kf) assumes the actual design of the bearing to be
lubricated. This factor can have values between 0.9 and 10 for kinematically simple ball
bearings. For kinematically complex bearings (like axial cylindrical roller bearings with high
sliding friction) the kf factor can reach values up to 90. The larger numbers suggest greater
surface areas and the greater total stress applied to the oil and thickener matrix. Spherical
roller bearings as a category tend to apply the greatest stress on greases.

The speed factor, n*dm (RPM * mean diameter of the bearing), is a classification number for
the rotational speed of the rolling bearing and is dependent on operating conditions. In this
way, one can already read the available service life of the specific grease type used, although
this is only a theoretical value. In the following calculation, influencing factors of the actual
application must be observed and their importance evaluated.

tfq = tf* f1* f2* f3* f4* f5* f6

tfq … grease service life in hours in practice
tf … grease service life from Figure 2
f1 … f6 … influence factors

These factors reflect known negative influences on the service life of roller bearing grease,
which shorten grease life, per the values shown in Figure 2.

Influence Factors
The influence of contamination (f1), vibration (f2), increased bearing temperature (f3), high
bearing load (f4), and air circulation (f5) on or around the bearing must be considered. The
values can easily vary between 0.1 and 1 (no influence), meaning the result of the actual
calculation is strongly influenced by the experience level of the person estimating factor
values. Structural factors (f6) may also significantly reduce the grease service life. For
example, the assembly direction of the bearing (horizontal, vertical or angular) is important
for the relubrication interval. Due to the different influences of the centrifugal forces on the
grease, the driven race way of a bearing (IR or OR rotating) must be considered.

The reduction factor ranges must be selected from a range. As the conditions become more
severe the factor value becomes smaller, which shortens the grease life calculation.
Experience plays a key role in accurate estimation.

f1 = Environmental media, degree of pollution (0.1 to 0.9)

f2 = Load dynamics, impacts (0.1 to 0.9)
f3 = Bearing temperature (0.1 to 0.9)
f4 = Bearing load (0.1 to 1.0)
f5 = Airflow (0.1 to 0.7)
f6 = Type of mounting, centrifugal energy (0.5 to 0.7)

While the reduction factors 1, 2, 5 and 6 are based on empirical values, the bearing
temperature (3) and load (4) can be attributed to chemical physical coherences and are
grease-type dependent.

For the standard grease (lithium soap and mineral oil), thermal aging increases
disproportionately following any increase in temperature above 140°C. Grease service life
shrinks to almost zero when it reaches its dropping point at approximately 190°C. One could
expect increased oil separation and, due to the increased circulation, an appreciable increase
in oxidation rate. As the grease reaches its dropping point, irreversible and spontaneous oil
bleeding occurs and the grease loses its properties. Grease service life also degrades with
extremely low temperatures, but this cannot be measured with the same test stand
configuration. Consequently, it is possible to determine grease life factors based on
performance within a range of temperatures.

Grease-lubricated Bearings in Electric Motors

A greased roller bearing in an electric motor is offered to demonstrate the possible grease
service life. In general, the suspension of rotors with grease-lubricated roller bearings is a
widely used and well-known application, and is a good example for a bearing subjected to
various influencing factors.

With the advent of modern frequency converting techniques, an additional negative influence
on bearing life time has been discovered and continues to cause failures: bearing currents.
Normally, rolling bearings in electric machinery are minimally loaded with the typical load
being between P/C=0.05 and C/P=20. The load, in relation to the carrying capacity of the
bearing, is so minimal that reaching the maximum endurance range should be possible. In
reality, bearing failures still occur after 15,000 to 20,000 hours with this type of bearing.
With correct relubrication, the grease service life can be matched to the optimum bearing
service life and thus easily achieve 100,000 hours and longer.

In planned preventive maintenance strategies, electric motors are often replaced after only
two to three years operating time. A variety of factors drives the interval, but generally this
has to do with previous application lifecycle experiences. Motor rebuilds require time, are
costly and present increased risk with each new installation.

In new machinery, modern frequency converting techniques, such as high-frequency variable

speed motors, the regulation of motor speed, increased speeds and lengthened operating hours
all have different effects that reduce service life (see sidebar). Higher speed capability of an
electric motor will lead to elevated bearing temperatures, exposing the grease to stronger
centrifugal forces. These centrifugal forces remove the oil from the contact surfaces at the
time that it is most vital to the bearings function and survival. This may result in premature
aging (oxidation and stiffening), due to overstressing of the performance capabilities in
general-purpose greases. Extreme bearing temperatures 212°F (100°C) can cause oil
evaporation, condensation and stability issues for the grease and the bearing. In recent years,
increased failures due to electrical arcing (highfrequency alternating current passing between
the rotor and the frame through the bearing) in high-frequency drives have added to these
issues.

