Microcontroller Programming

and Interfacing with

Texas Instruments
MSP430FR2433 and
MSP430FR5994 – Part I
Second Edition
 Synthesis Lectures on Digital
Circuits and Systems
Editor
Mitchell A. Thornton, Southern Methodist University
The Synthesis Lectures on Digital Circuits and Systems series is comprised of 50- to 100-page books
targeted for audience members with a wide-ranging background. The Lectures include topics that
are of interest to students, professionals, and researchers in the area of design and analysis of digital
circuits and systems. Each Lecture is self-contained and focuses on the background information
required to understand the subject matter and practical case studies that illustrate applications. The
format of a Lecture is structured such that each will be devoted to a specific topic in digital circuits
and systems rather than a larger overview of several topics such as that found in a comprehensive
handbook. The Lectures cover both well-established areas as well as newly developed or emerging
material in digital circuits and systems design and analysis.

Microcontroller Programming and Interfacing with Texas Instruments MSP430FR2433

and MSP430FR5994 – Part I, Second Edition
Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2019

Synthesis of Quantum Circuits vs. Synthesis of Classical Reversible Circuits

Alexis De Vos, Stijn De Baerdemacker, and Yvan Van Rentergen
2018

Boolean Differential Calculus

Bernd Steinbach and Christian Posthoff
2017

Embedded Systems Design with Texas Instruments MSP432 32-bit Processor

Dung Dang, Daniel J. Pack, and Steven F. Barrett
2016

Fundamentals of Electronics: Book 4 Oscillators and Advanced Electronics Topics

Thomas F. Schubert and Ernest M. Kim
2016

Fundamentals of Electronics: Book 3 Active Filters and Amplifier Frequency

Thomas F. Schubert and Ernest M. Kim
2016
 iii
Bad to the Bone: Crafting Electronic Systems with BeagleBone and BeagleBone Black,
Second Edition
Steven F. Barrett and Jason Kridner
2015

Fundamentals of Electronics: Book 2 Amplifiers: Analysis and Design

Thomas F. Schubert and Ernest M. Kim
2015

Fundamentals of Electronics: Book 1 Electronic Devices and Circuit Applications

Thomas F. Schubert and Ernest M. Kim
2015

Applications of Zero-Suppressed Decision Diagrams

Tsutomu Sasao and Jon T. Butler
2014

Modeling Digital Switching Circuits with Linear Algebra

Mitchell A. Thornton
2014

Arduino Microcontroller Processing for Everyone! Third Edition

Steven F. Barrett
2013

Boolean Differential Equations

Bernd Steinbach and Christian Posthoff
2013

Bad to the Bone: Crafting Electronic Systems with BeagleBone and BeagleBone Black
Steven F. Barrett and Jason Kridner
2013

Introduction to Noise-Resilient Computing

S.N. Yanushkevich, S. Kasai, G. Tangim, A.H. Tran, T. Mohamed, and V.P. Shmerko
2013

Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer: Programming and Interfacing, Second Edition

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2012

Representation of Multiple-Valued Logic Functions

Radomir S. Stankovic, Jaakko T. Astola, and Claudio Moraga
2012

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Second Edition

Steven F. Barrett
2012
iv
Advanced Circuit Simulation Using Multisim Workbench
David Báez-López, Félix E. Guerrero-Castro, and Ofelia Delfina Cervantes-Villagómez
2012

Circuit Analysis with Multisim

David Báez-López and Félix E. Guerrero-Castro
2011

Microcontroller Programming and Interfacing Texas Instruments MSP430, Part I

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2011

Microcontroller Programming and Interfacing Texas Instruments MSP430, Part II

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2011

Pragmatic Electrical Engineering: Systems and Instruments

William Eccles
2011

Pragmatic Electrical Engineering: Fundamentals

William Eccles
2011

Introduction to Embedded Systems: Using ANSI C and the Arduino Development

Environment
David J. Russell
2010

Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone! Part II

Steven F. Barrett
2010

Arduino Microcontroller Processing for Everyone! Part I

Steven F. Barrett
2010

Digital System Verification: A Combined Formal Methods and Simulation Framework

Lun Li and Mitchell A. Thornton
2010

Progress in Applications of Boolean Functions

Tsutomu Sasao and Jon T. Butler
2009

Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller: Part II

Steven F. Barrett
2009
 v
Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller: Part I
Steven F. Barrett
2009

Embedded Systems Interfacing for Engineers using the Freescale HCS08 Microcontroller
II: Digital and Analog Hardware Interfacing
Douglas H. Summerville
2009

Designing Asynchronous Circuits using NULL Convention Logic (NCL)

Scott C. Smith and JiaDi
2009

Embedded Systems Interfacing for Engineers using the Freescale HCS08 Microcontroller
I: Assembly Language Programming
Douglas H.Summerville
2009

Developing Embedded Software using DaVinci & OMAP Technology

B.I. (Raj) Pawate
2009

Mismatch and Noise in Modern IC Processes

Andrew Marshall
2009

Asynchronous Sequential Machine Design and Analysis: A Comprehensive Development

of the Design and Analysis of Clock-Independent State Machines and Systems
Richard F. Tinder
2009

An Introduction to Logic Circuit Testing

Parag K. Lala
2008

Pragmatic Power
William J. Eccles
2008

Multiple Valued Logic: Concepts and Representations

D. Michael Miller and Mitchell A. Thornton
2007

Finite State Machine Datapath Design, Optimization, and Implementation

Justin Davis and Robert Reese
2007
vi
Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer: Programming and Interfacing
Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2007

Pragmatic Logic
William J. Eccles
2007

PSpice for Filters and Transmission Lines

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Digital Signal Processing

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Analog Communications Engineering

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Digital Communications Engineering

Paul Tobin
2007

PSpice for Circuit Theory and Electronic Devices

Paul Tobin
2007

Pragmatic Circuits: DC and Time Domain

William J. Eccles
2006

Pragmatic Circuits: Frequency Domain

William J. Eccles
2006

Pragmatic Circuits: Signals and Filters

William J. Eccles
2006

High-Speed Digital System Design

Justin Davis
2006

Introduction to Logic Synthesis using Verilog HDL

Robert B.Reese and Mitchell A.Thornton
2006
 vii
Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists
Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
2006
Copyright © 2019 by Morgan & Claypool

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations
in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Microcontroller Programming and Interfacing with Texas Instruments MSP430FR2433

and MSP430FR5994, Second Edition
Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack
www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781681736242 paperback

ISBN: 9781681736259 ebook
ISBN: 9781681736273 hardcover
DOI 10.2200/S00936ED2V01Y201907DCS055
A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series
SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS

Lecture #55
Series Editor: Mitchell A. Thornton, Southern Methodist University
Series ISSN
Print 1932-3166 Electronic 1932-3174
Microcontroller Programming
and Interfacing with
Texas Instruments
MSP430FR2433 and
MSP430FR5994 – Part I
Second Edition

Steven F. Barrett
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY

Daniel J. Pack
University of Tennessee Chattanooga, TN

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS #55

M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
ABSTRACT
This book provides a thorough introduction to the Texas Instruments MSP430TM microcon-
troller. The MSP430 is a 16-bit reduced instruction set (RISC) processor that features ultra-low
power consumption and integrated digital and analog hardware. Variants of the MSP430 mi-
crocontroller have been in production since 1993. This provides for a host of MSP430 products
including evaluation boards, compilers, software examples, and documentation. A thorough in-
troduction to the MSP430 line of microcontrollers, programming techniques, and interface con-
cepts are provided along with considerable tutorial information with many illustrated examples.
Each chapter provides laboratory exercises to apply what has been presented in the chapter. The
book is intended for an upper level undergraduate course in microcontrollers or mechatronics
but may also be used as a reference for capstone design projects. Also, practicing engineers al-
ready familiar with another microcontroller, who require a quick tutorial on the microcontroller,
will find this book very useful. This second edition introduces the MSP–EXP430FR5994 and
the MSP430–EXP430FR2433 LaunchPads. Both LaunchPads are equipped with a variety of
peripherals and Ferroelectric Random Access Memory (FRAM). FRAM is a nonvolatile, low-
power memory with functionality similar to flash memory.

KEYWORDS
MSP430 microcontroller, microcontroller interfacing, embedded systems design,
Texas Instruments
 xi

To our families
 xiii

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv

1 Introduction to Microcontroller Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Background Theory: A Brief History and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Microcontroller Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Why the Texas Instruments MSP430? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Target Microcontroller Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Introduction to the Evaluation Modules (EVM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Development Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Lab 1: Getting Acquainted with Hardware and Software Development
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.10 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.11 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 A Brief Introduction to Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Energia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Energia Quickstart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Energia Development Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Energia IDE Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.2 Sketchbook Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.3 Energia Software, Libraries, and Language References . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Energia Pin Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6 Writing an Energia Sketch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6.1 Control Algorithm for the Mini Round Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.7 Some Additional Comments on Energia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.8 Programming in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
xiv
2.9 Anatomy of a Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.9.1 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.9.2 Include Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.9.3 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.9.4 Port Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.9.5 Program Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.9.6 Interrupt Handler Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.9.7 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.9.8 Main Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.10 Fundamental Programming Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.10.1 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.10.2 Programming Constructs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.10.3 Decision Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.11 Laboratory Exercise: Getting Acquainted with Energia and C . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.13 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

3 Hardware Organization and Software Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

3.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.2 MSP430 Hardware Organization/Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.1 Chip Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.2.2 Hardware Pin Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3 Hardware Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.1 Register Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.2 Port System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.3 Timer System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.4 Memory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.5 Resets and Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.3.6 Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.7 Analog-to-Digital Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.8 Hardware Multiplier (MPY32) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.4 CPU Programming Model/Register Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.5 Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.6 Software Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.6.1 MSP430 Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.6.2 Directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
 xv
3.6.3 Assembly Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.6.4 Instruction Set Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.7 Addressing Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.7.1 Register Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.7.2 Indexed Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.7.3 Symbolic Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7.4 Absolute Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7.5 Indirect Register Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7.6 Indirect Autoincrement Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7.7 Immediate Addressing Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.7.8 Programming Constructs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.7.9 Orthogonal Instruction Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.8 Software Programming Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.9 Assembly vs. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.9.1 Our Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.10 Accessing and Debugging Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.11 Laboratory Exercise: Programming the MSP430 in Assembly Language . . . 128
3.11.1 Part 1: Flash an LED via Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.11.2 Part 2: Illuminate a LED via Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.11.3 Part 3: Mathematical Operations in Assembly Language . . . . . . . . . 134
3.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.13 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

4 MSP430 Operating Parameters and Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

4.1 Operating Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.1.1 MSP430 3.3 VDC operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.1.2 Compatible 3.3 VDC Logic Families . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.1.3 Microcontroller Operation at 5.0 VDC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.1.4 Interfacing 3.3 VDC Logic Devices with 5.0 VDC Logic Families . 144
4.2 Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2.1 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2.2 Switch Debouncing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2.3 Keypads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.2.4 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.2.5 Transducer Interface Design (TID) Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.2.6 Operational Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
xvi
4.3 Output Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.3.1 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.3.2 Seven-Segment LED Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.3.3 Tri-State LED Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.3.4 Dot Matrix Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.3.5 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.4 High-Power DC Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.4.1 DC Motor Interface, Speed, and Direction Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.4.2 DC Solenoid Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.4.3 Stepper Motor Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.4.4 Optical Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.5 Interfacing to Miscellaneous DC Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.5.1 Sonalerts, Beepers, and Buzzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.5.2 Vibrating Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.5.3 DC Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.5.4 Bilge Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.6 AC Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.7 MSP430FR5994: Educational Booster Pack MkII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
4.8 Grove Starter Kit for LaunchPad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.9 Application: Special Effects LED Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4.9.1 Construction Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.9.2 LED Cube MSP430 Energia Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.10 Laboratory Exercise: Introduction to the Educational Booster Pack MkII
and the Grove Starter Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
4.11 Laboratory: Collection and Display of Weather Information . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.13 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4.14 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

5 Power Management and Clock Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.2 Background Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.3 Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.4 The Power Management Module (PMM) and Supply Voltage Supervisor
(SVS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5.4.1 Supply Voltage Supervisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
 xvii
5.4.2 PMM Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.5 Clock System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
5.6 Battery Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.7 Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.8 High-Efficiency Charge Pump Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.9 Laboratory Exercise: MSP430 Power Systems and Low-Power Mode
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.9.1 Current Measurements in Different Operating Modes . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.9.2 Operating an MSP430 from a Single Regulated Battery Source . . . 252
5.9.3 Operating an MSP430 from a Single 1.5 VDC Battery . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.11 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.12 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

6 MSP430 Memory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.2 Basic Memory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.2.1 Memory Buses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.2.2 Memory Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
6.2.3 Binary and Hexadecimal Numbering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.2.4 Memory Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.2.5 Memory Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.2.6 Memory Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.2.7 Direct Memory Access (DMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.3 Aside: Memory Operations in C Using Pointers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.4 Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.4.1 DMA System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.4.2 DMA Example: Block Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
6.5 MSP430FR5994: Memory Protection Unit and IP Encapsulation Segment 276
6.6 External Memory: Bulk Storage with an MMC/SD Card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
6.7 Laboratory Exercise: SD Card Operations with the MSP-EXP430FR5994 277
6.8 Laboratory Exercise: MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad DMA Transfer . . 278
6.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.10 References and Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.11 Chapter Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
xviii
Authors’ Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
 xix

Preface
Texas Instruments is well known for its analog and digital devices, in particular, Digital Signal
Processing (DSP) chips. Unknown to many, the company quietly developed its microcontroller
division in the early 1990s and started producing a family of controllers aimed mainly for em-
bedded meter applications, which require an extended operating time without intervention for
power companies. It was not until the mid 2000s that the company began serious effort to
present the MSP430 microcontroller family, its flagship microcontroller, to the academic com-
munity and future engineers. Their efforts have been quietly attracting many educators and stu-
dents due to the MSP430’s cost and the suitability of the controller for capstone design projects
requiring microcontrollers. In addition, Texas Instruments offers many compatible analog and
digital devices that can expand the range of the possible embedded applications of the microcon-
troller. Texas Instruments has continually added new innovation to the MSP430 microcontroller
line. The second edition introduces the MSP–EXP430FR5994 and the MSP–EXP430FR2433
LaunchPads. Both LaunchPads are equipped with a variety of peripherals and Ferroelectric Ran-
dom Access Memory (FRAM). FRAM is a nonvolatile, low-power memory with functionality
similar to flash memory.
This book is about the MSP430 microcontroller family. We have three goals in writing
this book. The first is to introduce readers to microcontroller programming. The MSP430 mi-
crocontrollers can be programmed either using assembly language or a high–level programming
language such as C. The second goal of the book is to teach students how computers work. After
all, a microcontroller is a computer within a single integrated circuit (chip). Finally, we present
the microcontroller’s input/output interface capabilities, one of the main reasons for developing
embedded systems with microcontrollers.
Background
This book provides a thorough introduction to the Texas Instruments MSP430 microcontroller.
The MSP430 is a 16-bit reduced instruction set (RISC) processor that features ultra-low power
consumption and integrated digital and analog hardware. Variants of the MSP430 microcon-
troller have been in production since 1993 with a host of MSP430-related products including
evaluation boards, compilers, software examples, and documentation.
This book is intentionally tutorial in nature with many worked examples, illustrations,
and laboratory exercises. An emphasis is placed on real-world applications such as smart home
concepts, mobile robots, an unmanned underwater vehicle, and a DC motor controller to name
a few.
xx PREFACE
Intended Readers
The book is intended for an upper level undergraduate course in microcontrollers or mechatron-
ics but may also be used as a reference for capstone design projects. Also, practicing engineers
who are already familiar with another line of microcontrollers, but require a quick tutorial on
the MSP430 microcontroller, will find this book beneficial.
Approach and Organization
This book provides a thorough introduction to the MSP430 line of microcontrollers, program-
ming techniques, and interface concepts. Each chapter contains a list of objectives, background
tutorial information, and detailed information on the operation of the MSP430 system under
study. Furthermore, each chapter provides laboratory exercises to apply what has been presented
in the chapter and how the concepts are employed in real applications. Each chapter concludes
with a series of homework exercises divided into Fundamental, Advanced, and Challenging
categories. The reader will get the most out of the book by also having the following references
readily available:
• MSP430FR2433 Mixed–Signal Microcontroller, SLASE59B;
• MSP430FR4xx and MSP430FR2xx Family User’s Guide, SLAU445G;
• MSP430FR599x, MSP430FR596x Mixed–Signal Microcontrollers, SLASE54B; and
• MSP430FR58xx, MSP430FR59xx, and MSP430FR6xx Family User’s Guide,
SLAU367O.
This documentation is available for download from the Texas Instruments website [www.
ti.com].
Chapter 1 provides a brief review of microcontroller terminology and a short history fol-
lowed by an overview of the MSP430 microcontroller. The overview surveys systems onboard
the microcontroller and also various MSP430 families. The chapter concludes with an introduc-
tion to the hardware and software development tools that will be used for the remainder of the
book. Our examples employ the MSP–EXP430FR5994 and the MSP430FR2433 LaunchPads,
the Energia rapid prototyping platform, and the Texas Instruments’ Code Composer Studio In-
tegrated Development Environment (IDE). The information provided can be readily adapted
to other MSP430 based experimenter boards.
Chapter 2 provides a brief introduction to programming in C. The chapter contains mul-
tiple examples for a new programmer. It also serves as a good review for seasoned programmers.
Also, software programming tools including Energia, Code Composer Studio IDE, and debug-
ging tools are explored. This chapter was adapted from material originally written for the Texas
Instruments MSP432, a 32-bit processor that has close ties to the 16-bit MSP430.1 Embed-
1 This chapter was adapted with permission from Arduino Microcontroller Processing for Everyone, S. Barrett, 3rd ed., Mor-
gan & Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, CA, 2013.
 PREFACE xxi
ded system developers will find a seamless transition between the MSP430 and MSP432 line
of processors.
Chapter 3 introduces the MSP430 hardware architecture, software organization, and pro-
gramming model. The chapter also presents an introduction to the MSP430 orthogonal instruc-
tion set, including its 27 instructions and 9 emulated instructions.
Chapter 4 describes a wide variety of input and output devices and how to properly inter-
face them to the MSP430 microcontroller. We believe it is essential for the embedded system
designer to understand the electrical characteristics of the processor so a proper interface to pe-
ripheral components may be designed. We have included a chapter on these concepts for the
books we have written for the Synthesis Lecture Series. We continue to add material as new
microcontroller peripherals are developed. The chapter begins with a review of the MSP430
electrical operating parameters followed by a discussion of the port system. The chapter in-
cludes a description of a wide variety of input device concepts including switches, interfacing,
debouncing, and sensors. Output device concepts are then discussed including light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), tri–state LED indicators, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), high-power DC and
AC devices, motors, and annunciator devices.
Chapter 5 provides an in–depth discussion of the MSP430 power management system.
The power management system provides for ultra-low power operation and practices.
Chapter 6 is dedicated to the different memory components onboard the MSP430 in-
cluding the new FRAM nonvolatile memory, RAM, EEPROM and the associated memory
controllers. The Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller is also discussed.
Chapter 6.11 discusses the clock and timer systems aboard the MSP430. The chapter be-
gins with a detailed discussion of the flexible clock system, followed by a discussion of the timer
system architecture. The timer architecture discussion includes the Watchdog timers, timers A
and B, real-time clocks, and pulse width modulation (PWM).
Chapter 6.11 provides an introduction to the concepts of resets and interrupts. The various
interrupt systems associated with the MSP430 are discussed, followed by detailed instructions
on how to properly configure and program them.
Chapter 6.11 discusses the analog systems aboard the MSP430. The chapter discusses
the analog–to–digital converters (ADCs), the digital–to–analog converters (DACs), and the
comparators.
Chapter 6.11 is designed for a detailed review of the complement of serial communication
systems resident onboard the MSP430, including the universal asynchronous receiver transmit-
ter (UART), the serial peripheral interface (SPI), the I2C system, the radio frequency (RF) link,
USB, and the IrDA infrared link. The systems are contained within the MSP430 universal serial
communication interfaces eUSCI_A and eUSCI_B subsystems.
Chapter 6.11 provides a detailed introduction to the data integrity features aboard the
MSP430 including a discussion of noise and its sources and suppression, an Advanced En-
cryption Standard (AES) 256 accelerator module, and a 16- or 32-bit cyclic redundancy check
xxii PREFACE
(CRC) engine. This chapter was adapted from material originally written for the Texas Instru-
ments MSP432, a 32-bit processor that has close ties to the 16-bit MSP430.2 Embedded system
developers will find a seamless transition between the MSP430 and MSP432 line of processors.
Chapter 6.11 discusses the system design process followed by system level examples. We
view the microcontroller as the key component within the larger host system. It is essential the
embedded system designer has development, design, and project management skills to success-
fully complete a project. This chapter provides an introduction some of the skills used for project
development. We have included a chapter on these concepts for the books we have written for
the Synthesis Lecture Series. The examples have been carefully chosen to employ a wide variety
of MSP430 systems discussed throughout the book.
Table 1 provides a summary of chapter contents and related MSP430 subsystems.

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack

July 2019

2 Embedded Systems Design with the Texas Instruments MSP432 32-bit Processor, Dung Dang, Daniel J. Pack, and Steven
F. Barrett, Morgan & Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, CA, 2017.
 PREFACE xxiii

Table 1: MSP-EXP430FR5994 and the MSP-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad subsystems.

Chapter MSP- EXP430FR2433 MSP-EXP430FR5994

Ch. 1: Introduction
Ch. 2: Programming MSP430 port system MSP430 port system
Ch. 3: HW and SW Joint Test Action Group ( JTAG) Joint Test Action Group ( JTAG)
serial debug port, Enhanced serial debug port, Enhanced
Emulation Module (EEM) onboard Emulation Module (EEM) on-
debug tool, serial Spy-Bi-Wire board debug tool, serial Spy-Bi-
(SBY) JTAG Wire (SBY) JTAG
Ch. 4: Interfacing MSP430 port system MSP430 port system
Ch. 5: Power Mgt Power Mgt Module Power Mgt: LDO, SVS,
Brownout
Ch. 6: Memory FRAM: 15KB + 512B FRAM: 256KB
RAM: 4KB RAM: 4 KB + 4 KB
DMA Controller
Memory Protection Unit (MPU)
IP Encapsulation Segment (IPE)
Ch. 7: Timer Systems Clock system (CS), LFXT Clock system (CS),
- Clock Timer_A3(2), Timer_A2(2) TB0: Timer_B, TA0: Timer_A,
- Timers Watchdog, Real-Time Clock TA1: Timer_A, TA4: Timer_A,
Watchdog, Real-Time Clock
Ch. 8: Resets and Interrupts
Ch. 9: Analog Peripherals ADC: 8 ch, SE, 10-bit, 200 ksps Comp_E: 16 ch, Ref_A
ADC 12_B: 16 ch SE/8 DE, 12-bit
Ch. 10: Comm Sys eUSCI_A(2) eUSCI_A(4) (A0 to A3)
- UART, IrDA, SPI - UART, IrDA, SPI
eUSCI_B0 eUSCI_B(4) (B0 to B3)
- SPI, I2C - SPI, I2C
Ch. 11: System Integrity CRC16: 16-bit cyclic redun- CRC16: CRC-16-CCITT
dancy check CRC32: CRC-32-ISO-3309
AES 256: security encryption/
decryption
Ch. 12: System Design
 xxv

Acknowledgments
There have been many people involved in the conception and production of this book. We es-
pecially want to thank Doug Phillips, Mark Easley, and Franklin Cooper of Texas Instruments.
The future of Texas Instruments is bright with such helpful, dedicated engineering and staff
members. In 2005, Joel Claypool of Morgan & Claypool Publishers, invited us to write a book
on microcontrollers for his new series titled “Synthesis Lectures on Digital Circuits and Sys-
tems.” The result was the book Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists. Since
then we have been regular contributors to the series. Our goal has been to provide the fun-
damental concepts common to all microcontrollers and then apply the concepts to the specific
microcontroller under discussion. We believe that once you have mastered these fundamental
concepts, they are easily transportable to different processors. As with many other projects, he
has provided his publishing expertise to convert our final draft into a finished product. We thank
him for his support on this project and many others. He has provided many novice writers the
opportunity to become published authors. His vision and expertise in the publishing world made
this book possible. We thank Sara Kreisman of Rambling Rose Press, Inc. for her editorial ex-
pertise. We also thank Dr. C.L. Tondo of T&T TechWorks, Inc. and his staff for working their
magic to convert our final draft into a beautiful book. Finally, we thank our families who have
provided their ongoing support and understanding while we worked on books over the past
fifteen plus years.

