Alkenes and Addition Reactions

1
 Alkene Structure
• Alkenes are also called olefins.
• Alkenes contain a carbon-carbon double bond.
• Terminal alkenes have the double bond at the end of the
carbon chain.
• Internal alkenes have at least one carbon atom bonded to each
end of the double bond.
• Cycloalkenes contain a double bond in a ring.

2
 Alkene Hybridization
• Recall that the double bond consists of a  bond and a
 bond.
• Each carbon is sp2 hybridized and trigonal planar, with bond
angles of approximately 120°.

3
 Bond Dissociation Energy
• Bond dissociation energies of the C-C bonds in ethane (a
 bond only) and ethylene (one  and one  bond) can be used
to estimate the strength of the  component of the double
bond.
• The  bond is much weaker than the  bond of a C-C double
bond, making it much more easily broken.
• Therefore, alkenes undergo many reactions that alkanes do
not.

4
 Cyclic Alkenes
• Cycloalkenes having fewer than eight carbon atoms have a cis
geometry.
• A trans-cycloalkene must have a carbon chain long enough to
connect the ends of the double bond without introducing too
much strain.
• trans-Cyclooctene is the smallest, isolable trans cycloalkene,
but it is considerably less stable than cis-cyclooctene, making
it one of the few alkenes having a higher energy trans isomer.

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6
 Calculating Degrees of Unsaturation
• An acyclic alkene has the general structural formula CnH2n.
• Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have fewer
than the maximum number of hydrogen atoms per carbon.
• Cycloalkanes also have the general formula CnH2n.
• Each  bond or ring removes two hydrogen atoms from a molecule,
and this introduces one degree of unsaturation.
• The number of degrees of unsaturation for a given molecular
formula can be calculated by comparing the actual number of H
atoms in a compound to the maximum number of H atoms possible
for the number of carbons present if the molecule were an acyclic
alkane.
• This procedure gives the total number of rings and/or  bonds in a
molecule.

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 Degrees of Unsaturation for Molecules
Containing Heteroatoms
• Ignore O atoms in the molecule (this divalent atom is a linker
and has no effect on degree of unsaturation).

• Add number of halogens to number of H's (they are equivalent

to H).

• Subtract 1 H for each N present (N’s two connections allows

extra H).

• E.g., C6H10OCl3N is equivalent to C6H12.

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9
 Naming Alkenes and Alkenols
Figure 10.1

• Compounds that contain both a double bond and a hydroxy group

are named as alkenols and the chain (or ring) is numbered to give
the OH group the lower number.

10
 Naming Polyenes and Cyclic Alkenes
• Compounds with two double bonds are named as dienes by
changing the “-ane” ending of the parent alkane to the suffix
“-adiene”.
• Compounds with three double bonds are named as trienes,
and so forth.
• In naming cycloalkenes, the double bond is located between
C1 and C2, and the “1” is usually omitted in the name.
• The ring is numbered clockwise or counterclockwise to give
the first substituent the lower number.
Figure 10.2

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12
 Common Names of Alkenes and Alkene
Substituents
• Some alkene or alkenyl substituents have common names.
• The simplest alkene, CH2=CH2, named in the IUPAC system as
ethene, is often called ethylene.

Figure 10.3

13
 Physical Properties of Alkenes
• Most alkenes exhibit only weak van der Waals interactions, so
their physical properties are similar to alkanes of comparable
molecular weight.
• Alkenes have low melting points and boiling points.
• Melting and boiling points increase as the number of carbons
increases because of increased surface area.
• Alkenes are soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water.
• The C-C single bond between an alkyl group and one of the
double bond carbons of an alkene is slightly polar because the
sp3 hybridized alkyl carbon donates electron density to the sp2
hybridized alkenyl carbon.

14
 Cis/Trans Differ in Physical Properties
• A consequence of the alkene dipole is that cis and trans isomeric
alkenes often have somewhat different physical properties.
• cis-2-Butene has a higher boiling point (4 °C) than trans-2-butene
(1 °C).
• In the cis isomer, the two Csp3 Csp2 bond dipoles reinforce each
other, yielding a small net molecular dipole.
• In the trans isomer, the two bond dipoles cancel.