By switching the square wave voltage, harmonics in the MHz-range are produced, which
cannot be isolated with common insulation materials. Conventional measures used by bearing
manufacturers (insulation of the surface of the bearing ring with a ceramic layer
approximately 100 microns thick), are no longer successful. These methods are effective only
when working with direct current (DC) or low-frequency alternate current (AC). It is
speculated that there is so much energy left in these high-frequency currents that grounding
occurs through the lubricant film, and the element and grease are damaged. This influence is
not taken into consideration by today‘s conventional calculations and has, in turn, led to
bearing damage on modern machines using frequency-converting techniques for the speed
regulation.

Recognizing the environmental influences (f1 and f3) and selecting appropriately reduced
lifecycle factors can contribute to overcoming the arc induced stress on the element. The
equipment owner may help offset the effect of the pollution and temperature contaminants
that will be present under these circumstances by reducing the quantity in increasing the
frequency of the replenishment of the in-service lubricant.

Bearing Failures
One can observe strong oxidation and hardening of the grease that occurs following high-
temperature stress, which is produced through electrical grounding (arcing). Loss of lubricant
health produces mixed friction and wear in the roller contact area. The fact that a bearing
cannot be easily relubricated from the outside plays a crucial role in eventual element failure.
The newly added grease cannot displace the hardened and oxidized lubricant already present,
and it makes an exchange of grease impossible. With normal re-lubrication intervals, bearing
failure is inevitable (Figures 3 through 8).

Figure 3. Aged Grease Between Cage and IR

Figure 4.Relubrication is Not Possible

Figure 5. Mixed Lubrication in a CRB

Figure 6. Damage from Bad Lubrication

Figure 7. Water from Outside

Figure 8. Condensed Water Problem

As mentioned, there is a noticeable increase of electrical current damage due to

highfrequency alternate current (AC). Dull brown-colored raceways and tracks on the ball or
rollers are typical (Figures 9 through 14).

Figure 9. CRB-Outer Ring is Brown

Figure 10. Ball with Brown Bands

Figure 11. Deep-groove Ball Bearing Damage

Figure 12. SEM Picture Showing Race

Figure 13. Damaged CRB Due Current

Figure 14. Damaged Grease

As shown in Figure 12, the actual electric current crater is small and can be identified only
under an SEM. Today, the typical diameter of the nearly circular craters present in most
common failures ranges from 1 to 4 µm. Practical experience shows that bearing surfaces will
be damaged, even with a minimal load. These arcs also lead to a catastrophic oxidation-
induced aging of the grease in the rolling contact area, which dramatically shortens grease
life (Figures 13 and 14). At the roller contact points, the deteriorated grease can no longer
lubricate effectively, while the outer portions of the bearing retain fresh grease. This
condition is sometimes characterized as underlubrication, which may be an accurate depiction
of a secondary failure mechanism but is not necessarily the fundamental contributor to
failure. Corrective measures are usually not successful when the actual cause is not correctly
identified and amended.

Figure 15. Typical Fluting Pattern

(Courtesy of MH Electric Motor and Control Corp.)

The last stage is characterized by the typical fluting pattern as a result of bearing currents
(Figure 15).
Figure 16. DuoMax 160

Lubricating roller bearings with grease is a common practice for long-term lubrication. To
achieve the expected operating life, special attention must be paid to the correct grease
service life calculation. By addressing a number of influencing factors, grease service life can
be greatly reduced. Modern electric motors with frequency converters for regulating rotating
speed suffer increased problems due to bearing currents at the rolling contact points. These
currents lead to rolling bearing surfaces that are damaged by micro-craters after the grease is
thermally destroyed at the metal contact points by small electric arcs. This particular
reduction in grease service life has not yet been considered in conventional grease life
calculations. Failure due to bearing currents continues to increase with the frequent use of
modern drive technology for motor control.

References

1. Strecker, William. ―Troubleshooting Tilting Pad Thrust Bearings.‖ Machinery

Lubrication magazine, March-April 2004.
2. Strecker, William. ―Failure Analysis for Plain Bearings.‖ Machinery Lubrication
magazine, July-August 2004.
3. Berry, James. ―Oil Whirl and Whip Instabilities within Journal Bearings.‖ Machinery
Lubrication magazine, May-June 2005.
4. Tribology Data Handbook. Chapter 61, Journal Bearing Design and Analysis.
Khonsari, M. CRC Press, 1997.