Steven F. Barrett and Daniel J. Pack

July 2019
 1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction to
Microcontroller Technology
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to:
• describe the key technological accomplishments leading to the development of the micro-
controller;
• define microprocessor, microcontroller, and microcomputer;
• identify examples of microcontroller applications in daily life;
• list key attributes of the MSP430 microcontroller;
• describe different features that differentiate MSP430 microcontroller family members;
• list the subsystems onboard the MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 microcon-
trollers;
• provide an example application for each subsystem onboard the MSP430 microcontrollers;
• describe the hardware, software, and emulation tools available for the MSP430 microcon-
trollers; and
• employ the development tools to load and execute simple programs on the MSP-
EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-EXP430FR5994 evaluation boards.
In every chapter, we start with a motivation and background followed by a section on the-
ory. After the theory section, an example application is used to demonstrate the operational use
of chapter concepts. Each chapter includes a hands-on laboratory exercise and a list of chapter
references, which you can use to explore further areas of interest. Each chapter concludes with
a series of practice exercises, divided into Fundamental, Advanced, and Challenging levels.

1.1 MOTIVATION
This book is about microcontrollers! A microcontroller is a self-contained processor system in a
single integrated circuit (IC or chip) that contains essential functional units of a general-purpose
computer such as a central processing unit (CPU), a memory, and input/output (I/O) units.
2 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
Microcontrollers provide local computational resources to many products, requiring a limited
amount of processing power to perform their functions. They are everywhere! In the routine of
daily life, we use multiple microcontrollers. Take a few minutes and jot down a list of microcon-
troller equipped products, sometimes called embedded systems, you have used today.
This chapter introduces the Texas Instruments MSP430 line of microcontrollers. We
begin with a brief history of computer technology followed by an introduction to the
MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 microcontrollers. After a review of these MSP430
microcontrollers, we introduce you to the powerful and user-friendly development tools.

1.2 BACKGROUND THEORY: A BRIEF HISTORY AND

TERMINOLOGY
The development of microcontrollers can be traced back to the time of early computing with the
first generation of computers. The generations of computer development are marked by break-
throughs in hardware and architecture innovation. The first generation of computers employed
vacuum tubes as the main switching element. Mauchly and Eckert developed the electronic
numerical integrator and calculator (ENIAC) in the mid 1940s. This computer was large and
consumed considerable power due to its use of 18,000 vacuum tubes. The computer, funded
by the U.S. Army, was employed to calculate ordnance trajectories in World War II. The first
commercially available computer of this era was the UNIVAC I [Bartee, 1972].
The second generation of computers employed transistors as the main switching element.
The transistor was developed in 1947 by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at Bell Telephone
Laboratories. Bardeen, Brattain, and William Schockley were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in
Physics for development of the transistor [Nobel.org]. The transistor reduced the cost, size, and
power consumption of computers.
The third generation of processors started with the development of the integrated circuit.
The integrated circuit was developed by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in 1958. The inte-
grated circuit revolutionized the production of computers, greatly reducing their size and power
consumption. Computers employing integrated circuits were first launched in 1965 [Bartee,
1972], and Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002 for his work on the integrated
circuit [Nobel.org]. The first commercially available minicomputer of this generation was the
digital equipment corporation’s (DEC) PDP-8 [Osborne, 1980].
The fourth generation of computers was marked by the advancement of levels of inte-
gration, leading to very large-scale integration (VLSI) and ultra-large scale integration (ULSI)
production techniques. In 1969, the Data Point Corporation of San Antonio, Texas had de-
signed an elementary CPU. The CPU provides the arithmetic and control for a computer. Data
Point contracted with Intel and Texas Instruments to place the design on a single integrated
circuit. Intel was able to complete the task, but Data Point rejected the processor as being too
slow for their intended application [Osborne, 1980].
 1.3. MICROCONTROLLER SYSTEMS 3
Intel used the project as the basis for their first general-purpose 8-bit microprocessor,
the Intel 8008. The microprocessor chip housed the arithmetic and control unit for the com-
puter. Other related components such as memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), I/O
components, and interface hardware were contained in external chips. From 1971–1977, Intel
released the 8008, 8080, and 8085 microprocessors which significantly reduced the number of
system components and improved upon the number of power supply voltages required for the
chips. Some of the high visibility products of this generation were the Apple II personal com-
puter, developed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak and released in 1977, and the IBM personal
computer, released in 1981 [MCS 85, 1977, Osborne, 1980].
The first single-chip microcontroller was developed by Gary Boone of Texas Instruments
in the early 1970s. A microcontroller contains all key elements of a computer system within a sin-
gle integrated circuit. Boone’s first microcontroller, the TMS 1000, contained the CPU, ROM,
RAM, and I/O and featured a 400 kHz clock [Boone, 1973, 1978]. From this early launch of
microcontrollers, an entire industry was launched. There are now over 35 plus companies man-
ufacturing microcontrollers worldwide offering over 250 different product lines [Wendt]. The
MSP430 line of microcontrollers was first developed in 1992 and became available for world-
wide release in 1997.

1.3 MICROCONTROLLER SYSTEMS

Although today’s microcontrollers physically bear no resemblance to their earlier computer pre-
decessors, they all have a similar architecture. All computers share the basic systems shown in
Figure 1.1. The processor or CPU contains both datapath and control hardware. The datapath
is often referred to as the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). As its name implies, the ALU provides
hardware to perform the mathematical and logic operations for the computer. The control unit
provides an interface between the computer’s hardware and software. It generates control signals
to the datapath and other system components such that operations occur in the correct order
and within an appropriate time to execute the desired actions of a software program.

Processor
Input
Control
Memory
System
Datapath Output

Computer

Figure 1.1: Basic computer architecture. (Adapted from Patterson and Hennessy [1994].)
4 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
The memory system contains a variety of memory components to support the operation of
the computer. Typical memory systems aboard microcontrollers contain RAM, ROM, and elec-
trically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM) components. RAM is volatile.
When power is unavailable, the contents of RAM memory is lost. RAM is typically used in mi-
crocontroller operations for storing global variables, local variables, which are required during
execution of a function, and to support heap operations during dynamic allocation activities. In
contrast, ROM memory is nonvolatile. That is, it retains its contents even when power is not
available. ROM memory is used to store system constants and parameters. If a microcontroller
application is going to be mass produced, the resident application program may also be written
into ROM memory at the manufacturer.
EEPROM is available in two variants: byte-addressable and flash programmable. Byte-
addressable memory EEPROM, as its name implies, allows variables to be stored, read, and
written during program execution. The access time for byte-addressable EEPROM is much
slower than RAM memory; however, when power is lost, the EEPROM memory retains its
contents. Byte-addressable EEPROM may be used to store system passwords and constants.
For example, if a microcontroller-based algorithm has been developed to control the operation
of a wide range of industrial doors, system constants for a specific door type can be programmed
into the microcontroller onsite when the door is installed. Flash EEPROM can be erased or
programmed in bulk. It is typically used to store an entire program.
Ferroelectric Random Access Memory (FRAM) is a nonvolatile, ultra-low power (ULP)
with access speeds similar to RAM. It has been termed a universal memory because it can be used
for storing program code, variables, constants, and for stack operations. Note these functions
are typically performed by nonvolatile ROM and volatile RAM. FRAM also has a high level of
write endurance on the order of 1015 cycles [SLAA526A, 2014, SLAA628, 2014].
The input and output system of a microcontroller usually consists of a complement of
ports. Ports are fixed sized hardware registers that allow for the orderly transfer of data in and
out of the microcontroller. In most microcontroller systems, ports are equipped for dual use. That
is, they may be used for general-purpose digital I/O operations or may have alternate functions
such as input access for the analog-to-digital (ADC) system.
Our discussion thus far has been about microcontrollers in general. For the remainder
of this chapter and the rest of the book, we concentrate on the Texas Instruments MSP430
microcontroller, specifically the MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994.

1.4 WHY THE TEXAS INSTRUMENTS MSP430?

The MSP430 line of microcontrollers began development in 1992. Since this initial start, there
have been multiple families of the microcontroller developed and produced with a wide range
of features. This allows one to choose an appropriate microcontroller for a specific application.
Texas Instruments invests considerable resources in providing support documentation, develop-
ment tools, and instructional aids for this processor family.
 1.5. TARGET MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES 5
The various families of the MSP430 have the following traits [SLAB034AD, 2017]:
• low-power supply range,
• ultra-low power (ULP) consumption,
• 16-bit reduced instruction set (RISC) architecture,
• over 300 code compatible products,
• capability to integrate digital and analog components,
• compatible radio frequency (RF) peripheral components to provide wireless communica-
tions,
• onboard ADC and digital-to-analog converter (DAC) system, and
• full range of documentation and support for the student, design engineer, and instructor.

1.5 TARGET MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES

Figure 1.2 provides a summary of features for the MS430-EXPFR2433 (FR2433) and the MSP-
EXP430FR5994 (FR5994) evaluation modules (EVM). We discuss features common to both,
followed by features specific to the FR5994.
The FR2433 and FR5994 possess the following common features [SLAB034AD, 2017,
SLASE59D, 2018, SLASE54C, 2018]:
• operating frequency up to 16 MHz,
• 16-bit RISC architecture,
• low supply voltage range: 1.8–3.6 VDC,
• ULP consumption,
• brown-out reset,
• large complement of general-purpose I/O pins,
• multi-channel, high-resolution analog-to-digital converter,
• hardware multiplier,
• multiple enhanced universal serial communication interfaces (eUSCI),
• multiple basic timers,
• memory system including FRAM for program and data memory and SRAM,
6 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY

MSP-EXP430FR2433 MSP-EXP430FR5994
Evaluation Module (EVM) Evaluation Module (EVM)
FR2xx/FR4xx family FRxx FRAM Family

- Speed: 16 MHz - Speed: 16 MHz

- Voltage: 1.8–3.6 VDC - Voltage 1.8–3.6 VDC
- Ports - Ports
- PA(16), PB(3) - PA(16), PB(16), PC(16)
PD(16), PJ(8)
- ADC 10-bit, 8-channel - ADC 12-bit, 16-channel
conversion conversion
- Hardware multiplier - Hardware multiplier
(MPY), 32 bit (MPY), 32 bit
- Universal serial comm - Universal serial comm
interface (eUSCI)(3) interface (eUSCI)(8)
- A0, A1: - A0, A1, A2, A3:
- UART, IrDA, SPI - UART, IrDA, SPI
- B0: - B0, B1, B2, B3:
- I2C, SPI - I2C, SPI
- Basic timer - Basic timer (4)
- Timer_A2 (2) - TA0, 1, 4
- Timer_A3 (2) - TB0
- Memory: - Memory:
- FRAM: 15.5 KB - FRAM: 256 KB
- 15K program - flexible configuration
- 512 B data - xxxK program
- 4 KB SRAM - xxxB info
- 8 KB SRAM
- Power Mgt Module (PMM) - Supply voltage
supervisor (SVS)
- Clock System (CS) and - Clock System (CS) and
distribution distribution
- Cyclic Redundancy - Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC), 16-bit Check (CRC), 16- or 32-bit
- Embedded Emulation - Embedded Emulation
Module (EEM) Module (EEM)
- Watch dog timer, 16-bit - Watch dog timer
- Real-time Clock, 16-bit - Real-time Clock
- JTAG - JTAG
- Spy-Bi-Wire (SBW) - Spy-Bi-Wire (SBW)
- Analog comparator
(Comp_A), 16-channel
- Direct memory
access (DMA), 6-channel
- Onboard LCD controller
- Capacitive touch
- Hardware encryption
(AES), 128- or 256-bit

Figure 1.2: MSP430 features [SLAB034AD, 2017, SLASE59D, 2018, SLASE54C, 2018].
 1.5. TARGET MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES 7
• power management features,
• flexible clock system (CS),
• cyclic redundancy check (CRC),
• embedded emulation module (EEM),
• watch dog timer (WDT),
• real-time clock (RTC),
• joint test action group ( JTAG) interface,
• spy-bi-wire (SBW) JTAG interface,
• onboard light crystal display (LCD) controller (FR5994), and
• low-energy accelerator (LEA) (FR5994).
In addition, the MSP-EXP430FR5994 EVM has the following features:
• analog comparators,
• six channels of internal direct memory access (DMA),
• onboard LCD controller,
• capacitive touch features, and
• hardware AES encryption.
Provided below is a brief summary of these features. More details are found throughout
the remainder of the book [SLAB034AD, 2017, SLASE59D, 2018, SLASE54C, 2018]:
Maximum operating frequency: 16 MHz. Both the FR2433 and the FR5994 EVMs
have a maximum operating frequency of 16 MHz. Generally speaking, a microcontroller’s power
consumption is linearly related to its operating frequency. Microcontrollers are typically used in
remote applications sourced by battery power. To conserve energy the microcontroller is placed
in low-power, low-frequency sleep mode when inactive. The microcontroller is awoken when
needed. Therefore, a microcontroller needs a combination of both high- and low-frequency clock
sources, different operating modes, and the ability to quickly transition between the modes. The
MSP430 is equipped with a flexible and stable clock and distribution system to satisfy these
requirements.
16-bit RISC architecture. Reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture is based
on the premise of designing a processor that is very efficient in executing a basic set of building
8 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
block instructions. From this set of basic instructions more complex instructions may be con-
structed. The 16-bit data width establishes the range of numerical arguments that may be used
within the processor. For example, a 16-bit processor can easily handle 16-bit unsigned inte-
gers. This provides a range of unsigned integer arguments from 0 to .216 1/ or approximately
65,535. Larger arguments may be handled, but additional software manipulation is required for
processing, which consumes precious execution time.
Low supply voltage range: 1.8–3.6 VDC. The MSP430 operates at very low voltages.
Some operating voltage of interest include:

• 3.6 V: close to Li-ion battery supply range (rechargeable electronic battery);

• 1.8–3.6 V: 2x AA or AAA batteries, coin-cell applications, and energy harvesting appli-

cations. In energy harvesting techniques, energy is derived from sources external to the
microcontroller; and

• 1.8 V: many modern sensors/consumer electronics operate at 1.8 V. Being able to run the
microcontroller at this range means the whole system can operate at VCC D 1.8 V.

Ultra-low power consumption. The MSP430 has a variety of operating modes including
an active mode (AM) and multiple low-power modes (LPM). In the active mode, the MSP430
draws 126 (FR2433)/118 (FR5994) microamps of current per MHz of clock speed. In the
standby mode the MSP430 draws less than one microamp of current. In LPM 3.5 and operat-
ing from a RTC frequency of 32,768 Hz, the MSP430 draws 73 nA (FR2433) and 350 nA
(FR5994). In LPM 4.5 shutdown mode, the MSP430 draws 16 nA (FR2433) and 45 nA
(FR5994) of current [SLASE59D, 2018, SLASE54C, 2018].
Large complement of I/O ports. The FR2433 is equipped with a single 16-bit digital
I/O port, designated as PA. This port may also be subdivided into two 8-bit ports, designated as
P1 and P2. The FR2433 also has a 3-bit, port designated as PB. The FR5994 is equipped with a
four 16-bit digital I/O ports, designated as PA through PD. These ports may also be subdivided
into two 8-bit ports. For example, port PA may be as designated P1 and P2. The FR5994 also
has an 8-bit port, designated as PJ.
Multi-channel, high-resolution analog-to-digital converter. The FR2433 is equipped
with an 8-channel, 10-bit analog-to-digital converter. The FR5994 is equipped with 16 channels
of 12-bit ADC. This feature provides for a large number of converters and very good resolution
of analog signals converted.
Hardware multiplier. Many microcontrollers can perform mathematical multiplication
operations. However, most perform these calculations using a long sequence of instructions that
consume multiple clock cycles. That is, it takes a relatively long period of time to perform a mul-
tiplication operation. The MSP430 is equipped with a dedicated hardware multiplier that can
 1.5. TARGET MICROCONTROLLER FEATURES 9
multiply 32-, 24-, 16-, and 8-bit signed and unsigned multiplication operations. The hardware
multiplier can also perform the signed and unsigned multiply and accumulate operation. This
operation is used extensively in digital signal processing (DSP) operations.
Multiple enhanced universal serial communication interfaces (eUSCI). The MSP430
microcontroller is equipped with the enhanced Universal Serial Communication Interface (eU-
SCI). The system is equipped with many different serial communication subsystems. The eU-
SCI consists of two different communication subsystems: eUSCI A type modules and eUSCI B
modules. The FR2433 EVM is equipped with two A modules (A0, A1) and a single B module
(B0). The FR5994 EVM is equipped with four A modules (A0 to A3) and four B modules (B0
to B3).
The eUSCI A modules provide support for the following.
• Universal asynchronous serial receiver and transmitter (UART). The UART supports a
serial data link between a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter and receiver pair
maintains synchronization using start and stop bits that are embedded in the data stream.
• Infrared data association (IrDA). The IrDA protocol provides for a short-range data link
using an infrared (IR) link. It is a standardized protocol for IR linked devices. It is used
in various communication devices, personal area networks, and instrumentation.
• The serial peripheral interface (SPI) provides synchronous communications between a re-
ceiver and a transmitter. The SPI system maintains synchronization between the trans-
mitter and receiver pair using a common clock provided by the master designated micro-
controller. An SPI serial link has a much faster data rate than UART.
The eUSCI B modules also provide support for SPI communications and inter-integrated
communication (I2 C) communications. The I2 C is one of prominent communication modes,
used when multiple serial devices are interconnected through a serial bus. The I2 C bus is a two-
wire bus with the serial data line (SDL) and the serial clock line (SCL). By configuring devices
connected to the common I2 C line as either a master device or a slave device, multiple devices
can share information using a common bus. The I2 C system is used to link multiple peripheral
devices to a microcontroller or several microcontrollers together in a system that are in close
proximity to one another [SLAU356A].
Multiple basic timers. The MSP430 employs timers for capturing the parameters of
an incoming signal (period, frequency, duty cycle, pulse length), generating a precision out-
put digital signal, or generating a pulse width modulated (PWM) signal. The FR2433 is
equipped with four 16-bit timers designated as type Timer_A3 and Timer_A2. Each of the
two Timer_A3 timers are equipped with three capture/compare registers. The two Timer_A2
timers are equipped with two capture/compare registers. The FR5994 is equipped with 6 dif-
ferent 16-bit registers with the number of capture/compare registers shown: Timer_TA0(3),
Timer_TA1(3), Timer_TA2(3), Timer_TA3(2), Timer_TA4(2), and Timer_TB0(7).
10 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
Memory system. FRAM is a nonvolatile and operates on ULP with access speeds similar
to RAM. It has been termed a universal memory because it can be used for storing program code,
variables, constants, and for stack operations. The FR2433 is equipped with 15 KB (kilobytes)
of FRAM for program storage and 512 bytes for data storage. The FR5994 is equipped with
256 KB of flexibly configurable FRAM for program and information storage.
Onboard RAM memory. The FR2433 hosts a 4 KB static RAM (SRAM) memory;
whereas, the FR5994 is equipped with 8 KB of SRAM memory. The SRAM memory is used
for global variables, local variables, and the dynamic allocation of user-defined data types during
program execution.
Power management system. The power management module (PMM) supplies the core
voltage for the microcontroller. It consists of an integrated voltage regulator to maintain a stable
core voltage. It is also equipped with a supply voltage supervisor and monitoring system, which
may be configured to reset the microcontroller when the core voltage falls below a preset value.
Flexible clock system. Microcontrollers are synchronous circuits. That is, all microcon-
troller operations are synchronized with a clock circuit. There are several clock source options
available for the MSP430 including a 32 kHz crystal (XT1), an internal very low-frequency
oscillator (VLO), an internal trimmed low-frequency oscillator (REFO), an integrated digitally
controlled oscillator (DCO) employing a frequency logic loop (FLL) with a digital modulator,
and a high-frequency crystal oscillator (XT1 or XT2).
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) generator. Data stored aboard a microcontroller may
be corrupted by noise sources flipping 1s to 0s and vice versa. The MSP430 is equipped with
the CRC16 subsystem, which employs the CRC-CCITT standard to calculate a checksum for
a block of data. The checksum is also stored with the data. When the data is used, a checksum
is calculated again and compared to the stored value. If the values agree, the data is considered
good for use. Alternately, if the checksums do not agree, the data is considered corrupted and
not available for use. The CRC system onboard the FR5994 EVM may also be used in a 32-bit
mode.
Embedded emulation module (EEM). The EEM is used to troubleshoot system oper-
ation of an embedded system. It allows events to be triggered based on memory access, CPU
access, or hardware triggers.
Watch dog timer (WDT). The WDT is a timer that, if expired, results in a processor
reset. It is used to reset the processor when a software malfunction has occurred. During normal
program processing the WDT is reset by specific program steps. Should a software malfunction
occur and the WDT timer is not reset, the WDT will timeout and result in a processor reset.
In response to the processor reset, the software malfunction may clear.
 1.6. INTRODUCTION TO THE EVALUATION MODULES (EVM) 11
Real-time clock (RTC). Microcontrollers keep time based on elapsed clock ticks. They
do not “understand” the concepts of elapsed time in seconds, hours, etc. The RTC provides a
general-purpose 16-bit counter while in the Counter Mode or an RTC in the Calendar Mode.
Both timer modes can be used to read or write counters using software.
Joint test action group ( JTAG) interface. JTAG is a four-wire standard interface to send
and receive data from the microcontroller. It is defined within IEEE Standard 1149.1. The
JTAG interface allows for programming and debugging programs.
Spy-bi-wire (SBW) JTAG interface. The SBW is a two-wire JTAG compatible interface.
In addition to the features common between the FR2433 and the FR5994 EVMs, the
FR5994 is also equipped with the following subsystems.
Analog comparator. The FR5994 is equipped with a 16-channel analog comparator to
monitor analog signals of interest. The comparator, as its name implies, compares an analog
input signal with a pre-defined threshold.
Direct memory access (DMA). Memory transfer operations from one location to another
typically requires many clock cycles involving the CPU. The FR5994 is equipped with six DMA
channels that allow memory-to-memory location transfers without involving the CPU, freeing
the CPU to perform other instructions.
Capacitive touch. The FR5994 is equipped with capacitive touch I/O features that sup-
port simple touch screen applications.
Hardware encryption. The FR5994 is also equipped with a hardware-based advanced
encryption standard (AES) accelerator. The accelerator speeds up the encryption and decryption
of data by one to two orders of magnitude over a software-based implementation. It can be used
for 128- or 256-bit encryption.
Low-energy accelerator. The FR5994 is equipped with a 32-bit, fixed-point processor,
the low energy accelerator (LEA) for vector-based operations. Vector-based operations are com-
monly used is signal processing applications. Operations include finite impulse response (FIR)
filtering, infinite impulse response (IIR) filtering, fast fourier transforms (FFT), inverse fast
fourier transforms (IFFT), and others. The LEA, once configured for operation, executes com-
mands independent of the MSP430 CPU SLAU367O [2017].

1.6 INTRODUCTION TO THE EVALUATION MODULES

(EVM)

Throughout the rest of the book we use the MSP-EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-
EXP430FR5994 EVMs to illustrate operation of different systems aboard the MSP430.
12 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
MSP430FR2433 EVM. The MSP-EXP430FR2433 EVM layout is provided in Fig-
ure 1.3 and the pinout diagram in Figure 1.4. The FR2433 is programmed via a host PC or
laptop via a USB cable. The upper portion of the EVM is equipped with the eZ-FET Debug
Probe. This provides for EVM programming and also communication back to the host com-
puter. Also, the EVM is equipped with EnergyTrace Technology that allows power consump-
tion readings. The link from the upper to the lower board is provided by the Jumper Isolation
Block. The lower board is equipped with two switches, two light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and
breakout pins for a 20-pin BoosterPack. BoosterPacks allow the features of the MSP430 to be
extended [SLAU739, 2017].
MSP-EXP430FR5994 EVM. The MSP-EXP430FR5994 EVM layout is provided in
Figure 1.5 and the pinout diagram Figure 1.4. The FR5994 is programmed via a host PC or lap-
top via a USB cable. The upper portion of the EVM is equipped with the eZ-FET Debug Probe.
This provides for EVM programming and also communication back to the host computer. Also,
the EVM is equipped with EnergyTrace Technology that allows power consumption readings.
The link from the upper to the lower board is provided by the Jumper Isolation Block. The lower
board is equipped with two switches, two LEDs, and breakout pins for a 40-pin BoosterPack.
BoosterPacks allow the features of the MSP430 to be extended. The FR5994 is also equipped
with a Micro SD card [SLAU678A, 2016].