15
 Useful Products Formed From Ethylene
Figure 10.4

16
 Naturally Occurring Alkenes
Figure 10.5

17
 Fatty Acids
• Triacylglycerols are hydrolyzed to glycerol and three fatty
acids of general structure RCOOH.

• Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in their long

hydrocarbon chains, and unsaturated fatty acids have one or
more double bonds in their hydrocarbon chains.
• As the number of double bonds in the fatty acid increases, the
melting point decreases.
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• Increasing the number of double bonds in the fatty acid
side chains decreases the melting point of the
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triacylglycerol.
 3-D Structure of C18 Fatty Acids
• The larger the number of Z double bonds, the more kinks in the
hydrocarbon chain.
• This causes poorer stacking and less van der Waals
interactions, leading to lower melting points.
Figure 10.6

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 Thermal Cracking

• Ethylene, propylene, and butane are synthesized by

steam cracking of light alkanes
 Triacylglycerols

• Fats and oils are both triacylglycerols, but with different

physical properties.
• Fats have higher melting points—they are solids at room
temperature.
• Oils have lower melting points—they are liquids at room
temperature.
• The composition (saturated vs. unsaturated) of the three
fatty acids in the triacylglycerol determines whether it is a
fat or an oil.

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 Properties of Fatty Acids

• Fats are derived from fatty acids having few or no double

bonds.
• Oils are derived from fatty acids having a larger number of
double bonds.
• Saturated fats are typically obtained from animal sources,
whereas unsaturated oils are common in vegetable sources.
• An exception to this generalization is coconut oil, which is
largely composed of saturated alkyl side chains.

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 Preparation of Alkenes
• Alkenes can be prepared from alkyl halides, tosylates, and
alcohols via elimination reactions.

24
 Regioselectivity and Stereoselectivity of
Alkene Formation
• The most stable alkene (Zaitsev product) is usually formed as
the major product.

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 Addition Reactions
• The characteristic reaction of alkenes is addition—the  bond
is broken and two new  bonds are formed.

• Alkenes are electron rich, with the electron density of the 

bond concentrated above and below the plane of the molecule.
• Therefore, alkenes act as nucleophiles and react with
electrophiles.
• Simple alkenes do not react with nucleophiles or bases,
reagents that are themselves electron rich.

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 Syn and Anti Addition to Alkenes
• Because the carbon atoms of a double bond are both trigonal
planar, the elements of X and Y can be added to them from the
same side or from opposite sides.
• Syn addition takes place when both X and Y are added
from the same side.
• Anti addition takes place when X and Y are added from
opposite sides.

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 Addition Reactions of Cyclohexene
Figure 10.8

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Hydrohalogenation—Electrophilic Addition
of HX

• Two bonds are broken in this reaction—the weak  bond of the

alkene and the HX bond—and two new  bonds are formed—
one to H and one to X.
• Recall that the H-X bond is polarized, with a partial positive
charge on H.
• Because the electrophilic H end of HX is attracted to the
electron-rich double bond, these reactions are called
electrophilic additions.
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 How to Draw the Products of an
Addition Reaction
• Locate the C-C double bond.
• Identify the  bond of the reagent that breaks.
• Break the  bond of the alkene and the  bond of the
reagent, and form two new  bonds to the C atoms of the
double bond.

30
 Heat of Formation for Electrophilic Addition
• Addition reactions are exothermic because the two  bonds
formed in the product are stronger than the  and  bonds
broken in the reactants.
• For example, H° for the addition of HBr to ethylene is –14
kcal/mol.

Figure 10.9

31
 Mechanism of Electrophilic Addition
• The mechanism of electrophilic addition consists of two
successive Lewis acid-base reactions.
• Step [1] – the alkene is the Lewis base that donates an electron
pair to H-Br, the Lewis acid.
• Step [2] – Br¯ is the Lewis base that donates an electron pair to
the carbocation, the Lewis acid.

32
 Energy Diagram for Electrophilic Addition
• Each step has its own energy barrier with a transition state energy
maximum.
• Since step [1] has a higher energy transition state, it is rate-
determining.
• H° for step [1] is positive because more bonds are broken than
formed, whereas H° for step [2] is negative because only bond
making occurs.
Figure 10.10

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 Markovnikov’s Rule
• With an unsymmetrical alkene, HX can add to the double bond
to give two constitutional isomers, but only one is actually
formed:

• Markovnikov’s rule states that in the addition of HX to an

unsymmetrical alkene, the H atom adds to the less substituted
carbon atom—that is, the carbon that has the greater number
of H atoms to begin with.

34
Carbocation Stability and Markovnikov’s Rule
• The basis of Markovnikov’s rule is the formation of a carbocation
in the rate-determining step of the mechanism.
• In the addition of HX to an unsymmetrical alkene, the H atom is
added to the less substituted carbon to form the more stable,
more substituted carbocation.