1.7 DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE

There are multiple software tools available to support the MSP430 line of microcontrollers from
Texas Instruments and third-party producers. Throughout the book, we use Texas Instruments
Energia and code composer studio (CCS) integrated development environment (IDE).
Energia is an open-source IDE modeled after the Arduino Sketchbook concept. It allows
for rapid prototyping of a wide range of Texas Instruments microcontroller products. We use it
to rapidly prototype programs and embedded systems using the FR2433 and FR5994 EVMs.
In space lore, the Energia was a Soviet heavy lift rocket. Similarly, the Energia IDE performs
heavy lifting when learning software programming for the first time (www.energia.nu).
The CCS is used to develop code for all of TI’s digital processors including digital signal
processors (DSPs), microcontrollers, and application processors. The Platinum version provides
full product line support. The Microcontroller version, a subset of the Platinum version, provides
support for the MSP430 family of microcontrollers and other related product lines. In addition
to code development, CCS may be used for debugging and simulation (www.TI.com).
 1.7. DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE 13

USB
to
Host Reset

eZ-FET
Debug Energy Trace
Probe Technology

Jumper Isolation
Block

Switch 1 Switch 2

MSP430FR2433

LED1 LED2

20-pin BoosterPack

Figure 1.3: FR2433 EVM [SLAU739, 2017]. (Illustration used with permission of Texas In-
struments (www.ti.com).)
14 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.4: FR2433 EVM pinmap [SLAU739, 2017]. (Illustration used with permission of
Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
 1.7. DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE 15

USB
to
Host

eZ-FET Energy Trace

Debug Technology
Probe

Jumper Isolation
Block
Reset

MSP430FR5944

Switch 1 Switch 2

LED1 LED2

20-pin BoosterPAck
LED1 Micro LED2
SD card
40-pin BoosterPack

Figure 1.5: FR5994 EVM [SLAU678A, 2016]. (Illustration used with permission of Texas
Instruments (www.ti.com).)
16 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY

Figure 1.6: FR5994 EVM pinmap [SLAU678A, 2016]. (Illustration used with permission of
Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)

1.8 LAB 1: GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH HARDWARE

AND SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT TOOLS
Introduction. Through this laboratory exercise, you will become familiar with the Texas In-
struments MSP430-EXP430FR2433 or the MSP430-EXP430FR5994 EVMs and the Energia
IDE.
Procedure: To start working with Energia, follow these steps (energia.nu).
• Download and install the latest version of Energia from the energia.nu website to the
host computer. It is available for different operating systems including: Windows, Mac
OS X, and Linux.
• Launch Energia on the host computer by going to the Energia folder and clicking on the
Energia icon. The icon is a red ball with a rocket silhouette.
• To install the latest Board Manager, go to Tools->Boards Manager->Online Help.
• Connect the LaunchPad to the host computer via the USB cable provided with the EVM.
• With Energia launched, go to Tools->Board-> and select the LaunchPad.
 1.9. SUMMARY 17
• Check the comm port setting using Tools->Serial Port.

• To load the first example use File->Examples->Basics->Blink.

• To compile, upload, and run the program, use the Upload icon (right facing arrow).

• The red LED on the LaunchPad will blink!

Investigate some of the other sample programs provided in Energia.

1.9 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we introduced microcontrollers and an overview of related technologies. We be-
gan with a brief review of computer development leading up to the release of microcontrollers,
reviewed microcontroller related terminology and provided an overview of systems associated
with the MSP-EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-EXP430FR5994 evaluation modules. The re-
mainder of the chapter was spent getting better acquainted with the EVMs and the Energia
IDE.

1.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Bartee, T. Digital Computer Fundamentals, 3rd ed., New York, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1972. 2

Boone, G. Computing System CPU, United States Patent 3,757,306 filed August 31, 1971, and
issued September 4, 1973. 3

Boone, G. Variable Function Programmable Calculator, United States Patent 4,074,351 filed
February 24, 1977 and issued February 15, 1978. 3

MCS 85 User’s Manual, Intel Corporation, 1977. 3

MSP Low-Power Microcontrollers, (SLAB034AD), Texas Instruments, 2017. 5, 6, 7

MSP430FR2433 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR2433), (SLAU739), Texas In-

struments, 2017. 12, 13, 14

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontroller, (SLASE59D), Texas Instruments, 2018. 5, 6, 7,

8

MSP430FR58xx, MSP430FR59xx, and MSP430FR6xx Family User’s Guide (SLAU367O),

Texas Instruments, 2017. 11

MSP430FR5994 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR5994), (SLAU678A), Texas In-

struments, 2016. 12, 15, 16
18 1. INTRODUCTION TO MICROCONTROLLER TECHNOLOGY
MSP430FR599x, MSP430FR596x Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLASE54C), Texas Instru-
ments, 2018. 5, 6, 7, 8
Nobelprize.org. The Official Web Site of the Nobel Prize, www.nobelprize.org 2
Osborne, A. An Introduction to Microcomputers Volume 1 Basic Concepts, 2nd ed., Berkeley,
Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1980. 2, 3
Patterson, D. and Hennessy, J. Computer Organization and Design the Hardware/Software Inter-
face, San Francisco, 1994. 3
Texas Instruments MSP430 FRAM Quality and Reusability, (SLAA526A), Texas Instruments,
2014. 4
Texas Instruments MSP430 FRAM Technology-How to and Best Practices, (SLAA628), Texas In-
struments, 2014. 4

1.11 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Fundamental
1. Define the terms microprocessor, microcontroller, and microcomputer. Provide an example
of each.
2. What were the catalysts that led to the multiple generations of computer processors?
3. What are the five main components of a computer architecture? Briefly define each.
4. Distinguish between RAM, ROM, EEPROM, and FRAM memory. Provide an example
application of how each are employed within a microcontroller.
5. What is RISC architecture? What is its fundamental premise?
Advanced
1. List the key features of the MSP430 families of microcontrollers.
2. List the key features of the MSP430FR2433 mixed signal processor.
3. List the key features of the MSP430FR5994 mixed signal processor.
4. Describe the tradeoff between processor speed and power consumption. How does the
MSP430 meet these competing demands?
Challenging
1. Write a single page paper on a specific generation of computers.
 1.11. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 19
2. Research the difference between CISC and RISC computer architectures. Provide the
main features of each approach. Which approach is better suited for microcontroller ap-
plications?
3. Research IrDA infrared communication standards. Write a single page paper on the topic.
4. Research the CRC-CCITT standard used to calculate a checksum. Write a single page
paper on the topic.
 21

CHAPTER 2

A Brief Introduction to
Programming
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to:
• use the Energia Integrated Development Environment to interface with the MSP-
EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPads;
• describe key components of a C program;
• specify the size of different variables within the C programming language;
• define the purpose of the main program;
• explain the importance of using functions within a program;
• write functions that pass parameters and return variables;
• describe the function of a header file;
• discuss different programming constructs used for program control and decision process-
ing; and
• write programs in C for execution on the MSP-EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-
EXP430FR5994 LaunchPads.

2.1 OVERVIEW
The goal of this chapter is to provide a tutorial on how to begin programming on the MSP430
microcontroller.1 We begin with an introduction to programming using the Energia integrated
development environment (IDE), followed by an introduction to programming in C. Through-
out the chapter, we provide examples and pointers to several excellent references.

1 This chapter was adapted with permission from Barret (2013).

22 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
2.2 ENERGIA
Energia is an open-source IDE modeled after the Arduino Sketchbook concept. It allows for
rapid prototyping of a wide range of Texas Instruments microcontroller products. We use it
to prototype programs and embedded systems using the MSP-EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-
EXP430FR5994 LaunchPads. In space lore, the Energia was a Soviet heavy lift rocket. Similarly,
the Energia IDE performs heavy lifting when learning software programming for the first time.

2.3 ENERGIA QUICKSTART

To quickly get up and operating with Energia, complete the following steps (energia.nu).

• Download and install the latest version of Energia from the energia.nu website to the
host computer. It is available for different operating systems including: Windows, Mac
OS X, and Linux.

• Launch Energia on the host computer by going to the Energia folder and clicking on the
Energia icon. The icon is a red ball with a rocket silhouette.

• To install the latest Board Manager, go to Tools->Boards Manager->Online Help.

• Connect the LaunchPad to the host computer via the USB cable provided with the EVM.

• With Energia launched, go to Tools->Board-> and select the LaunchPad.

• Check the comm port setting using Tools->Serial Port.

• To load the first example use File->Examples->Basics->Blink.

• To compile, upload, and run the program, use the Upload icon (right facing arrow).

• The red LED on the LaunchPad will blink!

With the first program launched, let’s take a closer look at the Energia IDE.

2.4 ENERGIA DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT

In this section, we provide an overview of the Energia IDE. We begin with some background
information about the IDE and then review its user-friendly features. We then introduce the
sketchbook concept and provide a brief overview of the built-in software features within the
IDE. Our goal is to provide readers with a brief introduction to Energia features. All Energia
related features are well documented on the Energia homepage (energia.nu). We will not
duplicate this excellent source of material; but merely provide a brief introduction with pointers
to advanced features.
 2.4. ENERGIA DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT 23
2.4.1 ENERGIA IDE OVERVIEW
At its most fundamental level, the Energia IDE is a user-friendly interface to allow one to
quickly write, load, and execute code on a microcontroller. A barebones program needs only a
setup() function and a loop() function. The Energia IDE adds the other required pieces such as
header files and the main program constructs (energia.nu).
The Energia IDE is illustrated in Figure 2.1. The IDE contains a text editor, a message
area for displaying status, a text console, a tool bar of common functions, and an extensive menu
system. The IDE also provides a user-friendly interface to the LaunchPad which allows for the
quick compiling and uploading of code.

Figure 2.1: Energia IDE (energia.nu).

A close-up of the Energia toolbar is provided in Figure 2.2. The toolbar provides sin-
gle button access to the more commonly used menu features. Most of the features are self-
explanatory. The “Upload” button compiles the program and uploads it to the LaunchPad. The
“Serial Monitor” button opens a serial monitor to allow text data to be sent to and received from
the LaunchPad.

2.4.2 SKETCHBOOK CONCEPT

In keeping with a hardware and software platform for students of the arts, the Energia envi-
ronment employs the concept of a sketchbook. Artists maintain their works in progress in a
24 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

Verify–checks for errors Open

Upload Save

Creates new sketch + Opens serial monitor

Tab features

Figure 2.2: Energia IDE buttons.

sketchbook. Similarly, we maintain our programs within a sketchbook in the Energia environ-
ment. Furthermore, we refer to individual programs as sketches. An individual sketch within
the sketchbook may be accessed via the Sketchbook entry under the file tab.

2.4.3 ENERGIA SOFTWARE, LIBRARIES, AND LANGUAGE

REFERENCES
The Energia IDE has a number of built-in features. Some of the features may be directly accessed
via the Energia IDE drop-down toolbar illustrated in Figure 2.1. Provided in Figure 2.3 is a
handy reference to show the available features. The toolbar provides a wide variety of features to
compose, compile, load, and execute a sketch.
Aside from the toolbar accessible features, the Energia IDE contains built-in functions
that allow the user to quickly construct a sketch. These built-in functions are summarized in Fig-
ure 2.4. Complete documentation for these built-in function is available at the Energia home-
page (energia.nu). This documentation is easily accessible via the Help tab on the Energia
IDE toolbar. We refer to these features at appropriate places throughout the remainder of the
book and provide additional background information as needed.

2.5 ENERGIA PIN ASSIGNMENTS

Hardware features onboard the LaunchPad (LEDs, switches, etc.) are accessed via Energia using
pin numbers. Pin numbers range from 1–20 for the FR2433 EVM and 1–40 for the FR5994
EVM. Pin diagrams for both evaluation modules are provided in Chapter 1 (Figures 1.3 and 1.5).

2.6 WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH

The basic format of the Energia sketch consists of a “setup” function and a “loop” function. The
setup function is executed once at the beginning of the program. It is used to configure pins,
declare variables and constants, etc. The loop function will execute function sequentially step-
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 25

Menu

File Edit Sketch Tools Help

- New - Undo - Verify/Compile - Auto Format - Getting Started
- Open - Redo - Upload Using - Archive Sketch - Environment
- Open Recent - Cut Programmer - Fix Encoding & - Troubleshooting
- Sketchbook - Copy - Export compiled Reload - Reference
- Examples - Copy for Forum Binary - Serial Monitor - Find in Reference
- Close - Copy as HTML - Show Sketch Folder - Serial Plotter - Frequently Asked
- Save - Paste - Include Library - Board Questions
- Save As - Select All - Add File... - Port - Visit Energia.nu
- Page Setup - Go to line - Programmer - About Energia
- Print - Comment/
- Preferences Uncomment
- Quit - Increase Indent
- Decrease Indent
- Find
- Find Next
- Find Previous

Figure 2.3: Energia IDE menu (energia.nu).

Energia Environment
Built-in Functions

Digital Input/Output Analog Input/Output Advanced I/O Time Conversion

- pinMode( ) - analogReference( ) - tone( ) - millis( ) - char( )
- digitalWrite( ) - analogRead( ) - noTone( ) - micros( ) - byte( )
- digitalRead( ) - analogWrite( ) - PWM - shiftOut( ) - delay( ) - int( )
- shiftIn( ) - delayMicroseconds( ) - word( )
Utilities - pulseIn( ) - long( )
- sizeof( ) - float( )

Math Trigonometry Bits and Bytes External Interrupts Communication

- min( ) - sin( ) - lowByte( ) - attachInterrupt( ) - Serial
- max( ) - cos( ) - highByte( ) - detachInterrupt( ) - Stream
- abs( ) - tan( ) - bitRead( )
- constrain( ) - bitWrite( ) Interrupts
- map( ) Random Numbers - bitSet( ) - interrupts( )
- pow( ) - randomSeed( ) - bitClear( ) - noInterrupts( )
- sqrt( ) - random - bit( )

Figure 2.4: Energia IDE built-in features (energia.nu).

26 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
-by-step. When the end of the loop function is reached, it will automatically return to the first
step of the loop function and execute the function again. This goes on continuously until the
program is stopped.

//**********************************************************

void setup()
{
//place setup code here
}

void loop()
{
//main code steps are provided here
:
:

//**********************************************************

Example: Blink. Let’s examine the sketch used to blink the LED (energia.nu).

//**********************************************************
//Blink---The basic Energia example.
//Turns on an LED on for one second, then off for one second,
//repeatedly. Change the LED define to blink other LEDs.
//Hardware Required: LaunchPad with an LED
//This example code is in the public domain.
//**********************************************************

//most launchpads have a red LED

#define LED RED_LED

//#define LED GREEN_LED

//the setup routine runs once when you press reset:

void setup()
{
//initialize the digital pin as an output.
pinMode(LED, OUTPUT);
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 27
}

//the loop routine runs over and over again forever:

void loop()
{
digitalWrite(LED, HIGH); //turn the LED on
//(HIGH is the voltage level)
delay(1000); //wait for a second
digitalWrite(LED, LOW); //turn the LED off by making
//the voltage LOW
delay(1000); // wait for a second
}

//**********************************************************

In the first line, the #define statement links the designator “LED” to the pin connected
to the red LED on the LaunchPad. In the setup function, LED is designated as an output pin.
Recall the setup function is only executed once. The program then enters the loop function that is
executed sequentially step-by-step and continuously repeated. In this example, the LED is first
set to logic high to illuminate the LED onboard the LaunchPad. Another 1000 ms delay then
occurs. The LED is then set low. A 1000 ms delay then occurs. The sequence then repeats. As a
second example, comment out the #define statement and remove the comment symbol from in
front of the second #define statement. When the modified code is verified and uploaded to the
EVM, the onboard green LED will blink.
Aside from the Blink example, there are also many program examples available to allow
a user to quickly construct a sketch. They are useful to understand the interaction between the
Energia IDE and the LaunchPad. They may also be used as a starting point to write new ap-
plications. The program examples are available via the File->Examples tab within Energia. The
examples fall within these categories:
1. Basics
2. Digital
3. Analog
4. Communication
5. Control
6. Strings
7. Sensors
28 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
8. Display

9. Educational BP Mk II—a multifunction educational development kit containing multiple

sensors, an LCD display, and output drivers

10. MultiTasking—allows multiple tasks to be executed simultaneously.

We now examine several more Energia based examples. We use the MSP-
-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad in the examples. The MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad may
also be used; however, pin numbers within the examples must be changed from FR2433 pins to
FR5994 pins.
Example: External LED. In this example we connect an external LED to the FR2433 Launch-
Pad pin 18. The onboard green LED will blink alternately with the external LED. The external
LED is connected to the LaunchPad as shown in Figure 2.5 using a prototype board. The board
is useful for implementing the first prototype of a circuit. Holes within a given column of the
board have a common conductor connecting them together. Holes in a row of five are con-
nected via a common conductor. Jumper wires (insulated AWG 22, solid) are used between the
MSP430 female pin connectors and the prototype board.

//**********************************************************
#define int_LED GREEN_LED
#define ext_LED 18

void setup()
{
pinMode(int_LED, OUTPUT);
pinMode(ext_LED, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
digitalWrite(int_LED, HIGH);
digitalWrite(ext_LED, LOW);
delay(500); //delay specified in ms
digitalWrite(int_LED, LOW);
digitalWrite(ext_LED, HIGH);
delay(500);
}

//**********************************************************
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 29

(pin 18)

220
external
red LED
(ground: pin 20)

(a) schematic

220
(b) circuit layout

Figure 2.5: LaunchPad with an external LED. (Illustration used with permission of Texas In-
struments (www.ti.com).)
30 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Example: External LED and switch. In this example we connect an external LED to LaunchPad
pin 18 and an external switch attached to pin 17. The onboard green LED will blink alternately
with the external LED when the switch is depressed. The external LED and switch are connected
to the LaunchPad, as shown in Figure 2.6.

//**********************************************************

#define int_LED GREEN_LED

#define ext_LED 18
#define ext_sw 17

int switch_value;

void setup()
{
pinMode(int_LED, OUTPUT);
pinMode(ext_LED, OUTPUT);
pinMode(ext_sw, INPUT);
}

void loop()
{
switch_value = digitalRead(ext_sw);
if(switch_value == LOW)
{
digitalWrite(int_LED, HIGH);
digitalWrite(ext_LED, LOW);
delay(250);
digitalWrite(int_LED, LOW);
digitalWrite(ext_LED, HIGH);
delay(250);
}
else
{
digitalWrite(int_LED, LOW);
digitalWrite(ext_LED, LOW);
}
}
//**********************************************************
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 31

(pin 18)
(pin 17) 220
external
red LED
(ground: pin 20)

3.3 VDC
4.7 K

(ground: pin 20)

(a) schematic

220

18 20

4.7K

17

to 3.3 VDC pin

(b) circuit layout

Figure 2.6: LaunchPad with an external LED and switch. (Illustration used with permission of
Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
32 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Example: LED strip. LED strips may be used for motivational (fun) optical displays, games, or
for instrumentation-based applications. In this example we control an LPD8806-based LED
strip using Energia. We use a one meter, 32 RGB LED strip available from Adafruit (#306) for
approximately $30 USD (www.adafruit.com).
The red, blue, and green component of each RGB LED is independently set using
an eight-bit code. The most significant bit (MSB) is logic one followed by seven bits to set
the LED intensity (0–127). The component values are sequentially shifted out of the MSP-
EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad using the serial peripheral interface (SPI) features. The first com-
ponent value shifted out corresponds to the LED nearest the microcontroller. Each shifted
component value is latched to the corresponding R, G, and B component of the LED. As a
new component value is received, the previous value is latched and held constant. An extra byte
is required to latch the final parameter value. A zero byte .00/16 is used to complete the data
sequence and reset back to the first LED (www.adafruit.com).
Only four connections are required between the MSP-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad and
the LED strip as shown in Figure 2.7. The connections are color coded: red-power, black-
-ground, yellow-data, and green-clock. It is important to note the LED strip requires a supply
of 5 VDC and a current rating of 2 amps per meter of LED strip. In this example we use the
Adafruit #276 5 V 2A (2000 mA) switching power supply (www.adafruit.com).
In this example each RGB component is sent separately to the strip. The example illus-
trates how each variable in the program controls a specific aspect of the LED strip. Here are
some important implementation notes.

• SPI must be configured for MSB first.

• LED brightness is 7 bits. MSB must be set to logic one.

• Each LED requires a separate R-G-B intensity component. The order of data is G-R-B.

• After sending data for all LEDs. A byte of (0x00) must be sent to return strip to first LED.

• Data stream for each LED is: 1-G6-G5-G4-G3-G2-G1-G0-1-R6-R5-R4-R3-R2-R1-

R0-1-B6-B5-B4-B3-B2-B1-B0

//***********************************************************************
//RGB_led_strip_tutorial: illustrates different variables within
//RGB LED strip
//
//LED strip LDP8806 - available from www.adafruit.com (#306)
//
//Connections:
// - External 5 VDC supply - Adafruit 5 VDC, 2A (#276) - red
// - Ground - black
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 33

(a) LED strip by the meter [www.adafruit.com].

SPI SCK (pin 7) SPI MOSI (pin 15)

Ground

to 5 VDC, 2A
power (b) MSP-EXP430FR2433 to LED strip connection [www.adafruit.com].
supply

Figure 2.7: LaunchPad controlling LED strip (www.adafruit.com). (Illustration used with per-
mission of Adafruit (www.adafruit.com).)
34 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
// - Serial Data In - LaunchPad pin 15 (MOSI pin) P2.6 - yellow
// - CLK - LaunchPad pin 7 (SCK pin) P2.4 - green
//
//Variables:
// - LED_brightness - set intensity from 0 to 127
// - segment_delay - delay between LED RGB segments
// - strip_delay - delay between LED strip update
//
//Notes:
// - SPI must be configured for Most significant bit (MSB) first
// - LED brightness is seven bits. Most significant bit (MSB)
// must be set to logic one
// - Each LED requires a seperate R-G-B intensity component. The order
// of data is G-R-B.
// - After sending data for all strip LEDs. A byte of (0x00) must
// be sent to reutrn strip to first LED.
// - Data stream for each LED is:
//1-G6-G5-G4-G3-G2-G1-G0-1-R6-R5-R4-R3-R2-R1-R0-1-B6-B5-B4-B3-B2-B1-B0
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//********************************************************************

#include <SPI.h>

#define LED_strip_latch 0x00

const byte strip_length = 32; //number of RGB LEDs in strip

const byte segment_delay = 100; //delay in milliseconds
const byte strip_delay = 500; //delay in milliseconds
unsigned char LED_brightness; //0 to 127
unsigned char position; //LED position in strip
unsigned char troubleshooting = 0; //allows printouts to serial
//monitor

void setup()
{
SPI.begin(); //SPI support functions
SPI.setBitOrder(MSBFIRST); //SPI bit order
SPI.setDataMode(SPI_MODE3); //SPI mode
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 35
SPI.setClockDivider(SPI_CLOCK_DIV32);//SPI data clock rate
Serial.begin(9600); //serial comm at 9600 bps
}

void loop()
{
SPI.transfer(LED_strip_latch); //reset to first segment
clear_strip(); //all strip LEDs to black
delay(500);

//increment the green intensity of the strip LEDs

for(LED_brightness = 0; LED_brightness <= 60;
LED_brightness = LED_brightness + 10)
{
for(position = 0; position<strip_length; position = position+1)
{
SPI.transfer(0x80 | LED_brightness); //Green - MSB 1
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Red - none
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Blue - none

if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(LED_brightness, DEC);
Serial.println(position, DEC);
}
delay(segment_delay);
}
SPI.transfer(LED_strip_latch); //reset to first segment
delay(strip_delay);
if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(" ");
}
}

clear_strip(); //all strip LEDs to black

delay(500);

//increment the red intensity of the strip LEDs

36 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
for(LED_brightness = 0; LED_brightness <= 60;
LED_brightness = LED_brightness + 10)
{
for(position = 0; position<strip_length; position = position+1)
{
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Green - none
SPI.transfer(0x80 | LED_brightness); //Red - MSB1
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Blue - none

if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(LED_brightness, DEC);
Serial.println(position, DEC);
}
delay(segment_delay);
}
SPI.transfer(LED_strip_latch); //reset to first segment
delay(strip_delay);
if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(" ");
}
}

clear_strip(); //all strip LEDs to black

delay(500);

//increment the blue intensity of the strip LEDs

for(LED_brightness = 0; LED_brightness <= 60;
LED_brightness = LED_brightness + 10)
{
for(position = 0; position<strip_length; position = position+1)
{
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Green - none
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Red - none
SPI.transfer(0x80 | LED_brightness); //Blue - MSB1

if(troubleshooting)
{
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 37
Serial.println(LED_brightness, DEC);
Serial.println(position, DEC);
}
delay(segment_delay);
}
SPI.transfer(LED_strip_latch); //reset to first segment
delay(strip_delay);
if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(" ");
}
}

clear_strip(); //all strip LEDs to black

delay(500);
}

//****************************************************************

void clear_strip(void)
{
//clear strip
for(position = 0; position<strip_length; position = position+1)
{
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Green - none
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Red - none
SPI.transfer(0x80 | 0x00); //Blue - none

if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(LED_brightness, DEC);
Serial.println(position, DEC);
}
}
SPI.transfer(LED_strip_latch); //Latch with zero
if(troubleshooting)
{
Serial.println(" ");
}
38 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
delay(2000); //clear delay
}

//****************************************************************
Example: Analog In-Analog Out-Serial Out. This example is modified from the example Ana-
log In-Analog Out-Serial Out provided with Energia. It illustrates several Energia built-in
functions.
• Serial.begin(baud_rate): Sets baud rate in bits per second to communicate with the host
computer.
• Serial.print(text): Prints text to Energia serial monitor.
• AnalogRead(analog_channel): Reads the analog value at the designated analog channel
and returns a value from 0 (0 VDC) to 1023 (3.3 VDC).
• map(test_value, input_low, input_high, output_low, output_high): Remaps test_value
from a value between input_low and input_high to a corresponding value between out-
put_low and output_high.
• analogWrite(analogOutPin, outputValue): Sends an output value from 0–255 to desig-
nated analogOutPin.
//****************************************************************
//Analog input, analog output, serial output - Reads an analog input pin,
//maps the result to a range from 0 to 255 and uses the result to set the
//pulsewidth modulation (PWM) of an output pin. The PWM value is sent to
//the red LED pin to modulate its intensity. Also prints the results to
//the serial monitor. Open a serial monitor using the serial monitor
//button in Energia to view the results.
//
//
//The circuit:
// - Potentiometer connected to analog pin 0 (2). The center wiper
// pin of the potentiometer goes to the analog pin. The side pins of
// the potentiometer go to +3.3 VDC and ground. Place a small value
// resistor is series with the potentiometer
// - The analog output is designated as the onboard red LED.
//
//Created: Dec 29, 2008
//Modified: Aug 30, 2011
//Author: Tom Igoe
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 39
//This example code is in the public domain.
//****************************************************************

const int analogInPin = 2; //Energia analog input pin A0

const int analogOutPin = RED_LED; //Energia onboard red LED pin

int sensorValue = 0; //value read from potentiometer

int outputValue = 0; //value output to the PWM (red LED)

void setup()
{
// initialize serial communications at 9600 bps:
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop()
{
//read the analog in value:
sensorValue = analogRead(analogInPin);

// map it to the range of the analog out:

outputValue = map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 255);

// change the analog out value:

analogWrite(analogOutPin, outputValue);

// print the results to the serial monitor:

Serial.print("sensor = " );
Serial.print(sensorValue);
Serial.print("\t output = ");
Serial.println(outputValue);

// wait 10 milliseconds before the next loop

// for the analog-to-digital converter to settle
// after the last reading:
delay(10);
}

//****************************************************************
40 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Example: Mini round autonomous maze navigating robot. In this example, an autonomous,
maze navigating robot is equipped with infrared (IR) sensors to detect the presence of maze walls
and navigate about the maze. The robot has no prior knowledge about the maze configuration.
It uses the IR sensors and an onboard algorithm to determine the robot’s next move. The overall
goal is to navigate from the starting point of the maze to the end point as quickly as possible
without bumping into maze walls as shown in Figure 2.8. Maze walls are usually painted white
to provide a good, light reflective surface, whereas the maze floor is painted matte black to
minimize light reflections. Alternatively, a low-cost, table-top maze may be assembled from
white foam board.

Finish

Start

Figure 2.8: Autonomous robot within maze.

Before delving into the robot design, it would be helpful to review the fundamentals of
robot steering and motor control. Figure 2.9 illustrates the fundamental concepts. Robot steering
is dependent upon the number of powered wheels and whether the wheels are equipped with
unidirectional or bidirectional control. Additional robot steering configurations are possible. An
H-bridge is typically required for bidirectional control of a DC motor. We discuss the H-bridge
in greater detail in an upcoming chapter.
In this application project, we equip the Adafruit mini round robot (#3216) for control
by the LaunchPad as a maze navigating robot. Reference Figure 2.11. The robot is controlled by
two 6.0 VDC motors which independently drive a left and right wheel. A third non-powered
drag ball provides tripod stability for the robot.
We equip the mini round robot platform with three Sharp GP2Y0A21YKOF IR sensors
as shown in Figure 2.12. The sensors are available from SparkFun Electronics (www.sparkfun
.com). We mount the sensors on a bracket constructed from thin aluminum. Dimensions for
the bracket are provided in the figure. Alternatively, the IR sensors may be mounted to the
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 41

Pivot
Point Pivot
Point

(a) two-wheel, forward motor control (b) two-wheel, bi-directional motor control

Pivot
Point

Pivot
Point

(c) two-wheel, forward motor control, (d) two-wheel, forward motor control,
front-wheel drive rear-wheel drive

Pivot
Point

(e) four-wheel, bi-directional motor control

Figure 2.9: Robot control configurations.

42 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
3V

Sensor Output Voltage (V)

5 cm
Range (cm)

Figure 2.10: Sharp GP2Y0A21YKOF IR sensor profile.

Figure 2.11: Mini round robot.

robot platform using “L” brackets available from a local hardware store. The characteristics of
the sensor are provided in Figure 2.10.
The circuit diagram for the robot is provided in Figure 2.13. The three IR sensors (left,
middle, and right) are mounted on the leading edge of the robot to detect maze walls. The output
from the sensors is fed to three ADC channels (analog in 0-2). The robot motors will be driven
by PWM channels (PWM: digital I/O 3 and PWM: digital I/O 4).
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 43

Sharp
IR Sensor

Bottom Platform
Mini Round Robot

(a) Top view of robot platform

6”

1-7/16”

all holes 1/8” 1/2”

1/2”
2”
1/2”
(b) Construction details for sensor bracket

Figure 2.12: Mini round robot platform modified with three IR sensors.
44 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
To save on battery expense, a 9 VDC, 2A rated inexpensive, wall-mount power supply is
used to provide power to the robot. A power umbilical of flexible, braided wire may be used to
link the power supply to the robot while navigating about the maze. The robot motors are rated
at 6.0 VDC. Therefore, four 1N4001 diodes are placed in series with the motor to reduce the
supply voltage to be approximately 6.2 VDC. The LaunchPad is interfaced to the motors via
a Darlington NPN transistor (TIP120) with enough drive capability to handle the maximum
current requirements of the motor. A 3.3 VDC voltage regulator is used to supply power to the
LaunchPad.
Warning: It is important not to have the LaunchPad connected to the host computer
via the USB cable and an external 3.3 VDC supply at the same time. It is recommended to
download the program to the LaunchPad, disconnect the USB cable, remove the 3.3 VDC
header jumper on the Jumper Isolation Block, and then connect the 3.3 VDC external supply
to the J6 connector. Alternatively, a double-throw double-pole (DPDT) switch may be used, as
shown in Figure 2.13.

2.6.1 CONTROL ALGORITHM FOR THE MINI ROUND ROBOT

In this section, we provide the basic framework for the robot control algorithm. The control
algorithm will read the IR sensors attached to the LaunchPad analog in (pins 0–2). In response
to the wall placement detected, it will render signals to turn the robot to avoid the maze walls.
Provided in Figure 2.14 is a truth table that shows all possibilities of maze placement that the
robot might encounter. A detected wall is represented with a logic one. An asserted motor action
is also represented with a logic one.
The robot motors may only be moved in the forward direction. We review techniques
to provide bi-directional motor control in an upcoming chapter. To render a left turn, the left
motor is stopped and the right motor is asserted until the robot completes the turn. To render
a right turn, the opposite action is required.
The task of writing the control algorithm is to take the Unified Modeling Language
(UML) activity diagram provided in Figure 3.14 and the actions specified in the robot action
truth table (Figure 2.14) and transform both into an Energia sketch. This may seem formidable,
but we take it a step at a time.
The control algorithm begins with Energia pin definitions. Variables are then declared for
the readings from the three IR sensors. The two required Energia functions follow: setup() and
loop(). In the setup() function, Energia pins are declared as output. The loop() begins by reading
the current value of the three IR sensors.
The analogRead function reports a value between 0 and 1023. The 0 corresponds to 0 VDC
while the value 1023 corresponds to 3.3 VDC. A specific value corresponds to a particular IR
sensor range. The threshold detection value may be adjusted to change the range at which the
maze wall is detected.
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 45

Sensor connection:
- Red: 5 VDC
- Yellow: Signal output
- Black: Ground IR sensor IR sensor IR sensor
left middle right
5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC 9 VDC
9 VDC

voltage 1N4001
1N4001 dropping 1N4001
diodes
1N4001
Note: 3.3 VDC +
1N4001 + 1N4001
jumper removed
protection
M 6.0 VDC from MSP430 M 6.0 VDC
diode
Program
- -
DPDT
switch
TIP120 330 330 TIP120 motor
NPN Run NPN
(4) current
Darlington Darlington
left motor/wheel right motor/wheel
interface interface

7805
9 VDC power umbilical

3.3VDC
reg
5.0 VDC
5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC 5 VDC
LM1084-3.3
3.3VDC
reg 3.3 VDC 220 220 220 220 220
left turn wall wall wall right turn
9VDC signal left center right signal
2A
(#276) 10 K 10 K 10 K 10 K 10 K
2N2222 2N2222 2N2222 2N2222 2N2222
(5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

Figure 2.13: Robot circuit diagram. (Illustration used with permission of Texas Instruments
(www.ti.com).)

Left Middle Right Wall Wall Wall Left Right Left Right
Comments
Sensor Sensor Sensor Left Middle Right Motor Motor Signal Signal
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 Forward
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 Forward
2 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 Right
3 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Left
4 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 Forward
5 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Forward
6 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 Right
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 Right

Figure 2.14: Truth table for robot action.

46 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
The read of the IR sensors is followed by an eight-part if-else if statement. The statement
contains a part for each row of the truth table provided in Figure 2.14. For a given configuration
of sensed walls, the appropriate wall detection LEDs are illuminated followed by commands to
activate the motors (analogWrite) and illuminate the appropriate turn signals.
The analogWrite command issues a signal from 0–3.3 VDC by sending a constant from
0–255 using PWM techniques. PWM techniques will be discussed in an upcoming chapter.
The turn signal commands provide to actions: the appropriate turns signals are flashed and a 1.5
s total delay is provided. This provides the robot 1.5 s to render a turn. This delay may need to
be adjusted during the testing phase.

//***********************************************************************
//robot
//
////This example code is in the public domain.
//***********************************************************************
//analog input pins
#define left_IR_sensor 2 //analog pin - left IR sensor
#define center_IR_sensor 19 //analog pin - center IR sensor
#define right_IR_sensor 10 //analog pin - right IR sensor

//digital output pins

//LED indicators - wall detectors
#define wall_left 6 //digital pin - wall_left
#define wall_center 7 //digital pin - wall_center
#define wall_right 8 //digital pin - wall_right

//LED indicators - turn signals

#define left_turn_signal 5 //digital pin - left_turn_signal
#define right_turn_signal 9 //digital pin - right_turn_signal

//motor outputs
#define left_motor 3 //digital pin - left_motor
#define right_motor 4 //digital pin - right_motor

int left_IR_sensor_value; //variable for left IR sensor

int center_IR_sensor_value; //variable for center IR sensor
int right_IR_sensor_value; //variable for right IR sensor
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 47
void setup()
{
//LED indicators - wall detectors
pinMode(wall_left, OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output
pinMode(wall_center, OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output
pinMode(wall_right, OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output

//LED indicators - turn signals

pinMode(left_turn_signal,OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output
pinMode(right_turn_signal,OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output

//motor outputs - PWM

pinMode(left_motor, OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output
pinMode(right_motor, OUTPUT); //configure pin for digital output
}

void loop()
{
//read analog output from IR sensors
left_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(left_IR_sensor);
center_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(center_IR_sensor);
right_IR_sensor_value = analogRead(right_IR_sensor);

//robot action table row 0 - robot forward

if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255(full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128); //0(off)-255(full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
48 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 1 - robot forward

else if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255(full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128); //0(off)-255(full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 2 - robot right

 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 49
else if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255(full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 0); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 3 - robot left

else if((left_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
50 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 4 - robot forward

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
 2.6. WRITING AN ENERGIA SKETCH 51
}

//robot action table row 5 - robot forward

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value < 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 6 - robot right

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value < 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, LOW); //turn LED off
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
52 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
analogWrite(right_motor, 0); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED OFF
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED OFF
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}

//robot action table row 7 - robot right

else if((left_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&(center_IR_sensor_value > 512)&&
(right_IR_sensor_value > 512))
{
//wall detection LEDs
digitalWrite(wall_left, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_center, HIGH); //turn LED on
digitalWrite(wall_right, HIGH); //turn LED on
//motor control
analogWrite(left_motor, 128); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
analogWrite(right_motor, 0); //0(off)-255 (full speed)
//turn signals
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, HIGH); //turn LED on
delay(500); //delay 500 ms
digitalWrite(left_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
 2.7. SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON ENERGIA 53
digitalWrite(right_turn_signal, LOW); //turn LED off
analogWrite(left_motor, 0); //turn motor off
analogWrite(right_motor,0); //turn motor off
}
}
//***********************************************************************

Testing the control algorithm: It is recommended that the algorithm be first tested without the
entire robot platform. This may be accomplished by connecting the three IR sensors and LEDS
to the appropriate pins on the LaunchPad as specified in Figure 2.13. In place of the two motors
and their interface circuits, two LEDs with the required interface circuitry may be used. The
LEDs illuminate to indicate motor assertion. Once the algorithm is fully tested in this fashion,
the LaunchPad may be mounted to the robot platform and connected to the motors. Full up
testing in the maze may commence. Enjoy!

2.7 SOME ADDITIONAL COMMENTS ON ENERGIA

Energia is based on the open source concept. Users throughout the world are constantly adding
new built-in features. As new features are added, they will be released in future Energia IDE
versions. As an Energia user, you too may add to this collection of useful tools. In the next
section we investigate programming in C.

2.8 PROGRAMMING IN C
Most microcontrollers are programmed with some variant of the C programming language.
The C programming language provides a nice balance between the programmer’s control of the
microcontroller hardware and time efficiency in programming writing.
As you can see in Figure 2.15, the compiler software is hosted on a computer separate from
the LaunchPad. The job of the compiler is to transform the program provided by the program
writer (filename.c and filename.h) into machine code suitable for loading into the processor.
Once the source files (filename.c and filename.h) are provided to the compiler, the com-
piler executes two steps to render the machine code. The first step is the compilation process.
Here the program source files are transformed into assembly code (filename.asm). If the pro-
gram source files contain syntax errors, the compiler reports these to the user. Syntax errors are
reported for incorrect use of the C programming language. An assembly language program is
not generated until the syntax errors have been corrected. The assembly language source file is
then passed to the assembler. The assembler transforms the assembly language source file to
machine code suitable for loading to the LaunchPad.
54 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

Energia Integrated Development Environment

or Code Composer Studio

C compiler

filename.c compiler
filename.h

computer filename.asm

assembler
Arduino Development
Environment filename.hex
or filename.eep

C compiler

USB

Figure 2.15: Programming the LaunchPad. (Illustration used with permission of Texas Instru-
ments (www.ti.com).)
 2.9. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 55
During the compilation process, warnings may also be generated. Warnings do not pre-
vent the creation of an assembly language version of the C program. However, they should be
resolved since flagged incorrect usage of the C language may result in unexpected program run
time errors.
As seen earlier in the chapter, the Energia Integrated Development Environment pro-
vides a user-friendly interface to aid in program development, transformation to machine code,
and loading into the LaunchPad. As described in Chapter 1, the LaunchPad may also be pro-
grammed using Code Composer Studio, Keil and IAR Systems software. We use Code Com-
poser Studio throughout the book.
For the remaining portion of the chapter we present a brief introduction to C. Many
examples are provided. We encourage the reader to modify, load, and run the examples on the
LaunchPad.
In the next section, we will discuss the components of a C program.

2.9 ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM

Programs written for a microcontroller have a repeatable format. Slight variations exist but many
follow the format provided.
//*************************************************************
//Comments containing program information
// - file name:
// - author:
// - revision history:
// - compiler setting information:
// - hardware connection description to microcontroller pins
// - program description
//*************************************************************

//include file(s)
#include<file_name.h>

//function prototypes
A list of functions and their format used within the program

//program constants
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0
56 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
//interrupt handler definitions
Used to link the software to hardware interrupt features

//global variables
Listing of variables used throughout the program

//main program

void main(void)
{

body of the main program

//*************************************************************
//function definitions: A detailed function body and definition
//for each function used within the program. For larger
//programs, function definitions may be placed in accompanying
//header files.
//*************************************************************

Let’s take a closer look at each part of the program.

2.9.1 COMMENTS
Comments are used throughout the program to document what and how things were accom-
plished within a program. The comments help you and others to reconstruct your work at a
later time. Imagine that you wrote a program a year ago for a project. You now want to modify
that program for a new project. The comments will help you remember the key details of the
program.
Comments are not compiled into machine code for loading into the microcontroller.
Therefore, the comments will not fill up the memory of your microcontroller. Comments are
indicated using double slashes (==). Anything from the double slashes to the end of a line is
then considered a comment. A multi-line comment is constructed using a = at the beginning
of the comment and a = at the end of the comment. These are handy to block out portions of
code during troubleshooting or providing multi-line comments.
At the beginning of the program, comments may be extensive. Comments may include
some of the following information:

• file name,
 2.9. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 57
• program author and dates of creation,
• revision history or a listing of the key changes made to the program,
• compiler setting information,
• hardware connection description to microcontroller pins, and
• program description.

2.9.2 INCLUDE FILES

Often you need to add extra files to your project besides the main program. For example, most
compilers require a “personality file” on the specific microcontroller that you are using. This file
is provided with the compiler and provides the name of each register used within the microcon-
troller. It also provides the link between a specific register’s name within software and the actual
register location within hardware. These files are typically called header files and their name
ends with a “.h”. In MSP430 applications, typically the “msp430.h” header files or the device
specific header file (e.g., “msp430fr5994.h”) will be used. Within the C compiler there will also
be other header files to include in your program such as the “math.h” file when programming
with advanced math functions.
To include header files within a program, the following syntax is used:
//C programming: include files
#include<file_name1.h> //searches for file in a standard list
#include<file_name2.h>
#include "file_name3.h" //searches for file in current directory

2.9.3 FUNCTIONS
Later in the book we discuss in detail the top-down design, bottom-up implementation approach
to designing microcontroller-based systems. In this approach, a project including both hardware
and software is partitioned into systems, subsystems, etc. The idea is to take a complex project
and break it into smaller, doable pieces with a defined action.
We use the same approach when writing computer programs. At the highest level is the
main program which calls functions that have a defined action. When a function is called, pro-
gram control is released from the main program to the function. Once the function is complete,
program control returns to the main program.
Functions may in turn call other functions as shown in Figure 2.16. This approach results in
a collection of functions that may be reused in various projects. Most importantly, the program is
now subdivided into doable pieces, each with a defined action. This makes writing the program
easier but also makes it convenient to modify the program since every action is in a known
location.
There are three different pieces of code required to properly configure and call a function:
58 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
void main(void)
{

function1( ); void function1(void)

{
:
:
}
function2( ); void function2(void)
{
:
:
}
}

Figure 2.16: Function calling.

• function prototype,
• function call, and
• function body.
Function prototypes are provided early in the program as previously shown in the pro-
gram template. The function prototype provides the name of the function and any variables
required and returned by the function.
The function prototype follows this format:
return_variable function_name(required_variable1, required_variable2);

If the function does not require variables or sends back a variable the word “void” is placed
in the variable’s position.
The function call is the code statement used within a program to execute the function. The
function call consists of the function name and the actual arguments required by the function.
If the function does not require arguments to be delivered to it for processing, the parenthesis
containing the variable list is left empty.
The function call follows this format:
function_name(required_variable1, required_variable2);

A function that requires no variables is called by:

function_name( );
 2.9. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 59
When the function call is executed by the program, program control is transferred to the
function, the function is executed, and program control is then returned to the portion of the
program that called it.
The function body is a self-contained “mini-program.” The first line of the function body
contains the same information as the function prototype: the name of the function, any variables
required by the function, and any variable returned by the function. The last line of the function
contains a “return” statement. Here a variable may be sent back to the portion of the program
that called the function. The processing action of the function is contained within the open ({)
and close brackets (}). If the function requires any variables within the confines of the function,
they are declared next. These variables are referred to as local variables. A local variable is known
only within the confines of a specific function. The actions required by the function follow.
The function prototype follows this format:
return_variable function_name(required_variable1, required_variable2)
{
//local variables required by the function
unsigned int variable1;
unsigned char variable2;

//program statements required by the function

//return variable
return return_variable;
}

2.9.4 PORT CONFIGURATION

The MSP430 FR2433 is equipped with a single 16-bit digital I/O port designated PA. This port
may also be subdivided into two 8-bit ports designated P1 and P2. The FR2433 also has a 3-bit
port designated PB. The FR5994 is equipped with a four 16-bit digital I/O ports designated PA
through PD. These port may also be subdivided into two 8-bit ports. For example, port PA may
be designated P1 and P2. The FR5994 also has an 8-bit port designated PJ.
Configuration and access to digital I/O pins are provided by a complement of registers.
These registers include the following.
• Input Registers (PxIN): Allows input logic value of pin to be read (1: High, 0: Low).
• Output Registers (PxOUT): Value of output register is provided to corresponding output
pin (1: High, 0: Low).
• Direction Registers (PxDIR): Bit in PxDIR selects corresponding digital I/O pin as out-
put (1) or input(0).
60 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
• Pull-up or Pull-down Resistor Enable Registers (PxREN): Each bit determines if an
internal pulled up (or pulled down) resistor is enabled at the corresponding pin. The value
of the corresponding PxOUT register determines if pulled up (1) or pulled down (0) is
selected. In summary, use the following PxDIR, PxREN, and PxOUT settings:

– 00x: input
– 010: input with pull-down resistor
– 011: input with pull-up resistor
– 1xx: output

• Output Drive Strength Selection Registers (PxDS): The value of the register determines
the drive strength for specific pins (1: high drive strength, 0: regular drive strength).

• Function Select Registers (PxSEL0, PxSEL1): Allows specific function of multi-

function pins to have access to I/O pin.
Throughout the book we use two approaches to configure MSP430 subsystems via their
complement of control registers. The registers may be configured directly using C programming
techniques (the “bare metal” approach) or via higher level application program interface (APIs).
The MSP430 has an extensive complement of APIs for all MSP430 subsystems within the
MSPWare library. Details on how to use the APIs are available through the Code Composer
Studio Resource Manager in the following documents:
• FR2433: MSP430 DriverLib for MSP430FR2xx 4xx Devices User’s Guide

• FR5994: MSP430 DriverLib for MSP430FR5xx 6xx Devices User’s Guide

In the following examples, we revisit the blink LED example using the “bare metal” ap-
proach. Techniques are similar for the MSP-EXP430FR5994. Note: In this first example we
provide the full Texas Instruments Incorporated copyright notification. In examples that follow
throughout the book an abbreviated version will be provided.
//*********************************************************************
// --COPYRIGHT--,BSD_EX
// Copyright (c) 2014, Texas Instruments Incorporated,
// All rights reserved.
//
// Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
// modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
// are met:
// * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
// notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
 2.9. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 61
// * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
// notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
// documentation and/or other materials provided with the
// distribution.
// * Neither the name of Texas Instruments Incorporated nor the names of
// its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived
// from this software without specific prior written permission.
//
// THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS
// "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT
// LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR
// A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT
// OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL,
// SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT
// LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE,
// DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY
// THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
// (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
// OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
//
//***********************************************************************
// MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
// MSP430 code examples are self-contained low-level programs that
// typically
// demonstrate a single peripheral function or device feature in a highly
// concise manner. For this the code may rely on the device's power-on
// default register values and settings such as the clock configuration
// and care must be taken when combining code from several examples to
// avoid potential side effects. Also see www.ti.com/grace for a GUI- and
// www.ti.com/msp430ware
// for an API functional library-approach to peripheral configuration.
//
// --/COPYRIGHT/--
//***********************************************************************
//MSP430FR243x Demo - Toggle P1.0 using software
//
//Description: Toggle P1.0 every 0.1s using software.
//By default, FR24xx select XT1 as FLL reference.
//If XT1 is present, the PxSEL(XIN & XOUT) needs to configure.
62 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
//If XT1 is absent, switch to select REFO as FLL reference automatically.
//XT1 is considered to be absent in this example.
//ACLK = default REFO ~32768Hz, MCLK = SMCLK = default DCODIV ~1MHz.
//
// MSP430FR2433
// ---------------
// /|\| |
// | | |
// --|RST |
// | P1.0|-->LED
//
//Cen Fang
//Texas Instruments Inc.
//Feb 2015
//Built with IAR Embedded Workbench v6.20 & Code Composer Studio v6.0.1
//***********************************************************************

#include <msp430.h>

int main(void)
{
WDTCTL = WDTPW | WDTHOLD; //Stop watchdog timer

P1OUT &= ~BIT0; //Clear P1.0 output latch for a

//defined power-on state
P1DIR |= BIT0; //Set P1.0 to output direction

PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5; //Disable the GPIO power-on

//default high-impedance mode
//to activate previously
//configured port settings
while(1)
{
P1OUT ^= BIT0; //Toggle P1.0 using exclusive-OR
__delay_cycles(100000); //Delay for 100000*(1/MCLK)=0.1s
}
}

//***********************************************************************
 2.9. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 63
The code example begins with the inclusion of the msp430.h header file. The Watchdog
timer that is normally on is then turned off. This is typically done during code development. The
next three statements are a shorthand method of accomplishing the following:
P1OUT = P1OUT & ~BIT0; //Clear P1.0 output latch for a
//defined power-on state
P1DIR = P1DIR | BIT0; //Set P1.0 to output direction

PM5CTL0 = PM5CTL0 & ~LOCKLPM5; //Disable the GPIO power-on

//default high-impedance mode
//to activate previously
//configured port settings

BIT0 is defined in the MSP430.h header files as 0x0001. The P1OUT register is used to set
PORT P1, pin 0 initially to logic 0. The P1DIR register is used to configure PORT P1, pin 0 to
output. The Power Mode 5 Control Register 0 is then used to disable the general-purpose I/O
power-on default configuration. LOCKLPM5 is defined as 0x0001 in the MSP430.h header
file. The program then enters an infinite loop where PORT 1, pin 0 is toggled every 0.1 s.