35
 Hammond Postulate and Electrophilic
Addition
• According to the Hammond postulate, Path [2] is faster because
formation of the carbocation is an endothermic process.
• Thus, the transition state to form the more stable 2° carbocation
is lower in energy.
• The Ea for formation of the more stable 2° carbocation is lower
than the Ea for formation of the 1° carbocation; the 2° carbocation
is formed faster.
Figure 10.11

36
 Stereochemistry of Electrophilic Addition
• Recall that trigonal planar atoms react with reagents from two
directions with equal probability.
• Achiral starting materials yield achiral products.
• Sometimes new stereogenic centers are formed from
hydrohalogenation.

37
Stereochemistry of Carbocation Formation
• The mechanism of hydrohalogenation illustrates why two
enantiomers are formed.
• Initial addition of H+ occurs from either side of the planar double
bond.
• Both modes of addition generate the same achiral carbocation.
• Either representation of this carbocation can be used to draw the
second step of the mechanism.

38
 Stereochemistry of Nucleophilic Attack
• Nucleophilic attack of Cl¯ on the trigonal planar carbocation also
occurs from two different directions, forming two products, A and
B, having a new stereogenic center.
• A and B are enantiomers.
• Since attack from either direction occurs with equal probability, a
racemic mixture of A and B is formed.

39
Reaction of 1,2-dimethylcyclohexene with HCl
• Addition of HX to 1,2-dimethylcyclohexene forms two new
stereogenic centers.
• Four stereoisomers are formed:
• Compounds A and D are enantiomers.
• Compounds B and C are enantiomers.
Figure 10.12

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Hydrohalogenation—Summary

41
Hydration—Electrophilic Addition of Water
• Hydration is the addition of water to an alkene to form an
alcohol.

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Mechanism of Hydration

43
 Electrophilic Addition of Alcohols
• Alcohols add to alkenes, forming ethers by the same
mechanism.
• For example, addition of CH3OH to 2-methylpropene, forms
tert-butyl methyl ether (MTBE), a high octane fuel additive.

• Note that there are three consequences to the formation of

carbocation intermediates:
1. Markovnikov’s rule holds.
2. Addition of H and OH occurs in both syn and anti fashion.
3. Carbocation rearrangements can occur.
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 Halogenation—Electrophilic Addition
of Halogen
• Halogenation is the addition of X2 (X = Cl or Br) to an
alkene to form a vicinal dihalide.

45
 Halogenation Details
• Halogens add to  bonds because halogens are polarizable.
• The electron-rich double bond induces a dipole in an
approaching halogen molecule, making one halogen atom
electron deficient and the other electron rich (X+ X–).
• The electrophilic halogen atom is then attracted to the
nucleophilic double bond, making addition possible.
• Two facts demonstrate that halogenation follows a different
mechanism from that of hydrohalogenation or hydration.
• No rearrangements occur.
• Only anti addition of X2 is observed.
• These facts suggest that carbocations are not
intermediates.

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Halogenation Mechanism

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 Stability of Cation Intermediates
• Carbocations are unstable because they have only six
electrons that surround carbon.
• Halonium ions are unstable because of ring strain.

48
 Stereochemistry of Halonium Formation
• Consider the chlorination of cyclopentene to afford both
enantiomers of trans-1,2-dichlorocyclopentane, with no cis
products.
• Initial addition of the electrophile Cl+ from (Cl2) occurs from
either side of the planar double bond to form a bridged
chloronium ion.

49
Stereochemistry of Halonium Ring Opening
• In the second step, nucleophilic attack of Cl¯ must occur from
the backside.
• Since the nucleophile attacks from below and the leaving group
departs from above, the two Cl atoms in the product are oriented
trans to each other.
• Backside attack occurs with equal probability at either carbon of
the three-membered ring to yield a racemic mixture.

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 Stereochemical Outcome of Halogenation
• cis-2-Butene yields two enantiomers, whereas trans-2-butene
yields a single achiral meso compound.

Figure 10.13

51
 Halohydrin Formation
• Treatment of an alkene with a halogen X2 and H2O forms a
halohydrin by addition of the elements of X and OH to the
double bond.

52
 Mechanism of Halohydrin Formation

• Even though X¯ is formed in step [1] of the mechanism, its

concentration is small compared to H2O (often the solvent),
so H2O and not X¯ is the nucleophile.
53
Generating Bromine in Halohydrin Formation
• Although the combination of Br2 and H2O effectively forms
bromohydrins from alkenes, other reagents can also be used.
• Bromohydrins are also formed with N-bromosuccinimide
(NBS) in aqueous DMSO [(CH3)2S=O].
• In H2O, NBS decomposes to form Br2, which then goes on to
form a bromohydrin by the same reaction mechanism.