2.9.5 PROGRAM CONSTANTS

The #define statement is used to associate a constant name with a numerical value in a pro-
gram. It can be used to define common constants such as pi. It may also be used to give terms
used within a program a numerical value. This makes the code easier to read. For example, the
following constants may be defined within a program:
//program constants
#define TRUE 1
#define FALSE 0
#define ON 1
#define OFF 0

2.9.6 INTERRUPT HANDLER DEFINITIONS

Interrupts are functions that are written by the programmer but usually called by a specific hard-
ware event during system operation. We discuss interrupts and how to properly configure them
in an upcoming chapter.

2.9.7 VARIABLES
There are two types of variables used within a program: global variables and local variables. A
global variable is available and accessible to all portions of the program, whereas a local variable
is only known and accessible within the function where it is declared.
64 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
When declaring a variable in C, the number of bits used to store the variable is also
specified. Variable specifications may vary by compiler. For code portability among different
platforms fixed formats may be used.

Type Size Range

unsigned char 1 0..255

signed char 1 -128..127

unsigned int 2 0..65535

signed int 2 -32768..32767

float 4 +/-1.175e-38.. +/-3.40e+38

double 4 -8 compiler dependent

Figure 2.17: C variable sizes.

Fixed format variables are defined within the “stdint.h” header file [stdint.h]. Provided
below is a small extract from this header file.

//*****************************************************************

typedef signed char int8_t;

typedef unsigned char uint8_t;
typedef int int16_t;
typedef unsigned int uint16_t;
typedef long int32_t;
typedef unsigned long uint32_t;
typedef long long int64_t;
typedef unsigned long long uint64_t;

//*****************************************************************

When programming microcontrollers, it is important to know the number of bits and the
memory location used to store the variable. For example, assigning the contents of an unsigned
char variable, which is stored in 8-bits, to an 8-bit output port will have a predictable result.
 2.9. ANATOMY OF A PROGRAM 65
However, assigning an unsigned int variable, which is stored in 16-bits, to an 8-bit output port
does not provide predictable results. It is wise to ensure your assignment statements are balanced
for accurate and predictable results. The modifier “unsigned” indicates all bits will be used to
specify the magnitude of the argument. Signed variables will use the left most bit to indicate the
polarity (˙) of the argument.
Variables may be read (scanned) into a program using the “scanf ” statement. The general
format of the scanf statement is provided below. The format of the variable and the variable
name are specified. Similarly, the variables may be printed using the “printf ” statement. The
backslash n specifies start a new line.

//*******************************************************************

#include<stdio.h>

int main( )
{
int input_variable;

scanf("

printf("

//*******************************************************************

A global variable is declared using the following format provided below. The type of the
variable is specified, followed by its name, and an initial value if desired.

//*******************************************************************

//global variables
unsigned int loop_iterations = 6;

//*******************************************************************

2.9.8 MAIN PROGRAM

The main program is the hub of activity for the entire program. The main program typically
consists of program steps and function calls to initialize the processor followed by program
steps to collect data from the environment external to the microcontroller, process the data and
66 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
make decisions, and provide external control signals back to the environment based on the data
collected.

2.10 FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

In the previous section, we covered many fundamental concepts. In this section we discuss oper-
ators, programming constructs, and decision processing constructs to complete our fundamental
overview of programming concepts.

2.10.1 OPERATORS
There are a wide variety of operators provided in the C language. An abbreviated list of common
operators is provided in Figures 2.18 and 2.19. The operators have been grouped by general cat-
egory. The symbol, precedence, and brief description of each operator are provided. The prece-
dence column indicates the priority of the operator in a program statement containing multiple
operators. Only the fundamental operators are provided.

General Operations
Within the general operations category are brackets, parenthesis, and the assignment operator.
We have seen in an earlier example how bracket pairs are used to indicate the beginning and
end of the main program or a function. They are also used to group statements in programming
constructs and decision processing constructs. This is discussed in the next several sections.
The parenthesis is used to boost the priority of an operator. For example, in the mathemat-
ical expression 7  3 C 10, the multiplication operation is performed before the addition since
it has a higher precedence. Parenthesis may be used to boost the precedence of the addition op-
eration. If we contain the addition operation within parenthesis 7  .3 C 10/, the addition will
be performed before the multiplication operation and yield a different result from the earlier
expression.
The assignment operator (D) is used to assign the argument(s) on the right-hand side of
an equation to the left-hand side variable. It is important to insure that the left- and the right-
-hand side of the equation have the same type of arguments. If not, unpredictable results may
occur.

Arithmetic Operations
The arithmetic operations provide for basic math operations using the various variables described
in the previous section. As described in the previous section, the assignment operator (D) is used
to assign the argument(s) on the right-hand side of an equation to the left-hand side variable.
In this example, a function returns the sum of two unsigned int variables passed to the
function.
 2.10. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 67

General
Symbol Precedence Description
{} 1 Brackets, used to group program statements
() 1 Parenthesis, used to establish precedence
= 12 Assignment

Arithmetic Operations
Symbol Precedence Description
* 3 Multiplication
/ 3 Division
+ 4 Addition
- 4 Subtraction

Logical Operations
Symbol Precedence Description
< 6 Less than
<= 6 Less than or equal to
> 6 Greater
>= 6 Greater than or equal to
== 7 Equal to
!= 7 Not equal to
&& 9 Logical AND
|| 10 Logical OR

Figure 2.18: C operators (adapted from Barrett and Pack [2005]).

68 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING

Bit Manipulation Operations

Symbol Precedence Description
<< 5 Shift left
>> 5 Shift right
& 8 Bitwise AND
^ 8 Bitwise exclusive OR
| 8 Bitwise OR

Unary Operations
Symbol Precedence Description
! 2 Unary negative
~ 2 One’s complement (bit-by-bit inversion)
++ 2 Increment
__ 2 Decrement
Type(argument) 2 Casting operator (data type conversion)

Figure 2.19: C operators (continued) (adapted from Barrett and Pack [2005]).

//*******************************************************************

unsigned int sum_two(unsigned int variable1, unsigned int variable2)

{
unsigned int sum;

sum = variable1 + variable2;

return sum;
}

//*******************************************************************

Logical Operations
The logical operators provide Boolean logic operations. They can be viewed as comparison oper-
ators. One argument is compared against another using the logical operator provided. The result
is returned as a logic value of one (1, true, high) or zero (0 false, low). The logical operators are
 2.10. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 69
used extensively in program constructs and decision processing operations to be discussed in the
next several sections.

Bit Manipulation Operations

There are two general types of operations in the bit manipulation category: shifting operations
and bitwise operations. Let’s examine several examples.
Given the following code segment, what will the value of variable2 be after execution?
//*******************************************************************

unsigned char variable1 = 0x73;

unsigned char variable2;

variable2 = variable1 << 2;

//*******************************************************************
Answer: Variable “variable1” is declared as an 8-bit unsigned char and assigned the hex-
adecimal value of .73/16 . In binary, this is .0111_0011/2 . The << 2 operator provides a left
shift of the argument by two places. After two left shifts of .73/16 , the result is .cc/16 and will
be assigned to the variable “variable2.” Note that the left and right shift operation is equivalent
to multiplying and dividing the variable by a power of two.
The bitwise operators perform the desired operation on a bit-by-bit basis. That is, the
least significant bit (LSB) of the first argument is bit-wise operated with the LSB of the second
argument and so on.
Given the following code segment, what will the value of variable3 be after execution?
//*******************************************************************

unsigned char variable1 = 0x73;

unsigned char variable2 = 0xfa;
unsigned char variable3;

variable3 = variable1 & variable2;

//*******************************************************************
Answer: Variable “variable1” is declared as an eight bit unsigned char and assigned the
hexadecimal value of .73/16 . In binary, this is .0111_0011/2 . Variable “variable2” is declared
as an 8-bit unsigned char and assigned the hexadecimal value of .f a/16 . In binary, this is
.1111_1010/2 . The bitwise AND operator is specified. After execution variable “variable3,” de-
clared as an 8-bit unsigned char, contains the hexadecimal value of .72/16 .
70 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Unary Operations
The unary operators, as their name implies, require only a single argument. For example, in the
following code segment, the value of the variable “i” is incremented. This is a shorthand method
of executing the operation “i D i C 1;”

//*******************************************************************
unsigned int i;

i++;

//*******************************************************************

Bit Twiddling
It is not uncommon in embedded system design projects to have every pin on a microcontroller
employed. Furthermore, it is not uncommon to have multiple inputs and outputs assigned to
the same port but on different port I/O pins. Some compilers support specific pin reference.
Another technique that is not compiler specific is bit twiddling. Figure 2.20 provides bit twid-
dling examples on how individual bits may be manipulated without affecting other bits using
bitwise and unary operators. The information provided here was extracted from the ImageCraft
ICC AVR compiler documentation [ImageCraft].

Syntax Description Example

a |b bitwise or P2OUT|= 0x 80; // turn on bit 7 (msb)

a&b bitwise and if ((P2IN & 0x81) == 0) // check bit 7 and bit 0

a^b bitwise exclusive or P2OUT^= 0x80; // flip bit 7

~a bitwise complement P2OUT&= ~0x80; // turn off bit 7

Figure 2.20: Bit twiddling [ImageCraft].

2.10.2 PROGRAMMING CONSTRUCTS

In this section, we discuss several methods of looping through a piece of code. We will examine
the “for” and the “while” looping constructs.
 2.10. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 71
The for loop provides a mechanism for looping through the same portion of code a fixed
number of times. The for loop consists of three main parts:
• loop initiation,
• loop termination testing, and
• the loop increment.
In the following code fragment the for loop is executed ten times.
//*******************************************************************

unsigned int loop_ctr;

for(loop_ctr = 0; loop_ctr < 10; loop_ctr++)

{
//loop body

//*******************************************************************
The for loop begins with the variable “loop_ctr” equal to 0. During the first pass through
the loop, the variable retains this value. During the next pass through the loop, the variable
“loop_ctr” is incremented by one. This action continues until the “loop_ctr” variable reaches
the value of ten. Since the argument to continue the loop is no longer true, program execution
continues with the next instruction after the close bracket of the for loop.
In the previous example, the for loop counter was incremented by one. The “loop_ctr” vari-
able can be updated by any amount. For example, in the following code fragment the “loop_ctr”
variable is increased by three for every pass of the loop.
//*******************************************************************

unsigned int loop_ctr;

for(loop_ctr = 0; loop_ctr < 10; loop_ctr=loop_ctr+3)

{
//loop body

//*******************************************************************
72 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
The “loop_ctr” variable may also be initialized at a high value and then decremented at
the beginning of each pass of the loop as shown below.
//*******************************************************************

unsigned int loop_ctr;

for(loop_ctr = 10; loop_ctr > 0; loop_ctr--)

{
//loop body

//*******************************************************************

As before, the “loop_ctr” variable may be decreased by any numerical value as appropriate
for the application at hand.
The while loop is another programming construct that allows multiple passes through a
portion of code. The while loop will continue to execute the statements within the open and
close brackets while the condition at the beginning of the loop remains logically true. The code
snapshot below will implement a ten iteration loop. Note how the “loop_ctr” variable is initial-
ized outside of the loop and incremented within the body of the loop. As before, the variable
may be initialized to a greater value and then decremented within the loop body.
//*******************************************************************

unsigned int loop_ctr;

loop_ctr = 0;
while(loop_ctr < 10)
{
//loop body
loop_ctr++;
}

//*******************************************************************

Frequently, within a microcontroller application, the program begins with system initial-
ization actions. Once initialization activities are completed, the processor enters a continuous
loop. This may be accomplished using the following code fragment.
 2.10. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 73
//*******************************************************************

while(1)
{

//*******************************************************************

2.10.3 DECISION PROCESSING

There are a variety of constructs that allow decision making. These include the following:
• the if statement,
• the if-else construct,
• the if-else if-else construct, and
• the switch statement.
The if statement will execute the code between an open and close bracket set, should the
condition within the if statement be logically true. The if-else statement will execute the code
between an open and close bracket set, should the condition within the if statement be logically
true. If the statement is not true, the code after the else is executed.
Example: In this example switch S1 is connected to P1.3 (S1 on the MSP-EXP430FR2433
LaunchPad). If the switch is at logic one (switch not pressed), the red LED at pin P1.0 is
illuminated. If the switch is pressed taking P1.3 to logic low, the LED goes out. In the example,
pay close attention to how P1.0 is configured for output and P1.3 is configured for input with
the corresponding pull-up resistor activated using bit-twiddling techniques.
//***********************************************************************
//Copyright (c) 2014, Texas Instruments Incorporated,
//All rights reserved.
//Reference full copyright statement at first coding example and
// MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
//***********************************************************************
//***********************************************************************
//MSP430FR243x Demo - Software Poll P1.3, Set P1.0 if P1.3 = 1
//
//Description:
//Poll P1.3 in a loop. Set P1.0 if P1.3 = 1, or reset P1.0. By default,
74 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
//FR243x select XT1 as FLL reference. If XT1 is present, the XIN and XOUT
//pin needs to be configured. If XT1 is absent, REFO is automatically
//switched for FLL reference. XT1 is considered to be absent.
//ACLK = default REFO ~32768Hz, MCLK = SMCLK = default DCODIV ~1MHz.
//
// MSP430FR2433
// ---------------
// /|\| |
// | | |
// --|RST |
// /|\ | |
// --o--|P1.3 P1.0|-->LED
// \|/ | |
// | |
//
//Cen Fang
//Texas Instruments Inc.
//June 2013
//Built with IAR Embedded Workbench v6.20 & Code Composer Studio v6.0.1
//***********************************************************************

#include <msp430.h>

void main(void)
{
WDTCTL = WDTPW | WDTHOLD; //Stop watchdog timer

P1OUT &= ~BIT0; //Clear P1.0 output latch for a

//defined power-on state
P1DIR |= BIT0; //Set P1.0 to output direction
P1DIR &= ~BIT3; //Set P1.3 as input

PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5; //Disable the GPIO power-on

//default high-impedance mode
//to activate previously
//configured port settings

while(1) //Test P1.3

{
 2.10. FUNDAMENTAL PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS 75
if(P1IN & BIT3)
P1OUT |= BIT0; //if P1.3 set, set P1.0
else
P1OUT &= ~BIT0; //else reset
}
}

//***********************************************************************
The switch statement is used when multiple if-else conditions exist. Each possible condi-
tion is specified by a case statement. When a match is found between the switch variable and a
specific case entry, the statements associated with the case are executed until a break statement
is encountered. When a case match is not found, the default case is executed. Provided below is
a template for the switch statement.
//***********************************************************************

switch (switch_variable)
{
case 1: code steps associated with case 1;
:
:
break;

case 2: code steps associated with case 2;

:
:
break;

:
:
:

case n: code steps associated with case n;

:
:
break;

default:code steps associated with default;

76 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
}

//***********************************************************************

An example using the switch statement is provided later in the text. That completes our
brief overview of Energia and the C programming language.

2.11 LABORATORY EXERCISE: GETTING ACQUAINTED

WITH ENERGIA AND C
Introduction. In this laboratory exercise, you will become familiar with Energia and the C
programming language through a variety of programming exercises.
If you have not done so already, download Code Composer Studio and also
execute the blink program provided in Code Composer Studio v7.x for MSP430 User’s
Guide [SLAU157AP, 2017]. Provided here are steps to compile and execute a program using
CCS from [SLAU157AP, 2017].
• Launch Code Composer Studio by clicking Start->All Programs-> Texas Instruments-
>Code Composer Studio->Code Composer Studio or by double clicking the CCS icon.

• Create a new project by clicking File->New->CCS Project and entering a project name.
• Set the Device Family to MSP430 and select the device variant to use (for example,
MSP430FR2433).
• Select “Blink The LED” in the “Project templates and example” section and then click
Finish.
• Compile the code and download the application to the target device by clicking Run-
>Debug (F11).

• To run the application, click Run->Resume (F8) or click the Play button on the toolbar.
Procedure 1: Energia.
1. Create a counter that counts continuously from 1–100 and repeats with a 50 ms delay
between counts. The onboard red LED should illuminate for odd numbers and the onboard
green LED for even numbers.
2. Modify the code produced for the previous step to illuminate the green LED when the
number is evenly divisible by three and the red LED for the other numbers.
 2.12. SUMMARY 77
Procedure 2: C.
1. Develop a program that prompts the user for two integer numbers. If the first number is
less than the second, the program should count-up continuously from the lower to the
higher number with a 50 ms delay between counts. The onboard red LED should illumi-
nate for odd numbers and the onboard green LED for even numbers. If the first number
is higher than the second, the program should count down continuously from the lower
to the higher number with a 50 ms delay between counts. The onboard red LED should
illuminate for odd numbers and the onboard green LED for even numbers.

2. Develop a program that prompts the user for an integer number. If the number is evenly
divisible by 2 the red LED illuminates, evenly divisible by three the green LED, and for
other numbers no LEDs illuminate. Note: More than one LED may illuminate depending
on the number provided.

2.12 SUMMARY
The goal of this chapter was to provide a tutorial on how to begin programming. We began with
a discussion on the Energia Development Environment and how it may be used to develop a
program for the MSP430 LaunchPads. For C, we used a top-down design approach. We began
with the “big picture” of the program of interest followed by an overview of the major pieces
of the program. We then discussed the basics of the C programming language. Only the most
fundamental concepts were covered. Throughout the chapter, we provided examples and several
excellent references.

2.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Adafruit. www.adafruit.com

Arduino homepage. www.arduino.cc

Barrett, S. F. Embedded Systems Design with the Atmel AVR Microcontroller, Morgan & Claypool
Publishers, San Rafael, CA, 2010. DOI: 10.2200/s00225ed1v01y200910dcs025.

Barrett, S. F. and Pack, D. J. Atmel AVR Microcontroller Primer Programming

and Interfacing, Morgan & Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, CA, 2008. DOI:
10.2200/s00100ed1v01y200712dcs015.

Barrett, S. F. and Pack, D. J. Embedded Systems Design and Applications with the 68HC12 and
HCS12, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2005. 67, 68

Barrett, S. F. and Pack, D. J. Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists, Morgan
& Claypool Publishers, San Rafael, CA, 2006. DOI: 10.2200/s00025ed1v01y200605dcs001.
78 2. A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING
Code Composer Studio v7.x for MSP430 User’s Guide, (SLAU157AP), Texas Instruments, 2017.
76
Energia. www.energia.nu
ImageCraft Embedded Systems C Development Tools, Palo Alto, CA. www.imagecraft.com
70

2.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Fundamental
1. Describe the steps in writing a sketch and executing it on an MSP430 LaunchPads pro-
cessing board.
2. Describe the basic components of any C program.
3. Describe two different methods to program an MSP430 LaunchPad.
4. What is an include file?
5. What are the three pieces of code required for a function?
6. Describe how a program constant is defined in C.
7. What is the difference between a for loop and a while loop?
8. When should a switch statement be used vs. the if-then statement construct?
9. What is the serial monitor feature used for in the Energia Development Environment?
10. Describe what variables are required and returned and the basic function of the following
built-in Energia functions: Blink, Analog Input.

Advanced
1. Provide the C program statement to set PORT 1 pins 1 and 7 to logic one. Use bit-
twiddling techniques.
2. Provide the C program statement to reset PORT 1 pins 1 and 7 to logic zero. Use bit-
twiddling techniques.
3. Using a MSP430 LaunchPad, write a program in Energia that takes an integer input from
the user. If negative, the red LED is illuminated. If positive, the green LED is illuminated.
4. Repeat the program above using C.
 2.14. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 79
Challenging
1. Create a counter that counts continuously from 1–100 an repeats with a 50 ms delay be-
tween counts. The onboard red LED should illuminate for odd numbers and the onboard
green LED for even numbers.
2. Develop a program that prompts the user for two integer numbers. If the first number is
less than the second, the program should count-up continuously from the lower to the
higher number with a 50 ms delay between counts. The onboard red LED should illumi-
nate for odd numbers and the onboard green LED for even numbers. If the first number
is greater than the second, the program should count down continuously from the lower
to the higher number with a 50 ms delay between counts. The onboard red LED should
illuminate for odd numbers and the onboard green LED for even numbers.
 81

CHAPTER 3

Hardware Organization and

Software Programming
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to:

• explain the organization of MSP430 hardware functional units;

• use controller software development tools;

• describe available MSP430 operating modes of the MSP430;

• identify and use appropriate assembly instructions;

• explain advantages and disadvantages of using a high-level programming language and the
MSP430 assembly programming language;

• program the MSP430 controller for simple applications using both C and assembly lan-
guage programs; and

• debug programs using joint test action group ( JTAG) tools.

In this chapter, we present fundamental materials to understand the software and hard-
ware systems of the MSP430 microcontroller. Mastering the contents of this chapter is critical in
proceeding with the contents in the rest of this book, as they will serve as foundational MSP430
knowledge. Before getting into the specific hardware and software environments of the MSP430
microcontroller, the overall hardware and software organizations of a typical RISC (Reduced
Instruction Set Computer) based microcontroller is presented, followed by the MSP430 specific
hardware and software environments. The objectives of this chapter are to provide readers with
a solid understanding of basic hardware and software concepts required to design, develop, and
evaluate embedded systems using the MSP430 microcontroller.

3.1 MOTIVATION
The MSP430 microcontroller was designed for applications requiring ULP consumption, typi-
cally found in portable, battery-operated embedded systems applications. The MSP430 is cur-
rently used in a wide range of products, including medical diagnostic equipment, smart power
82 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
systems, security and fire monitoring sensors, alarm systems, power tools, and a host of con-
sumer products. It is expected that the MSP430 will continue to grow its market share in smart
homes and personal health monitoring applications.

3.2 MSP430 HARDWARE

ORGANIZATION/ARCHITECTURE
In a RISC based machine, designers attempt to optimize the performance of a computer by
simplifying hardware and providing a limited number of basic building block instructions. By
reducing the time to execute each RISC instruction, even if you may require more instructions to
execute a specific function, the goal of an RISC-based controller attempts to reduce the overall
execution time of a software program. MSP430 is a good example of an RISC-based machine.
In this section, we present the hardware components and their organization within the
MSP430 microcontroller. Once the MSP430 microcontroller hardware is presented, we delve
into additional details of the MSP430FR2433 and MSP430FR5994 controllers.

3.2.1 CHIP ORGANIZATION

Figure 3.1 shows the block diagrams of the MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 micro-
controllers. In Chapter 1 we provided a brief overview of each of the subsystems aboard these
processors. We briefly recap some of the features here.
Beginning in the upper-left corner of the MSP430FR2433 figure, the power management
module is used by the controller to manage power when operating in one of the power saving
modes. The CS governs all operations of the controller. The CS may be connected to an external
crystal. For the MSP430FR2433 microcontroller, the clock speed can be programmed to be
up to 16 MHz and as low as 10 KHz. The speed of the clock is important since at each clock
cycle (periodic clock signal completing a cycle to go high and low) the MSP430 is executing
an instruction. In general, the faster the microcontroller clock speed, the more tasks that can be
accomplished in a given amount of time. Why not use the fastest available clock, then? The faster
the clock speed, the more power a microcontroller consumes, causing a designer to balance the
speed of the machine with the power consumption. This is especially critical in portable, battery-
operated applications, for which MSP430 controllers are designed.
Next is the 10-bit ADC converter block. It is an input port system that takes in analog
signals and converts captured signal values into their equivalent 10-bit digital representations.
Continuing from left to right, we find two different types of memory blocks (FRAM and
RAM). Typically, the FRAM memory is used to store non-volatile data and programs while
RAM is used for temporary data and a storage space during program execution.
The MPY32 module is a hardware-based multiplier subsystem added to the MSP430
microcontrollers to optimize execution time of multiplication operations used frequently in
microcontroller-based operations. It typically requires multiple clock cycles to execute the
 3.2. MSP430 HARDWARE ORGANIZATION/ARCHITECTURE 83

(a) MSP430FR2443 block diagram [slase59b].

(b) MSP430FR5994 block diagram [slase54b].

Figure 3.1: MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 block diagrams [SLASE59D, 2018,
SLASE54C, 2018]. Illustrations used with permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).
84 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
most basic multiplication operations, requiring excessive execution time. The MSP430 provides
the MPY32 hardware-based multiplier to reduce the multiplication operation time. Typically,
hardware-based solutions are much faster than their software-based counterparts.
Moving to the right in the figure, the two remaining modules on the first row, show
general-purpose I/O port subsystems of the controller. The ports provide the controller access
and interface to a wide variety of peripheral components.
On the second row, the purpose of embedded emulator module (EEM) is to assist system
developers in providing access to program execution during a debugging process. This is espe-
cially helpful during program development and troubleshooting. The built-in emulator allows
us to view memory contents and insert break points. The JTAG module is used to interface the
controller with a desktop or laptop computer for loading programs and debugging programs
using the EEM during program execution. Finally, the CPU in the center of the figure contains
the arithmetic and logical unit (ALU), the CPU registers, and a Control subunit responsible for
performing program branching and data transfer.
The system Watchdog module (WDT) is responsible for keeping the microcontroller
operating properly and taking appropriate actions when abnormal activities are detected. The
WDT is a timer that, if expired, results in a processor reset. It is used to reset the processor
when a software malfunction has occurred. During normal program processing the WDT is
reset by specific program steps. Should a software malfunction occur and the WDT timer is not
reset, the WDT will timeout and result in a processor reset. In response to the processor reset,
the software malfunction may clear.
The CRC16 subsystem is responsible for the cyclical redundancy check (using 16 bits).
Cyclical redundancy checks are used to validate error-free communications among digital sys-
tems. Each time a transmitter sends a set of data to a receiver, it sends an additional value derived
from the original data called a “key.” The receiver, having received the data being sent, uses the
original data to perform the same computation to generate the key value. By comparing the
generated value with the one received, the receiver can quickly verify whether or not the original
data it received are valid.
The timer blocks represent timer-related I/O port systems. The timers are I/O systems
where external signals can be captured to measure time-related parameters such as signal fre-
quency, period, and duty cycle, and output signals intended for an external world with specific
time-related parameters are generated. In other microcontroller manufacturers, these ports are
referred to as input capture and output compare timer ports. The timer port module may also
contain channels to generate a variety of PWM output signals. A PWM signal may be used to
control the speed of a motor, the light intensity of an LED, or control various peripheral devices.
The next several modules contain the serial communication subsystem that allows the
MSP430 microcontroller to interface with external devices using the serial peripheral inter-
face (SPI), universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter (UART), and the inter-integrated circuit
(I2C) protocols.
 3.3. HARDWARE SUBSYSTEMS 85
As shown in Figure 3.1b, the MSP430FR5994 has similar features and layout to the
MSP430FR2433. In addition, the MSP430FR5994 hosts the additional subsystems.

• The DMA controller shown on the left edge of the figure is responsible for accessing
memory by all subsystems of the controller. DMA provides the capability to move data
from memory location to memory location without involving the central processing unit.
This is especially useful for low power operation when moving data from peripherals to
specific memory locations [SLAU367O, 2017].

• The reference module (REF) is responsible for generating voltages required by all periph-
eral subsystems of the MSP430, including the analog-to-digital converter.

• Advanced encryption standard (AES) accelerator. The accelerator speeds up the encryp-
tion and decryption of data by one to two orders of magnitude over a software-based
implementation. It can be used for 128- or 256-bit encryption.

3.2.2 HARDWARE PIN ASSIGNMENTS

In this section, we consider the pin assignments of the MSP430FR2433 and MSP430FR5994
controllers shown in Figure 3.2. All pins can be divided into I/O pins and pins used to power
the controller. For the inputs and outputs pins, we can further categorize them into general-
purpose I/O pins, clock signal pins, input pins for the analog-to-digital converter, serial and
parallel communication signal pins, and reset and interrupt pins. These pins are also multiplexed,
meaning that many of them are used for more than one purpose. The particular use of a pin is
software programmed. As a project designers, we typically use a development board with its own
I/O pins mapped to the ones for the controller. The pinouts for the EVMs were provided earlier
in the book.

3.3 HARDWARE SUBSYSTEMS

In this section we present an overview of selected hardware subsystems of the controllers: register
block, port system, timer system, memory system, resets and interrupts, and communication
systems, analog-to-digital converter, and hardware multiplier.

3.3.1 REGISTER BLOCK

The MSP430FR2433 controller has a memory address range from 0000h to FFFFh. These
memory locations are partitioned for a variety of uses, including the register block. For the
register block, memory locations from 0100h to 074Fh are used. As the name implies, the
register block contains registers used to program functional units of the microcontroller. For
example, the analog-to-digital converter control registers reside from locations 0700h to 074Fh,
whereas, the timer control registers occupy memory locations 0380h to 047FH. Understanding
86 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

(a) MSP430FR2443 pinout

(b) MSP430FR5994 pinout

Figure 3.2: MSP430FR2433 and MSP430FR5994 pin assignments [SLASE59D, 2018,

SLASE54C, 2018]. Illustrations used with permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).
 3.3. HARDWARE SUBSYSTEMS 87
that the functional unit control registers are part of the allocated memory map is important. The
locations should not be used for actual data or instruction storage.

3.3.2 PORT SYSTEM

One primary feature of a microcontroller compared to a general-purpose computer processor
is its ability to interface with external devices. The MSP430 microcontroller has a number of
flexible I/O capabilities through its I/O ports. The MSP430FR2433 has Port 1, Port 2, and
a small Port 3 that can be configured to be used as general-purpose input and output pins.
For the MSP430FR5994, there are nine different I/O ports: Port 1 through Port 8 and Port J.
These ports can be programmed as general I/O ports or shared with other subsystems. The
MSP430FR5994 is equipped with the TI incorporated capacitive touch capabilities for the
ports.

3.3.3 TIMER SYSTEM

The MSP430 controller has a number of clock sources it can use to manage its computational
speed and power consumption. The timer system is based on a clock that is used by the CPU
of the microcontroller to fetch instructions and data from memory or I/O ports, encode and
execute instructions, and store results to memory or send them to external devices. The timer
system can use its built-in function such as the pulse width modulated signals for controlling
devices, the Watchdog timer to monitor proper execution of instructions, the real-time counter
to measure timer-related parameters of an incoming signals. The important capabilities of the
timer system are its ability to capture signal characteristics and generate desired signal with
time-related parameters such as the frequency of a periodic signal. These subsystems of the
timer system are called input capture and output compare systems.

3.3.4 MEMORY SYSTEM

The memory system for the MSP430 controller is made of two parts: actual memory locations
and the memory control system. The memory locations are governed by the number of address
lines used to identify each memory location. Sixteen address lines (can be expanded using addi-
tional address lines) are used to access 64 K locations which are made of a register block, ROM,
RAM, and FRAM for the MSP430FR2433 controller. For the MSP430FR5994, 18 address
lines are used to access 256 K locations of the register block, ROM, RAM, and FRAM loca-
tions. The memory map for the MSP430FR2433 microcontroller is shown in Figure 3.3 and
the one for the MSP430FR5994 microcontroller in Figure 3.4. Memory maps are necessary to
inform a programmer to use proper memory locations and types to store data and instructions
for his or her application.
The memory control system is made of three memory controllers, the FRAM memory
controller, the RAM controller, and the DMA controller. The FRAM memory controller is
used to program the fast-write nonvolatile memory locations, access capability, wait state, power
88 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

Memory Contents Start Address Stop Address Span

(FFFF)16
Interrupt Vectors (80)16
(FRAM) (FF80)16 (FFFF)16 (128)10 ~ 128 bytes
(FF80)16
Code Memory (3C00)16
(FRAM) (C400)16 (FFFF)16 (15360)10 ~ 15K bytes
(C400)16

(3000)16
Random Access (01000)16
Memory (RAM) (2000)16 (2FFF)16 (4096)10 ~ 4K bytes
(2000)16
Information Memory (00200)16
(FRAM) (1800)16 (19FF)16 (512)10 bytes
(1800)16
Bootstrap Loader (0800)16
(1000)16 (17FF)16
Segment 1 (2048)10 ~ 2K bytes
(1000)16
(1000)16
Peripherals (0000)16 (0FFF)16 (4096)10 ~ 4K bytes
(0000)16

Figure 3.3: The MSP430FR2433 memory map [SLAU445G, 2016].

saving, and error correction coding. The RAM controller is used to power down in a power
saving mode, and the DMA controller is used to transfer contents of memory locations to other
memory locations without the intervention of a controller.

3.3.5 RESETS AND INTERRUPTS

Resets and interrupts are used to “interrupt” the regular flow of a program sequence to attend
to a set of special instructions for designated purposes. For example, regardless of the current
instruction being executed, a reset will bring the status of the controller to a power on state.
MSP430 controllers have a variety of resets and interrupts. There are internal and external in-
terrupts and resets. MSP controllers also have timer system interrupts, I/O-related interrupts,
and analog-to-digital controller interrupts. The use of interrupts is presented throughout the
book.
 3.3. HARDWARE SUBSYSTEMS 89

Memory Contents Start Address Stop Address Span

(FFFF)16
Interrupt Vectors (80)16
(FRAM) (0FF80)16 (0FFFF)16 (128)10 ~ 128 bytes
(FF80)16
Code Memory (40000)16
(FRAM) (04000)16 (043FFF)16 (262,144)10 ~ 256K bytes
(03C00)16
Random Access (2000)16
(01C00)16 (03BFF)16
Memory (RAM) (8192)10 ~ 8K bytes
(01C00)16
Device Descriptor (00100)16
(TLV) (FRAM) (01A00)16 (01AFF)16 (256)10 bytes
(01A00)16
Information Memory (00200)16
A-D (FRAM) (01800)16 (019FF)16 (512)10 bytes
(01800)16
Bootstrap Loader (800)16
(01000)16 (017FF)16
Segment 0-3 (2048)10 ~ 2K bytes
(01000)16
(~1000)16
Peripherals (00020)16 (00FFF)16 (4096)10 ~ 4K bytes
(00000)16

Figure 3.4: The MSP430FR5994 memory map [SLAU367O, 2017].

3.3.6 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

MSP430 controllers support different communication modes: serial communication interface
(SCI), synchronous peripheral interface (SPI), and inter-integrated circuit (I2 C) communica-
tion. The first one is the universal asynchronous receiver and transmitter (UART) mode. It uses
either seven or eight data bits, programmable baud rates, and interrupt capabilities. The con-
troller supports both synchronous and asynchronous communication patterns, and the automatic
error detection. In the SPI mode, multiple devices can be connected to transmit and receive data
using a same clock signal with a master unit providing the clock source. In the I2 C mode, mul-
tiple devices are connected together with multiple master units working on the same network.
The communication units of the controller is discussed in Chapter 6.11.

3.3.7 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER

For microcontrollers to work with analog signals, we must first convert the analog signal
into a digital one. The 10-bit analog-to-digital converter of the MSP430FR2433 (12-bit
90 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
MSP430FR5994) controller performs that task by implementing sampling, quantization, and
encoding processes. The sampling process is taking time-based samples of an analog signal, the
quantization process is mapping a sampled analog value to one of the available encoded level
(1024 levels generated by the 10 bits), and the encoding step is representing the quantized level
as a digital number.
Once a signal has been converted into a digital form, it can now be used in any application
that requires digital representation of an analog signal. The controller has multiple analog-to-
digital converters that can be programmed with interrupt capabilities. The converter is presented
in Chapter 6.11.

3.3.8 HARDWARE MULTIPLIER (MPY32)

The multiplication operation typically requires multiple clock cycles. A hardware-based mul-
tiplier significantly speeds up the multiplication operation. The MSP430 is equipped with the
MPY32 Hardware Multiplier. This system provides the flexibility to multiply any signed or un-
signed 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit numbers. There is also the option to multiply a 24-bit number
with an 8-bit number as well as performing a multiplication and accumulation (add to the pre-
vious operation result). This combination of operations is common in digital signal processing
(DSP) operations. Signed numbers are used when both negative and positive numbers need
to be represented. These numbers use the 2’s complement representation. Unsigned numbers
assume all numbers, including results of operations, are positive numbers.
The multiplication operation is performed automatically, without explicit multiplication
instructions, when both operand registers are loaded with numbers. It takes some practice to
perform the multiplication operations since a number of specific registers that correspond to
the right type of multiplication desired to be performed must be used for different types of
multiplications. The registers for the operands are listed in Table 3.2 along with their base offset
addresses. Pay special attention to the register column containing information on which type of
operand registers are created.

3.4 CPU PROGRAMMING MODEL/REGISTER

DESCRIPTIONS
The MSP430 CPU block diagram is provided in Figure 3.5. The MSP430 CPU consists of a
series or registers designated R0 through R15. The registers are served by two buses: the memory
data bus (MDB) and the memory address bus (MAB). Register contents are provided to the
ALU. The MCLK serves as the clock source for the ALU. ALU operations are specified by the
program under execution. In response to ALU operations different flags (Zero, Carry, Overflow,
and Negative) are set and reset during program execution.
The programming model of a computer provides a simplified model of the CPU and the
operational status of the computer at a given time. A programming model is typically comprised
 3.4. CPU PROGRAMMING MODEL/REGISTER DESCRIPTIONS 91

Table 3.1: Arithmetic operations

Register Type Access Address Offset

16-bit operand one (MPY) R/W Word 00h
16-bit operand one low byte (MPY_L) R/W Byte 00h
16-bit operand one high byte (MPY_H) R/W Byte 01h
8-bit operand one (MPY_B) R/W Byte 00h
16-bit operand one signed (MPYS) R/W Word 02h
16-bit operand one signed low byte (MPYS_L) R/W Byte 02h
16-bit operand one signed high byte (MPYS_H) R/W Byte 03h
8-bit operand one signed (MPYS_B) R/W Byte 02h
16-bit operand one accumulate (MAC) R/W Word 04h
16-bit operand one accumulate low byte (MAC_L) R/W Byte 04h
16-bit operand one accumulate high byte (MAC_H) R/W Byte 05h
8-bit operand one accumulate (MAC_B) R/W Byte 04h
16-bit operand one signed accumulate (MACS) R/W Word 06h
16-bit operand one signed accumulate low byte (MACS_L) R/W Byte 06h
16-bit operand one signed accumulate high byte (MACS_H) R/W Byte 07h
8-bit operand one signed accumulate (MACS_B) R/W Byte 06h
16-bit operand two (OP2) R/W Word 08h
16-bit operand two low byte (OP2_L) R/W Byte 08h
16-bit operand two high byte (OP2_H) R/W Byte 09h
8-bit operand two (OP2_B) R/W Byte 08h
16x16 result low word (RESLO) R/W Word 0Ah
16x16 result low word low byte (RESLO_L) R/W Byte 0Ah
16x16 result high word (RESHI_H) R/W Word 0Ch
16x16 sum extension (SUMEXT) R Word 0Eh
32-bit operand one low word (MPY32L) R/W Word 10h
92 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

Table 3.2: Arithmetic operations (Continues.)

Register Type Access Address Offset

32-bit operand one low word low byte (MPY32L_L) R/W Byte 10h
32-bit operand one low word high byte (MPY32L_H) R/W Byte 11h
32-bit operand one high word (MPY32H) R/W Word 12h
32-bit operand one high word low byte (MPY32H_L) R/W Byte 12h
32-bit operand one high word high byte (MPY32H_H) R/W Byte 13h
24-bit operand one high byte (MPY32H_B) R/W Byte 12h
32-bit operand one signed low word (MPYS32L) R/W Word 14h
32-bit operand one signed low word low byte (MPYS32L_L) R/W Byte 14h
32-bit operand one signed low word high byte (MPYS32L_H) R/W Byte 15h
32-bit operand one signed high word (MPYS32H) R/W Word 16h
32-bit operand one signed high word low byte (MPYS32H_L) R/W Byte 16h
32-bit operand one signed high word high byte (MPYS32H_H) R/W Byte 17h
24-bit operand one signed high byte (MPYS32H_B) R/W Byte 16h
32-bit operand one accumulate low word (MAC32L) R/W Word 18h
32-bit operand one accumulate low word low byte (MAC32L_L) R/W Byte 18h
32-bit operand one accumulate low word high byte (MAC32L_H) R/W Byte 19h
32-bit operand one accumulate high word (MAC32H) R/W Word 1Ah
32-bit operand one accumulate high word low byte (MAC32H_L) R/W Byte 1Ah
32-bit operand one accumulate high word high byte (MAC32H_H) R/W Byte 1Bh
24-bit operand one accumulate high byte (MAC32H_B) R/W Byte 1Ah
 3.4. CPU PROGRAMMING MODEL/REGISTER DESCRIPTIONS 93

Table 3.2: (Continued.) Arithmetic operations

Register Type Access Address Offset

32-bit operand one signed accumulate low word (MACS32L) R/W Word 1Ch
32-bit operand one signed accumulate low word low byte R/W Byte 1Ch
(MACS32L_L)
32-bit operand one signed accumulate low word high byte R/W Byte 1Dh
(MACS32L_H)
32-bit operand one signed accumulate high word R/W Word 1Eh
(MACS32H)
32-bit operand one signed accumulate high word low byte R/W Byte 1Eh
(MACS32H_L)
32-bit operand one signed accumulate high word high byte R/W Byte 1Fh
(MACS32H_H)
24-bit operand one signed accumulate high byte R/W Byte 1Eh
(MACS32H_B)
32-bit operand two low word (OP2L) R/W Word 20h
32-bit operand two low word low byte (OP2L_L) R/W Byte 20h
32-bit operand two low word high byte (OP2L_H) R/W Byte 21h
32-bit operand two high word (OP2H) R/W Word 22h
32-bit operand two high word low byte (OP2H_L) R/W Byte 22h
32-bit operand two high word high byte (OP2H_H) R/W Byte 23h
24-bit operand two high byte (OP2H_B) R/W Byte 22h
32x32 result 0 (RES0) R/W Word 24h
32x32 result 0 low byte (RES0_L) R/W Byte 24h
32x32 result 1 (RES1) R/W Word 26h
32x32 result 2 (RES2) R/W Word 28h
32x32 result 3 (RES3) R/W Word 2Ah
94 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

MDB - Memory Data Bus MAB - Memory Address Bus

19 16 15 0
R0/PC Program Counter 0

R1/SP Pointer Stack 0

R2/SR Status Register

R3/CG2 Constant Generator

R4 General Purpose

R5 General Purpose

R6 General Purpose

R7 General Purpose

R8 General Purpose

R9 General Purpose

R10 General Purpose

R11 General Purpose

R12 General Purpose

R13 General Purpose

R14 General Purpose

R15 General Purpose

20
16
Zero, Z dst src
Carry, C
16/20-bit ALU MCLK
Overflow, V
Negative, N

Figure 3.5: MSP430 CPU block diagram [SLAU208Q, 2018]. Illustration used with permission
of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).
 3.4. CPU PROGRAMMING MODEL/REGISTER DESCRIPTIONS 95
of CPU registers which collectively contain pertinent information about the operational status of
the computer. For example, a programming model contains a status register that shows whether
the most recently executed instruction resulted in a negative number, a positive number, or a
zero. It shows which instruction is on queue to be executed next via the program counter (PC)
and the next available location on the stack via the stack pointer (SP).
A stack is a designated portion of RAM memory which is used to store data temporarily
during program execution. It is a first-in-last-out data structure, similar to the spring-loaded
plate holder one finds in a buffet restaurant. The first plate placed in the plate holder is the last
one used by customers. To keep track of the size of a stack, the top of the stack (either the next
available memory location to be used by the stack or the last memory location used by the stack
depending on the computer architecture) is always identified by a special register called the SP.
A programming model also includes the PC, which contains the address of the instruction to
be executed next.
The programming model for MSP430 is shown in Figure 3.6. As shown, the MSP430
microcontroller has four special and 12 general-purpose CPU registers that make up its pro-
gramming model. Registers are 16 or 20 bits wide. The first special register, R0, is the PC
register. This register contains the address of the next instruction to be executed by CPU. Since
all instructions are aligned and start at even addresses, the LSB of R0 is hardwired to zero. The
value of PC is incremented by two each time an instruction is executed to update the address of
the instruction to be executed next.
The second special register, R1, is the SP register, which contains the address of the top
of the stack. Since data is “pushed” onto the stack and “pulled” off the stack using only one end
of the stack, the top of the stack must be monitored always. The top of the stack contains the
address of the most recently added word to the stack. Again, the MSP430 always puts (pushes)
and pulls data onto and from the stack one word (16 bits) at a time, which allows the designer
of the MSP430 to hardwire the LSB of SP to zero.
The R2 register contains the current status of the computer operation. Figure 3.7 shows
the contents of the Status Register R2. The MSP430 status is shown as a series of status bits.
Most of the flag definitions are quite straightforward. The definition of the V bit is a bit more
involved.
The V bit represents overflow from the execution of the previous instruction. An overflow
occurs when the result of a signed number operation is incorrect due to the available, limited
space of a register to correctly hold the result. When this bit is set, an overflow occurred, and
when it is cleared, no overflow occurred. There are several different situations that result in an
overflow condition (adapted from Hamann [2017], Miller [1995], Mano [2002], and CPU12
[1997]).
• In an unsigned addition operation, an overflow occurs when there is a carry out of the
MSB after an addition operation.
• In an unsigned subtraction operation, an overflow occurs if the MSB requires a borrow.
96 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

R0 15 0 Program Counter

R1 15 0 Stack Pointer

R2 15 0 Status Register

R3 15 0 Constant Generator

R4 15 0

R15 15 0

Instruction Register

Programming Model

Figure 3.6: Programming model of MSP430.

OSC CPU
Reserved V SCG1 SCG0 GIE N Z C
OFF OFF
15 ....... 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Status Register R2

Figure 3.7: The contents of status register R2 [SLAU056L, 2013].

 3.4. CPU PROGRAMMING MODEL/REGISTER DESCRIPTIONS 97
• In a signed addition operation, an overflow occurs if the addition of two positive numbers
results in a negative number or if the addition of two negative numbers results in a positive
number. Recall that, in the two’s complement system, a positive number is represented by
having the MSB of a variable set to logic 0, whereas a negative number has a logic 1 in the
MSB position.
• In a signed subtraction operation, an overflow occurs if the subtraction of a negative
number from a positive number yields a negative number or if the subtraction of a positive
number from a negative number yields a positive number.
The N bit is set when the result of the previous operation is a negative number in the 2’s
complement sense. It is cleared if this bit is zero. The Z bit is set when the previous instruction’s
result was zero. It is cleared if the result of the previous instruction was not zero. The C bit
represents a carry bit. This bit is set when a carry to or borrow from of the MSB occurs. It is
cleared if there is no carry or borrow was generated by the previously executed instruction.
The GIE bit (General Interrupt Enable) is used to enable or disable maskable interrupts.
Interrupts are requests made by hardware or software to the CPU to temporarily suspend the
current flow of instruction execution and handle a special request by performing a set of in-
structions specially written to take care of the request. Interrupt-related activities are of higher
priority than routine processing tasks.
The remaining status bits SCG1 (System Clock Generator 1), SGC0 (System Clock Gen-
erator 0), OSCOFF (Oscillator Off ), and CPUOFF (CPU Off ) are used to control the opera-
tional mode of the CPU, which is the topic of the next section. The numbers under each status
bit in Figure 3.7 provide their bit location within the 16-bit status register. The bits are numbered
from the LSB (0) on the right to the MSB (15) on the left.
The last special register, R3, is a constant generator, which generates numeric values zero,
one, two, four, and eight. The rationale for having this register is based on the frequent use of
the constant values. By having these values in the CPU register, the MSP430 microcontroller
can compute instructions that use such constants with minimal clock cycles. The rest of CPU
registers, R4–R15, are general purpose-registers.
Examples: In each of the examples below, predict the value of the status register bits (V, N, Z,
C) after each operation. Assume all arguments and results are contained within 16-bit registers.
1. 0007h C 0003h
Answer: The results is 000Ah, no status flags are set.
2. CAFEh C 0D00h
Answer: The result is D7FEh, the N flag will set.
3. 7B7Ah - 7B7Ah
Answer: The results is 0000h, the Z flag will set.
98 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
4. DECAh C CA70h
Answer: The result is A93A, the C, V, and N flags will set.