54
Anti Stereochemistry in Halohydrin Formation
• Because the bridged halonium ion is opened by backside
attack of H2O, addition of X and OH occurs in an anti fashion
and trans products are formed.

• With unsymmetrical alkenes, the preferred product has the

electrophile X+ bonded to the less substituted carbon, and
the nucleophile (H2O) bonded to the more substituted carbon.

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 Regiochemistry of Halohydrin Formation
• As in the acid catalyzed ring opening of epoxides,
nucleophilic attack occurs at the more substituted carbon end
of the bridged halonium ion because that carbon is better able
to accommodate the partial positive charge in the transition
state.

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Summary of Halohydrin Formation

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 Halohydrin Use in Synthesis
• Halohydrins have been used in the synthesis of many
naturally occurring compounds.
• Key steps in the synthesis of estrone, a female sex hormone,
are illustrated below.

Figure 10.14
The synthesis of estrone
from a chlorohydrin

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 Hydroboration–Oxidation
• Hydroboration–oxidation is a two-step reaction sequence that
converts an alkene into an alcohol.

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 Borane and Hydroboration
• BH3 is a reactive gas that exists mostly as a dimer, diborane
(B2H6).
• Borane is a strong Lewis acid that reacts readily with Lewis
bases.
• For ease of handling in the laboratory, it is commonly used
as a complex with tetrahydrofuran (THF).

• The first step in hydroboration–oxidation is the addition of the

elements of H and BH2 to the  bond of the alkene, forming an
intermediate alkylborane.

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 Hydroboration Mechanism
• The proposed mechanism involves concerted addition of H
and BH2 from the same side of the planar double bond: the 
bond and H-BH2 bond are broken as two new  bonds are
formed.
• Because four atoms are involved, the transition state is said to
be four-centered.

61
 Reactivity of Borane During Hydroboration
• Because the alkylborane formed by the reaction with one
equivalent of alkene still has two B-H bonds, it can react with
two more equivalents of alkene to form a trialkylborane.
• We often draw hydroboration as if addition stopped after one
equivalent of alkene reacts with BH3.
• Instead all three B-H bonds actually react with three
equivalents of an alkene to form a trialkylborane.

Figure 10.15

62
 Other Sources of B-H for Hydroboration
• Since only one B-H bond is needed for hydroboration,
commercially available dialkylboranes having the general
structure R2BH are sometimes used instead of BH3.
• A common example is 9-borabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane (9-BBN).

63
 Regiochemistry of Hydroboration
• With unsymmetrical alkenes, the boron atom bonds to the
less substituted carbon atom.

• This regioselectivity can be explained by considering steric

factors.
• The larger boron atom bonds to the less sterically hindered,
more accessible carbon atom.

64
Electronic Factors Affecting Regiochemistry
of Hydroboration
• Electronic factors are also used to explain this
regioselectivity.
• If bond making and bond breaking are not completely
symmetrical, boron bears a - charge in the transition
state and carbon bears a + charge.
• Since alkyl groups stabilize a positive charge, the more
stable transition state has the partial positive charge on
the more substituted carbon.

65
Example of Regiochemistry of Hydroboration

Figure 10.16

66
 Oxidation Following Hydroboration
• Since alkylboranes react rapidly with water and
spontaneously burn when exposed to air, they are oxidized,
without isolation, with basic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, ¯OH).
• Oxidation replaces the C-B bond with a C-O bond, forming a
new OH group with retention of configuration.

• The overall result of this two-step sequence is syn addition of

the elements of H and OH to a double bond in an “anti-
Markovnikov” fashion.
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Summary of Hydroboration—Oxidation

68
 Oxymercuration-Demercuration

• In the laboratory, alkenes are often hydrated by

the oxymercuration–demercuration procedure
 Oxymercuration Intermediates
• Reaction is initiated by electrophilic addition of Hg2+ ion to
the alkene
– Gives an intermediate mercurinium ion
• Regiochemistry of the reaction corresponds to
Markovnikov addition of H2O
Oxymercuration vs Hydroboration

71
 Draw the major products

1) BH 3, THF
2) H2O2, NaOH
CH3

1) Hg(OAc) 2, H2O-THF

2) NaBH 4

72
 Use of Alkenes in Synthesis
• Suppose we wish to synthesize 1,2-dibromocyclohexane
from cyclohexanol.

To solve this problem we must:

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 Retrosynthetic Analysis
Working backwards from the product to determine the starting
material from which it is made is called retrosynthetic analysis.

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