3.5 OPERATING MODES

The MSP430 microcontroller can run in an active mode and in a number of power-saving op-
erating modes. The basic premise behind the low-power operating modes is to turn off system
clocks that are not currently in use. Since a CMOS circuit consumes power when switching,
turning off clocks not in use conserves power. The operating mode of the controller is deter-
mined by the settings of four bits within the status register (R2): CPUOFF, OSCOFF, SCG0,
and SCG1. By configuring these four bits, a programmer can select the operating mode of the
controller based on the needs of a system application.
One of the advantages of designating the low-power operating mode using the bits in the
status register is that when an interrupt occurs, the operating mode configured in Status Register
R2 is automatically saved onto the stack, and the same operating mode is retrieved when the
interrupt is serviced and the program returns to routine execution. We discuss options to set or
clear low-power operational modes upon returning from servicing an interrupt in Chapter 6.11.
Here is a brief summary of MSP430 operating modes.

• Active mode. During normal operation in the active mode, all four bits should be cleared
(CPUOFF = 0, OSCOff = 0, SCG0 = 0, and SCG1 = 0), which allows all CPU clocks to
become active.

• LPM0. When only the CPUOFF bit is set, called low-power mode 0 (LPM0), the CPU
and the master clock (MCLK) are turned off and only the subsystem clock (SMCLK) and
auxiliary clock (ACLK) operate. The controller can be awakened by enabled interrupts,
special requests generated internally or externally (to be studied in Chapter 6.11).

• LPM1. Low-power mode 1 (LPM1) is similar to LPM0 with CPUOFF and SCG0 bits
set while the other two bits are cleared. In this mode, the CPU, MCLK, SMCLK, and
ACLK are configured the same as in LPM0. The digitally controlled oscillator (DCO) is
turned on/off based on the use of the DCO by the SMCLK.

• LPM 2. The MSP430 operates in the low-power mode 2 (LPM2) when both SCG0 and
OSCOFF bits are cleared and the SCG1 and CPUOFF bits are set. In this mode, the
CPU, MCLK, and SMCLK are turned off as well as the DCO. The dc-generator of the
DCO remains active along with the ACLK.

• LPM 3. When the CPUOFF, SCG0, and SCG1 bits are set and the OSCOFF bit is
cleared, the MSP430 is operating in the LPM3 operating mode; all clocks and the DCO
and CPU are turned off. Only the ACLK is enabled.
 3.5. OPERATING MODES 99
• LPM 3.5. When all of bits are set (CPUOFF, OSCOff, SCG0, and SCG1) and the
PMMREGOFF is set (Regulator off bit in the Power Management Module Control Reg-
ister 0), the MSP430 is operating in LPM3.5. In this LPM the voltage regulator in the
Power Management Module is disabled. The RAM and register contents are lost but RTC
operation is possible.

• LPM 4. When all of bits are set (CPUOFF, OSCOff, SCG0, and SCG1), the MSP430
is operating in LPM4; the CPU, all clocks, the DCO, and the crystal oscillator are turned
off. The controller is wakened up by an enabled interrupt.

• LPM 4.5. In low-power mode 4.5 (LPM4.5), the MSP430 achieves the lowest power
consumption. In this mode, in addition to the CPU, MCLK, SMCLK, and the DCO
being turned off, the regulator for the PMM is also turned off. This results in turning off
the JTAG and EEM logic devices. These operating modes will be discussed in depth in
Chapter 5 when we discuss the CS onboard the MSP430 microcontroller. The different
processor operating modes are summarized in Figure 3.8.

to LPM4.5

PMMREGOFF=1
CPUOFF=1 CPUOFF=1
OSCOFF=0 OSCOFF=1
LPM0: SCG0=0 SCG0=1 LPM4:
CPU/MCLK = off SCG1=0 Active Modes: SCG1=1 CPU/MCLK = off
FLL = on - CPU is active FLL = off
ACLK = on - Various modules ACLK = off
Int/NMI are active Int/NMI
Vcore = on Vcore = on
CPUOFF=1 CPUOFF=1
OSCOFF=0 OSCOFF=0
SCG0=1 SCG0=1
SCG1=0 SCG1=1
Int/NMI Int/NMI
LPM1: LPM3:
CPU/MCLK = off CPUOFF=1
Int/NMI CPU/MCLK = off
FLL = off OSCOFF=0
FLL = off
ACLK = on SCG0=0 ACLK = on
Vcore = on SCG1=1 Vcore = on

LPM2:
CPU/MCLK = off
FLL = off
ACLK = on
Vcore = on

Figure 3.8: MSP430 operating modes (adapted from Texas Instruments SLAU208Q [2018]).
100 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
3.6 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
In this section, we describe tools and constructs of software programming for MSP430 con-
trollers, including what is known as the instruction set architecture of the microcontroller. An
instruction set architecture of a CPU determines the complexity of computer hardware and re-
quired compiler technologies. The MSP430 controller architects chose to design a RISC-based
microcontroller by limiting the type of instructions that are interpreted by the controller. The
designers of the MSP430 sought to increase the CPU performance by making all instructions
have a fixed length (1–4 words) and a fixed execution time. Such simplification of the instruction
set decreases hardware complexity and allows easier implementation of hardware modules such
as pipelining and scoreboarding.1
Each instruction consists of an opcode and an optional operand. The opcode is the portion
of the instruction that instructs hardware the nature of the instruction to be performed, and the
operand specifies either the location of or the data itself necessary for the instruction. As we will
see in this section, a method used to identify the necessary data for an instruction is called an
addressing mode.
When an editor is used to write assembly instructions for the MSP430, each instruction
should comply with the format shown below. If the C language is used to write your program,
each C instruction is converted to one or more assembly language instructions with the same
format shown below. Each instruction can have up to four separate fields, each field separated
by one or more blank spaces.

Label Mnemonic(Opcode) Operand ; Comment

The Label field should start at column one of your editor and should be made of alphanu-
meric characters. Labels are used to name particular locations within a program, such as a loca-
tion where a loop should return to or a location of an instruction set that needs to be executed as
a result of a conditional decision (if-then-else). The mnemonic field contains assembly language
instructions while the operand field contains an expression, symbols, and/or constants identi-
fying data required for the instruction specified in the mnemonic field. For TI’s presentation
of the MSP430 instruction set, reference the MSP430x4xx Family User’s Guide [SLAU056L,
2013]. It is not mandatory that each instruction have all four fields filled. As you will see, some
instructions do not require operands. For some instructions, providing comments may not be
appropriate. Furthermore, it would be excessive to put a label on every instruction.

1 The principle of pipelining is to utilize all computer resources at all times to minimize the overall clock cycles to execute
a set of instructions. RISC-based instructions support such design better than CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)-
-based instructions since each instruction goes through the same process for execution, making it easy for a CPU to issue
one instruction and to complete an instruction at each clock cycle. The scoreboarding module’s goal is the same as the one
for pipelining: minimize clock cycles required to execute instructions. By keeping track of the progress of instructions and
allowing instructions that are ready to be executed to proceed to completion without waiting for other instructions to complete
their tasks, the module supports the goal of executing instructions within a minimal time.
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 101
3.6.1 MSP430 ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
The MSP430 assembly language is designed to support the hardware functional units of the
controller. It is made of an instruction set, discussed in the next section. There is also a set of
instructions, directives used by an assembler, which we discuss next.

3.6.2 DIRECTIVES
Simply put, directives are instructions to assemblers. Directives are part of an assembly program,
but they do not get converted to machine code. Instead, directives are interpreted and executed
by assemblers. Since directives are executed by assemblers, available directives vary from an as-
sembler to an assembler. In this section, we describe the directives available for most of MSP430
assemblers: the IAR assembler and Code Composer.
There are two types of directives: macro directives and assembler directives. We explain
assembler directives first. Assembler directives are used by programmers to specify locations
for different segments of your program, initialize defined variables, reserve memory locations
for variables used in your program, and define constants, to name some of the common uses
of assembler directives. Some assembler directives are used to control the assembly process,
examine symbols, and specify libraries for macros. All MSP430 microcontroller directives start
with a period (.). For a complete presentation of directives, see the MSP430 Assembly Language
Tools User’s Guide [SLAU131R, 2018].
One can group these assembler directives into one of the following categories.

1. Define sections.

2. Define constants, variables, and reserve memory locations.

3. Control output lists.

4. Specify reference files.

5. Control assembly process flow.

6. Others

Directives that Define Sections

These directives are used by a programmer to define the starting locations of data and segments
of instructions. Each program section should start with directive .text as shown below:
.text
Assembly instructions
The assembler will take all instructions that follow the .text directive and assemble them
into the .text section. When the .sect directive is used, all instructions that follow the directive
will be assembled into a pre-named section that follows the directive: .sect “section name.” The
102 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
.data directive works similarly. All declarations that follow this directive are assembled into the
.data section. The data section is used to initialize data used in the program.

Directives to Define Constants, Variables, and Reserve Memory Locations

The .bss directive is used to reserve bytes in a section whose data are not initialized. The format
to use the directive is as follows:
.bss symbol name,# bytes [,alignment]
The above directive reserves the designated number of bytes in the .bss section. The .byte
directive initializes one or more successive bytes: .byte value1, value 2,.. If characters need to
be initialized, one can use the .char directive, which has the same format as the .byte directive.
For initializing double (32-bit IEEE double precision) or floating point (32-bit, IEEE single
precision) values, use .double and .float directives, respectively. One can also define different size
bit values using the .field directive whose format is shown below:
.field value[, size]
A programmer can specify the size and specify the value. Integers are also defined with
.half, .int, .long, .short, and .word directives. The .half, .int, .short, and .word directives initialize
one or more successive 16-bit integers while the .long directive initializes 32-bit integers. To
initialize strings, one should use the .string directive with the following format:
.string {expr1 |“string1 ”}[,...,{exprn |“stringn ”}]
There are a number of directives that reserve memory locations. The .symbol directive
reserves a number of bytes in a named section as follows.
.symbol .usect “section name”,# bytes [,alignment]
The .align directive is used to align the program counter (PC) to a location specified by
the number of bytes within a boundary, which must be power of two. Both the .bes and .space
directives reserve the #bytes specified by the parameter which follows the directives in the cur-
rent section of the code. The difference between the two directives is that the label associated
with the .bes directive contains the memory address of the end of the reserved space while the
label associated with the .space directive contains the address of the beginning directive of the
reserved space. The .struct and .endstruct directives begins and ends a structure definition. The
.tag directive is used to define a structure and assign to a label. The .asg assigns a character string
to a symbol: .asg character string, symbol. The .equ directive is used to equate a constant to a
symbol, while the .label directive is used to define a re-locatable label in a section. The .eval di-
rective (.eval expression, symbol) performs arithmetic expression and assigns to a symbol, while
the .var directive adds a local symbol definition to a macro’s permanent list.
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 103
Control Output Lists
The directives that we present in this section govern what will be available for programmers to see
as the output of the assembler. The .drlist directive is used to enable all directive lines to show in
the .lst file, which is the default setting. If one does not wish to see the directive lines, he/she can
use the .drnolist directive to suppress the output. The .fclist directive, the default setting, is used
to list the false conditional code block, while the .fcnolist disables the output. The .length [page
length] directive designates the page length of the source listing. The .list directive instructs an
assembler to restart the source listing.
The .mlist directive enables macro listings and loop blocks to be listed (default), while the
.mnolist directive disables the feature. The .option directive allows a programmer to select output
listings and the .page directive removes a page in the source listing. The .sslist directive is used
to include expanded symbols in the listing while the .ssnolist directive disables this feature. The
.tab directive is used to specify the tab size. The .title directive instructs an assembler to print the
title of the list while the .width directive sets the page width of the list file.

Directives to Reference Other Files

In this section, we consider assembler directives that allow a programmer to refer to variables and
programs written previously. The .copy directive is used to include declarations made in another
file: .copy filename. The .def directive is used to define one or more symbols which can be used in
the current program or other programs. The .global directive is used to define external or global
symbols while the .ref directive is used to identify symbols that are defined in other program
modules.
The .include directive is used to include source statements from other files just as the .macro
directive is used to define macro libraries.

Control Assembly Process Flow

The following directives are used to enable conditional assembly. The .break directive ends the
execution of a program if the expression that follows the directive is true. The .if directive dictates
an assembler to assemble a block of code if the expression that follows the directive is true. The
.else directive is used toassemble a block of code if the expression for the .if directive is false.
The .elseif directive is used to assemble code if the .if directive expression is false and the .elseif
expression is true. The .endif directive ends the block of code that starts with the .if directive.
The .loop directive is used to designate a block of code that will repeat as long as the expression
that follows the directive is true. The .endloop directive ends the .loop directive code.

Others
There are other directives that do not fall under the categories we defined. We explain the re-
maining assembler directives here. The .asmfunc directive is used to locate the beginning of a
code section that contains a designated function. The .cdecls directive allows an assembly pro-
104 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
gram and a C program to share a header file. The .clink directive is used to conditionally link
current code segment. The .emsg directive can be used to send pre-defined error messages to an
output device. The .end directive informs an assembler to ignore instructions that follow this
directive, while the .endasmfunc directive identifies the end of a block that contains a function.
The .mmsg directive is used to send user messages to output device while the .wmsg directive is
used to send warning messages to output device.
Finally, the .newblock directive is used to indicate a new section of code which undefines
any previous local labels. Table 3.4 contains a summary of all assembler directives presented in
this section.
As you just saw, there are many, many directives you can use. We suggest you start with
a small set of directives in your arsenal and expand your use of other directives as you acquire
the MSP430 controller programming skills. Before leaving this section, we present a type of
directives called “macro” directives. Macro directives are also instructions to an assembler. There
are two reasons why you may want to learn to use macro directives.
The first reason is macro directives allow a programmer to combine a number of assembly
instructions and assembly directives and define them as a single macro instruction. Such capa-
bility becomes very useful if you want to repeat executing a set of instructions over and over.
For example, suppose your application requires you to read from an input port (16 bits), swap
the high byte with the low byte, invert each bit of the resulting value, and write to an output
port (16 bits). Instead of writing the required instructions each time you need the task to be
performed, you can write the following macro directive and call it when it is required. Suppose,
for our discussion, the input port is at address 0000h and the output port is at 0002h.
Invert .macro input, output
SWAP input, R15
BIT.W R15, output
.endm

The general format of a macro directive has the following format.

1. macname .macro [parameter1 [,...,parametern ]]
2. assembly instructions or assembler directives
n. [.mexit]
m. .endm
The Name_of_macro on line 1 is used as the label of a macro directive. For each macro directive,
you have an option to include parameters. These parameters are called substitution symbols. On
line 2 and before line 3, you put in assembly language instructions and assembler directives that
perform the task you desire. The optional2 .mexit assembler directive is used to direct the flow of
2 Brackets [ ] are used to specify optional items.
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 105
Table 3.3: Directives (Continues.)

Directive Description Section

$ Includes a file Assembler control
#define Assigns a value to a label C-style preprocessor
#elif Introduces a new condition in a #if..#endif block C-style preprocessor
#else Assembles instructions if a condition is false C-style processor
#endif Ends a #if, #ifdef, or #ifndef block C-style processor
#error Generates an error C-style processor
#if Assembles instructions if a condition is true C-style processor
#ifdef Assembles instructions if a symbol is defined C-style processor
#ifndef Assembles instructions if a symbol is undefined C-style processor
#include Includes a file C-style processor
#message Generates a number of messages on standard output C-style processor
#undef Undefines a label C-style processor
/*comment*/ C-style comment delimiter Assembler control
// C++ style comment delimiter Assembler control
= Assigns a permanent value local to a module Value assignment
ALIAS Assigns a permanent value local to a module Value assignment
ALIGN Aligns the location counter by inserting zero-filled bytes Segment control
ALIGNRAM Aligns the program location counter Segment control
ASEG Begins an absolute segment Segment control
ASEGN Begins a named absolute segment Segment control
ASSIGN Assigns a temporary value Value assignment
CASEOFF Disables case sensitivity Assembler control
CASEON Enables case sensitivity Assembler control
CFI Specifies call frame information Call frame information
COL Sets the number of columns per page Listing control
COMMON Begins a common segment Segment control
DB Generates 8-bit byte constants, including strings Data definition or
allocation
DC16 Generates 16-word constants, including strings Data definition or
allocation
DC32 Genrates 32-bit long word constants Data definition or
allocation
DC8 Generates 8-bit byte constants, including strings Data definition or
allocation
106 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

Table 3.3: (Continued.) Directives

Directive Description Section

DEFINE Defines a file-wide value Value assignment
DF Generates a 32-bit floating point constant Data definition or
allocation
DL Generates a 32-bit constant Data definition or
allocation
.double Generates 32-bit value Data definition or
allocation
DS Allocates space for 8-bit bytes Data definition or
allocation
DS16 Allocates space for 16-bit words Data definition or
allocation
DS32 Allocates space for 32-bit words Data definition or
allocation
DS8 Allocates space for 8-bit bytes Data definition or
allocation
DW Generates 16-bit word constants, including strings Data definition or
allocation
ELSE Assembles instructions if a condition is false Conditional assembly
ELSEIF Specifies a new condition in an IF ENDIF block Conditional assembly
END Terminates the assembly of the last module in a file Module control
ENDIF Ends an IF block Conditional assembly
ENDM Ends a macro definition Macro processing
ENDMOD Terminates the assembly of the current module Module control
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 107

Table 3.4: Directives (Continues.)

Directive Description Section

ENDR Ends a repeat structure Macro processing
EQU Assigns a permanent value local to a module Value assignment
EVEN Aligns the program counter to an even address Segment control
EXITM Exits prematurely from a macro Macro processing
EXPORT Exports symbols to other modules Symbol control
EXTERN Imports an external symbol Symbol control
.float Generates 48-bit values in TI's floating point format Data definition or
allocation
IF Assembles intructions if a condition is true Conditional assembly
IMPORT Imports an external symbol Symbol control
LIBRARY Begins a library module Module control
LIMIT Checks a value against limits Value assignment
LOCAL Creates symbols local to a macro Macro processing
LSTCND Controls conditional assembler listing Listing control
LSTCOD Controls multi-line code listing Listing control
LSTEXP Controls the listing of macro generated lines Listing control
LSTMAC Controls the listing of macro definitions Listing control
LSTOUT Controls assembler listing output Listing control
LSTPAG Controls the formatting of output into pages Listing control
LSTREP Controls the listing of lines generated by repeat directives Listing control
LSTXRF Generates a cross-reference table Listing control
MACRO Defines a macro Macro processing
MODULE Begins a library module Module control
NAME Begins a program module Module control
ODD Aligns the program location counter to an odd address Segment control
ORG Sets the location counter Segment control
PAGE Generates a new page Listing control
PAGSIZ Sets the number of lines per page Listing control
PROGRAM Begins a program module Module control
PUBLIC Exports symbols to other modules Symbol control
PUBWEAK Exports symbols to other modules, multiple definitions Symbol control
allowed
108 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

Table 3.4: (Continued.) Directives

Directive Description Section

RADIX Sets the default base Assembler control
REPT Assembles instructions a specified number of times Macro processing
REPTC Repeats and substitutes characters Macro processing
REPTI Repeats and substitutes strings Macro processing
REQUIRE Forces a symbol to be references Symbol control
RSEG Begins a relocatable segment Segment control
RTMODEL Declares runtime model attributes Module control
SET Assigns a temporary value Value assignment
SFRB Creates byte-access SFR labels Value assignment
SFRTYPE Specifies SFR attributes Value assignment
SFRW Creates word-access SFR labels Value assignment
STACK Begins a stack segment Segment control
VAR Assigns a termporary value Value assignment
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 109
instructions in the macro directive to execute the last assembler directive shown on line m. The
.mexit directive is often used to debug your program. By inserting this directive, the execution
flow directly goes to line m, ignoring all instructions and assembler directives between .mexit
and .endm.
The second main purpose of macro directives is that they allow you, a programmer, to
access a collection of macro definitions written by you and others. Similar to using libraries in
C, you can use libraries of macro directives that have been defined. To include those directives
in your program, you need to include the library (a file with macro directive definitions) in your
program before using those macros using the following statement:

.mlib filename

where filename must be xx.asm and xx.asm contains macro definitions, such as the In-
vert macro we saw earlier.

3.6.3 ASSEMBLY PROCESS

Once an assembly language program is created, either from a high-level program using the
C/CCC programming language through a cross-compiler or by directly writing the assembly
language program, the resulting program must once more go through a conversion process. The
advantage of being able to write and understand assembly language programs is that we can
dictate the clock-by-clock execution of instructions by hardware. Such capabilities are desirable
when we are dealing with time critical applications. It is only fair to state that the cross-compiler
technologies have come a long way from the late 1980s and today’s typical cross-compilers usu-
ally generate compact and efficient assembly programs, making it less desirable for aspiring
engineers to learn assembly language programming skills. Nevertheless, we still believe both
electrical and computer engineers must learn assembly language programming skills to not only
program real-time microcontroller algorithms for embedded systems but also to fully understand
computer architecture issues, such as instruction sets and instruction execution cycles. In this
section, we describe how an assembler converts assembly language instructions into machine
language instructions of MSP430.
An assembler takes an assembly program as its input and generates the corresponding
machine code. In addition to the machine code, the assembler also produces a list file, a symbol
table, and an object code, as shown in Figure 3.9. A list file contains the source program (as-
sembly program) line numbers, the memory locations of instructions, actual machine code for
each instruction, and the original assembly instructions. The file is a convenient location to find
most of possible problems with your program during a debugging period.
A symbol table is generated to be used by the assembler during the assembly process,
which contains, as the name of the file indicates, all symbols used in your assembly program.
An object file contains actual machine code and their corresponding memory locations which
110 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

Assembly Language Program

Assembler

Hexadecimal/Binary Symbol Table

Listing

Object File List File

Figure 3.9: Assembly process of MSP430.

is used by a linker program to generate an overall machine code when more than one assembly
program is used to generate an overall code. In an object file, there are three separate sections.
The first section is executable code designated by the .text directive. The second section contains
initialized variables which is designated by the .data directive, and, finally, the third and last
section contains uninitialized variables which are reserved by the .bss directive.
The assembly process involves, typically, two phases. During the first phase, an assembler
scans through an assembly language program to identify all symbols used, including labels, and
computes their values (memory locations, offsets) and stores them to a symbol table in prepara-
tion of the second phase where actual machine code is generated using the symbol table obtained
during the first phase.

3.6.4 INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE

The MSP430 microcontroller has 27 different unique instructions and 24 emulated instructions.
Emulated instructions are those created by combining unique instructions together to create a
new instruction. Each instruction can have one of the following three formats: (1) instructions
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 111
requiring two operands, (2) instructions requiring a single operand, and (3) instructions whose
operands are relative offsets.
To help you get a handle on the instruction set, we group all MSP430 instructions into
one of the following six categories.
1. Data Transfer and Manipulation Instructions – Move and manipulate data.

2. Arithmetic Instructions – Perform arithmetic operations.

3. Logic and Bit instructions – Used to execute logical operations.

4. Data Test Instructions – Test the contents of a memory location or a register.

5. Branch Instructions – Performs IF-THEN-ELSE operations.

6. Function Call Instructions and Others - Initiate or terminate a subroutine or a service

routine.

Data Transfer and Manipulation Instructions

Data transfer instructions are used to move data among memory, CPU registers, and the stack.
These instructions affect the N and Z lag bits of the R2 (Status Register). Unlike accumula-
tor based microcontrollers, the MSP430’s move instructions can directly work with memory
contents without loading them into accumulators first. Mnemonics for the MSP430 move in-
structions are as follows.
• MOV.W/MOV.B – moves a word/byte from a source location to a destination location

• PUSH.W/PUSH.B – moves a word/byte from a source location to the stack

• POP.W/POP.B – moves a word/byte from the stack to a destination location

• CLR.W/CLR.B – moves a zero to a destination location

The manipulation instructions modify the contents of the a register or a memory location.
These include arithmetic and logical shift instructions in addition to rotate instructions. A shift
instruction brings in a zero and removes an original bit whether the instruction is a logical one
or an arithmetic one, except in the case of an arithmetic shift right, which repeats the sign or
the MSB. Rotate instructions do not remove any original bits, but they are simply shifted either
left or right along with a carry bit, resulting in the original value after eight rotations for a byte
number. Figure 3.10 shows both shift and rotate operations of a typical microcontroller.
Arithmetic shift instructions perform multiplications and divisions by the power of 2 for
signed numbers. The function of shift operations is a familiar one for us with decimal numbers.
Given a decimal number, say 1527, if we shift the digits to the right with respect to the radix
point, we get 0152.7. This is the same as dividing the original number by base 10. If we shift to
112 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

b15/b7- - - - - - - - -b0 C b15/b7- - - - - - - - -b0 0

Arithmetic Shift Right Arithmetic Shift Left

0 b15/b7- - - - - - - - -b0 C b15/b7- - - - - - - - -b0 0

Logical Shift Right Logical Shift Left

C
b15/b7- - - - - - - - -b0 b15/b7- - - - - - - - -b0
Rotate Right Rotate Left

Figure 3.10: Rotate and shift instructions of MSP430.

the left, we get 15,270, or the value obtained by multiplying the original number by base 10. The
shift instructions of the MSP430 perform the same task except in the binary number system.
Example: Suppose you start with a signed decimal number 4 represented as an 8-bit number
(0000_ 0100 binary). When we perform an arithmetic right shift, the resulting value is decimal
number 2 (0000_ 0010 binary). Shift it right again, we have decimal number 1 (0000_ 0001
binary). Thus, each shift operation is equivalent to dividing the original value by 2, and repeating
the shift operation n times results in dividing the original number by 2n .
Example: Suppose now we are working with decimal number -2 (1111_ 1110 binary 2’s com-
plement representation). An arithmetic shift left produces decimal number -4 (1111_ 1100).
Two more left shifts result in decimal number -16 (1111_0000). Thus, the arithmetic left shift
is equivalent to performing multiplication by 2n where n is the number of left shifts.
As can be seen by the simple examples above, arithmetic shift operations of the MSP430
microcontroller are used to perform multiplications and divisions by a factor of 2n .
Logical shift instructions are used to test each bit of a byte one at a time. Note from
Figure 3.10 that, for logical shift operations, a zero is introduced from the left for a right shift
and from the right for a left shift each time a shift operation is performed. We can test each bit
of a byte, say by testing the LSB, as we repeat a logical shift right operation eight times. Also,
note that once we have tested all eight bits of the byte, we replace them with zeros.
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 113
You might ask, where would such operations be useful? It is fairly common to use such
operations in multiple applications. One such application is managing appliances in a smart
home. As we discussed, one of the main reasons for using a microcontroller over a general-
purpose computer is its ability to interface with multiple external systems using built-in I/O
interface capabilities via the physical ports. Suppose for our discussion, that one of the MSP430
input ports (eight pins) is connected to eight different appliances in your home, where each
input pin is used by the appliances to let the MSP430 know the on/off status of the appliances.
Assuming you have the remote access capability of the MSP430, you can login to your controller,
read the input port value, perform logical shift operations to check the on/off status of your
appliances, and take appropriate actions, if necessary.
Logical shift instructions can also be used to perform multiplication and division opera-
tions. In fact, both the arithmetic shift left and the logical shift left operations perform the exact
same task and can be interchangeably used to multiply unsigned and signed numbers by a factor
of 2. The logical shift right instruction, however, should be used to divide unsigned numbers by
a factor of 2, while for signed numbers, the arithmetic shift right instruction should be used.
The rotate instruction should be used to retain the original bit order of your data, but
requires shifting bits of the data. For example, suppose you want to swap the high order four
bits with the low-order four bits of a byte, say 3Eh.3 We obtain E3h by rotating the original
value four times to either left or right. Designers of the MSP430 have combined the rotate and
shift instructions as much as possible.
The available rotate and shift instructions of the MSP430 are
• RLA – rotate left arithmetically, arithmetic shift left
• RRA – rotate right arithmetically, arithmetic shift right
• RLC – rotate left through carry
• RRC – rotate right through carry
The last category of the data manipulation instructions contain two instructions that are
used to sign extend a byte and swap bytes. The instructions format are:
• SWPB src – swaps the upper and lower bytes of a word
• SXT src – sign extends the lower byte to the upper byte of a word
The SXT instruction replaces the upper byte of a word either with 1’s (lower byte contains a
2’s complement negative number) or 0’s (lower byte contains a 2’s complement positive number).

3 The h represents a hexadecimal number.

114 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
Arithmetic Instructions
The original MSP430 microcontroller only had addition and subtraction instructions and no
multiplication or division operations. The MSP430x5xx controller family includes a separate
multiplication module called the MPY32, which you saw earlier in this chapter. For addition
and subtraction operations, instructions for binary and binary coded decimal (BCD)4 operations
are possible.
For addition, the following instructions use two operands and store the result into the
destination (dst) location.
• ADD.W/ADD.B src, dst – adds the word/byte in src and dst and stores the result to dst
• ADDC.W/ADDC.B src, dst – adds the word/byte in src and dst along with the carry bit
of the SR register (R2) and stores the result to dst
• SUB.W/SUB.B src, dst – subtracts the word/byte in dst from src and stores the result to
dst
• SUBC.W/SUBC.B src, dst – subtracts the word/byte in dst and the carry bit of the SR
register (R2) from src and stores the result to dst
• DADD.W/DADD.B src, dst – adds the word/byte in src and dst in BCD format along
with the carry bit of the SR register (R2) and stores the result to dst
The addition and subtraction instructions that only use one operand are
• ADC.W/ADC.B dst – adds a carry bit of the SR register (R2) to the word/byte in dst and
stores the result to dst
• INC.W/INC.B dst – adds one to the word/byte in dst and stores the result to dst
• INCD.W/INCD.B dst – adds two to the word/byte in dst and stores the result to dst
• SBC.W/SBC.B dst – subtracts a carry bit of the SR register (R2) from the word/byte in
dst and stores the result to dst
• DEC.W/DEC.B dst – subtracts one from the word/byte in dst and stores the result to dst
• DECD.W/DECD.B dst – subtracts two from the word byte in dst and stores the result
to dst
• DADC.W/DADC.B dst – adds a carry bit of the SR register (R2) to the word/byte in dst
and stores the result in BCD format to dst

4 The BCD format uses four bits to represent decimal numbers 0–9 instead of all possible numbers four bits can represent:
0–15 decimal or 0–F in hexadecimal. Thus, decimal 37 is represented as 0011_0111 binary ($37).
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 115
We discuss the multiplication operation, next. Suppose you want to multiply the following
two 8-bit numbers: 78h and 03h. Again, the letter h at the end of each number represents
hexadecimal numbers. The hexadecimal number system uses 16 numbers instead of 10, as in
the decimal system, to represent each number. The numerical numbers used in the hexadecimal
number system are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. The corresponding numbers in
the decimal system are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15. Thus, 78h represents
.7  161 / C .8  160 / or decimal value 280.
The following instructions perform the multiplication operation in the MSP430.

MOV.B #78h, MPY_B ; load 78h to operand one register

MOV.B #03h, OP2_B ; load 03h to operand two register

Once the second number is loaded into the second operand register, the multiplication
starts. Note that both operands are bytes, hence the use of MPY_B and OP2_B registers. A
set of 8 bits makes up a byte. The two numbers used in the example are 0111_1000 (78h) and
0000_0011 (03h). The result is stored in the RESLO register.
As another example, suppose now you want to multiply the following two 32-bit signed
numbers: 24184219h and F249E201h. One must write the following code segment using the
appropriate 32-bit registers.

MOV #4219h, MPYS32L

MOV #2418h, MPYS32H
MOV #E201h, OP2L
MOV #F249h, OP2H

Pay special attention to the order of loading numbers in the example above. You must first
load the operand one register then the operand two register. For each register, you must also
remember to load the low byte first followed by the high byte. If one of the operand is only 16
bits long, you must write to the high byte of the target register followed by the low byte register,
which will indicate to the controller to ignore the high byte and that the operand should be
considered as a 16-bit (low byte) long number. The result of the above code will be in RES0-
RES3 registers where RES3 contains the most significant word (two bytes) and RES0 contains
the least significant word of the result.

Logic and Bit Instructions

The MSP430 microcontroller has a simplified set of logic instructions. The MSP430’s instruction
set architecture does not include any OR instructions or 2’s complement instructions. There are
116 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
two AND instructions, but one does not affect the flags in the status register (R2). The two
AND instructions have the following format.
• AND.W/AND.B src, dst – performs bitwise AND operation of words/bytes in src and dst
and stores the result in dst
• BIT.W/BIT.B src, dst – performs bitwise AND operation of words/bytes in src and dst,
only the SR flags are affected
Instead of implementing OR instructions, MSP430 designers rely on the bit set and bit
clear instructions to perform desired OR operations. These instructions have the following for-
mat.
• BIS.W/BIS.B src, dst – sets (change value to 1) dst bit locations which correspond to bit
locations with ones in src
• BIC.W/BIC.B src, dst – clears (change value to 0) dst bit locations which correspond to
bit locations with ones in src
How do we perform an OR operation? We can configure the bits in src, say to all 1’s, and
perform the bis instruction to perform an OR instruction. Similarly, we can perform the same
OR instruction with all bits in src to be zeros and executing the bic instruction. The exclusive
OR operation is performed using the following instruction.
• XOR src, dst – performs bitwise exclusive OR operation with words/bytes in src and dst
and stores the result to dst
The MSP430 controller also has an invert instruction that flips all bits in a word or a byte.
• INV.W/INV.B dst – invert each bit in dst
We now consider MSP430 bit manipulation instructions. Most bit manipulation instruc-
tions, besides the bis and bic instructions, are for dealing with flags in the status register (SR,
R2) as shown below. Note that all these instructions do not require any operand.
• SETC – sets the carry bit (flag) in SR
• SETN – sets the negative bit (flag) in SR
• SETZ – sets the zero bit (flag) in SR
• EINT – sets (enables) the interrupt bit (flag) in SR
• CLRC – clears the carry bit (flag) in SR
• CLRN – clears the negative bit (flag) in SR
• CLRZ – clears the zero bit (flag) in SR
• DINT – clears (disables) the interrupt bit (flag) in SR
 3.6. SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING 117
Data Test Instructions
There are only two test instructions with the MSP430 microcontroller instruction set. The two
instructions directly affect the flags in the SR register, allowing instructions that immediately
follow the test instructions to use the contents of the SR register to determine the flow of pro-
gram execution. The two instructions have the format shown below.
• CMP.W/CMP.B src, dst – compares the values in src and dst and changes the bits in SR
accordingly
• TST.W/TST.B dst – compares the word/byte in dst with zero and affects the changes to
bits in SR accordingly

Flow Control Instructions

The following instructions are designed to allow programmers to change the flow of instruction
execution. The flow change can be pre-determined as in the case of calling a subroutine or
dynamic as in the result of some computation or inputs during programming execution.

Branch Instructions
Branch instructions are used to implement IF-THEN-ELSE programming constructs. There
are 11 such instructions in the MSP430 microcontroller instruction set. Typically, these instruc-
tions can be further divided into branch instructions designed to deal with signed numbers and
ones for unsigned numbers. Branch instructions for signed numbers are as follows.
• JN label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the Negative bit in the Status Register
(SR) is set
• JGE label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the test/comparison/operation
made immediately before the current instruction execution results in a signed number
greater than or equal to zero
• JL(t) label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the test/comparison/operation
made previously results in a signed number less than zero
Branch instructions for unsigned numbers are as follows.
• JHS label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the test/comparison/operation
made previously results in an unsigned number higher than or same as zero
• JLO label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the test/comparison/operation
made previously results in an unsigned number lower than zero
Other available branch instructions are as follows.
• JZ label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the zero bit in SR is set
118 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
• JNZ label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the zero bit in SR is not set
• JC label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the carry bit in SR is set
• JNC label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the carry bit in SR is clear
• JEQ label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the test/comparison/operation
preceding the instruction results in zero
• JNE label – jumps to a location specified by the label if the test/comparison/operation
preceding the instruction results in non-zero value

Function Call Instructions and Others

In this section, we present those instructions associated with calling subroutines and service
routines.5
• CALL src – calls a subroutine with label src
• RET – returns from a subroutine
• RETI – returns from an interrupt service routine
The MS430 microcontroller also has a jump instruction that allows the program execu-
tion flow to be changed: JMP label. The instruction informs the program counter to change its
contents to the address specified by label. Why bother to use this instruction when we have the
branch always instruction BR? The JMP instruction is more compact as the instruction fits in a
single word, which is important when we want to minimize the use of controller memory. The
jump range, however, is limited to 1 K bytes from the location of the JMP instruction.
One more instruction of interest is the no operation instruction, NOP, used without any
operand. The instruction takes up one clock cycle to execute and is used for debugging of a
program or to fill up time to meet timing requirements for an application.
Examples: The JMP and RET instructions are used to jump to a subroutine and return from it.
A subroutine is a collection of assembly language instructions used to perform a common task.
For example, we might want to develop a subroutine to perform an ADC conversion.
The subroutine uses the following format:
:
:
JMP subroutine1
:
:
5 A service routine is set of instructions similar to the ones that make up a subroutine except these instructions are written
specifically to respond to interrupts (special hardware and software requests).
 3.7. ADDRESSING MODES 119

subroutine1: :
:
:
RET

Provided in Figure 3.11 is a summary of the MSP430 assembly language instruction set.

3.7 ADDRESSING MODES

Earlier, we mentioned that each assembly language instruction has an opcode and an operand.
The opcode tells hardware which operation should be executed. The operand specifies how the
data necessary to execute the particular operation can be found. Addressing modes are different
methods used to identify necessary data for assembly instructions. There are seven different
addressing modes in the MSP430 microcontroller. We present them next.

3.7.1 REGISTER ADDRESSING MODE

For this addressing mode, the data needed to executean instruction are the contents of registers.
For example, once the following instruction is executed,

MOV.W R5,R7

the contents of register R5 are moved to register R7.

In the following instruction

AND.B R5,R7

to execute the AND operation, the MSP430 takes the contents of R5 and R7 and performs bit
wise AND operation and stores the result in R7.

3.7.2 INDEXED ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the address of the data necessary for an instruction is found by adding an
offset value to the contents of a register. For example, suppose you have the following instruction.

ADD.W 5(R4), R5

The instruction takes the data located at the address specified by 5 plus the contents of
R4, adds the value to the value in R5 and stores the result to R5.
120 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

Figure 3.11: Texas Instruments MSP430 assembly language instruction set [SLAU056L, 2013].
Used with permission of Texas Instruments.
 3.7. ADDRESSING MODES 121
3.7.3 SYMBOLIC ADDRESSING MODE
To those who are familiar with other microcontrollers’ addressing modes, this addressing mode is
similar to a program counter (PC) relative addressing mode. The data necessary for an instruction
is found by finding the relative offset from the current instruction to a destination location.
The contents of the source address (contents of PC C X) are moved to the destination address
(contents of PC C Y).

3.7.4 ABSOLUTE ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the contents of a memory address are used as the data necessary for an
instruction. For example, suppose we have

MOV.W ABC, R10

The instruction moves the contents of address ABC to register R10.

3.7.5 INDIRECT REGISTER ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the contents of an address are used as the address where data for the
instruction is found.
For example,

MOV.W @R5, R10

moves the contents of address location, whose address value was determined by the contents of
R5, are moved to register R10.

3.7.6 INDIRECT AUTOINCREMENT ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the instruction first performs its task using the register indirect address-
ing mode and then increments the contents of the register by either one for a byte operation and
two for a word operation.

MOV.B @R4+,R5

The above instruction takes the contents of R4, uses it as the address location to find the
data, moves the data to R5, then increments the contents of R4 by one.

3.7.7 IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the actual number specified by symbol # is used by an instruction.

mov.w #78F2h, R4
122 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
This instruction moves 78F2h to R4 where h represents a hexadecimal number.
Examples: Assume that the following instructions are not sequential. Given that the contents
of R5 is .128/10 and R6 is CAFEh, describe the results of each instruction.

1. ADD #10, R5
Answer: Add 10 to the contents of register R5.

2. ADD.B #10, R5
Answer: Add 10 to the low byte of R5.

3. MOV #AA55h, R4
Answer: Places AA55h into register R4.

4. AND R5, R4 (use R4 from the previous example)

Answer: Performs the bit-wise AND of R5 and R4, placing the result in R4 0000h.

5. BIC #FC00h, R6
Answer: Clears the 6 MSBs of R6 resulting in 02FEh.

6. BIS #FC00h, R6
Answer: Sets the 6 MSBs of R6 resulting in FEFEh.

7. CLR R5
Answer: Set R5 to zero.

8. CLR.B R6
Answer: Clears the low byte of R6 resulting in a value of CA00h.

3.7.8 PROGRAMMING CONSTRUCTS

Programming constructs determine the flow of executing a program. For any program, there can
be three principle programming constructs: a sequence, a loop, and a branch. A sequence repre-
sents a segment of a program, regardless of the programming language used, where instructions
are executed in sequence, one after another in the order shown. A loop represents a segment
of a program where the same instructions are executed a number of times specified by some
condition. Finally, a branch allows programmers to implement IF-THEN-ELSE decisions in
their programs.
The three principle constructs are shown in Figure 3.12. How these three programming
constructs are put together to write programs is the key to becoming a good programmer.
Example: Provided below is the basic assembly language construct for a loop.
 3.7. ADDRESSING MODES 123

Programming Constructs

Instruction n Instruction n
No
<argument>
true?

Instruction n + 1 Instruction n + 1
Yes

Instruction n

Instruction n + m Instruction n + m Instruction n

Sequence Loop IF-THEN-ELSE

Figure 3.12: Programming constructs.

Loop1: :
:
:
JMP Loop1
Example: Provided below is the basic assembly language construct for the if-then statement.
:
:
CMP R6, R7 ;R6 = R7:
JEQ EQUAL1
:

EQUAL1: :
:

3.7.9 ORTHOGONAL INSTRUCTION SET

Over the history of the computer industry, there have been two different approaches in design-
ing a CPU: the CISC, and the RISC. The rationale for creating a CISC based computer is
to increase computer performance by allowing programmers to write compact programs. This
means hardware is designed to accommodate a set of specialized instructions, allowing a pro-
124 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
grammer to pick and choose appropriate instructions to perform a required task. In contrast,
RISC computers are designed to execute only a small number of (thus, reduced) instructions.
The related hardware is simple, which allows instructions to be executed in parallel, increasing
the performance of a RISC-based computer. Over the past three decades the battle between the
two approaches has been intense, but over time, computer designers have extracted advantages
of both approaches to create hybrid computers. Most of today’s computers incorporate both
CISC and RISC features.
The MSP430 architects wanted to design and develop a RISC-based controller. As men-
tioned, the controller has 27 unique instructions and 9 emulated instructions. In addition to
the RISC-based design, MSP430 designers maximized the number of functional instructions
by developing instructions that are orthogonal. The orthogonal instruction set means that each
opcode (instruction) can use any of the MSP430’s available addressing modes. his provides the
programmer with tremendous flexibility in writing the code.

3.8 SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING SKILLS

In this section, we present a system design approach called top-down design and bottom-up
implementation, which can be used to systemically plan and execute programming tasks. The
overall idea of this approach is to break down a given task (your program should be implemented
to execute the task) into smaller pieces or subtasks, solve each of the smaller subtasks, and then
integrate them together one at a time. Of course, if any smaller piece is too big, you should
repeat the process until the subtask at the lowest level is defined by a set of simple operations.
The top-down approach is sometimes called the divide-and-conquer method with two
immediate benefits. The first one is that you reduce the complexity of the overall task by only
concentrating on a simple subtask at a time. The second advantage is the by-product of the
first one: test and evaluation of smaller tasks are easy and time saving. In addition to the two
advantages, this approach makes it easy to integrate the subtask solutions, making the overall
efforts and time spent to perform the original task of writing a program minimal.
We use two powerful tools to implement this approach: structure charts and UML activity
diagrams.
• UML activity diagrams: A unified modeling language (UML) activity diagram, or flow
chart, is a tool to help visualize the different steps required for a control algorithm.
• Structure chart: A structure chart is a visual tool used to partition a large project into
“doable” smaller parts. The arrows within the structure chart indicate the data flow between
different portions of the program.
We conclude this section with a step-by-step procedure to use the top-down design and
bottom-Up implementation approach.
1. Given a task statement, write down all subtasks necessary to complete the task.
 3.9. ASSEMBLY VS. C 125
2. Place the subtasks in a structure chart.

3. For each subtask, repeat step one if the subtask is too big. Stop when the subtasks cannot
be further subdivided.

4. Place each subtask on the structure chart in proper hierarchy relative to the other sub tasks.

5. Draw the UML activity diagram for each subtask showing enough detail to write instruc-
tions to accomplish the task.

6. Write a program segment to fulfill the subtask, proceeding to the next one only after you
have thoroughly tested the functionality of the subtask program segment.

7. Integrate subtask segments one at a time, testing their combined functionality (this may
require a test plan).

8. Continue this process until all subtask solution segments are integrated and the overall
task is completed.

Example: In Chapter 2 we introduced the Adafruit mini round robot.

In this example we revisit the robot control algorithm to illustrate the use of the structure
and UML activity diagram to guide development of a more sophisticated control algorithm.
The UML activity diagram for the robot is provided in Figure 3.14. As you can see, after
robot systems are initialized, the robot control system enters a continuous loop to gather data
and issue outputs to steer the robot through the maze.
The structure chart for the robot project is provided in Figure 3.13. As you can see, the
robot has three main systems: the motor control system, the sensor system, and the digital I/O
system. These three systems interact with the main control algorithm to allow the robot to au-
tonomously (by itself ) navigate through the maze by sensing and avoiding walls.

3.9 ASSEMBLY VS. C

Due to limited onboard resources, including relatively small memory, microcontrollers do not
support the sophisticated software architecture of microprocessors found onboard laptops and
PCs. Namely, typical microcontrollers do not have operating systems running onboard.
The actual programs that run onboard used to be written using an assembly programming
language rather than high-level languages used for laptop/desktop computers. Since the early
1990s, however, the use of high-level languages, mainly C, increased for microcontrollers due
to emerging compiler technologies that allowed programmers to be removed from learning the
particular hardware and machine-level software architecture of a microcontroller. The compiler
technologies, however, did not produce compact assembly code when compared to an assembly
program written by a well-trained assembly programmer. Due to the advantages a high-level
126 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING

determine_robot
_action

robot sensor
action data

analog-to-digital digital
motor_control
converter (ADC) input/output

desired
motor
action ch for conv
conv data
left right
PWM_left PWM_right ADC
ReadADC turn running turn
Initialize signal lights signal

left right left middle right

motor motor IR sensor IR sensor IR sensor

Figure 3.13: Mini round robot structure diagram.

language offers, discussed in the next section, the compiler technologies continued to improve.
Today, the difference between a converted assembly program initially written in C and an as-
sembly program written directly is very small.

Advantages/Disadvantages
So why should anyone learn to write assembly language programs? After all, high-level lan-
guages, in particular, the C language, are programmer friendly, portable, and compact. Fur-
thermore, most programmers are already familiar with high-level languages, removing the time
required to learn a new assembly language. A C program can be machine independent (portabil-
ity).6 Although programs usually become more compact when written in an assembly language,
the primary reason for most microcontroller programmers who choose to use a high-level lan-
guage is that a programmer does not need to understand the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
to write programs for a particular platform, while having access to bit-by-bit level instructions,
if necessary.
The proponents of assembly language programs point out the advantage of writing pro-
grams with instructions that can directly map to designed functions of a hardware platform. That
is, each instruction is written as a specific machine level instruction, allowing a programmer to
have full control of the execution of those instructions in the use of time (clock cycle by clock
6 This statement is marginally true if specific ports and registers for a platform are not used in a program.
 3.9. ASSEMBLY VS. C 127

include files
global variables
function prototypes

initialize ports
initialize ADC
initialize PWM

while(1)

read sensor outputs

(left, middle, right)

determine robot
action

issue motor
control signals

Figure 3.14: Robot UML activity diagram.

cycle) and hardware resources. This leads to writing an efficient program compared to the one
written with a high-level language and later converted to assembly code.
Writing programs at the level of machine language also allows programmers control over
where his/her programs will reside in memory, optimizing the use of available memory of a mi-
crocontroller. Writing assembly language programs also allow programmers to embed pertinent
error messages in their programs at the machine level, while high-level language programmers
do not have the same option. Finally, programming at the machine specific ISA level allows as-
sembly language programmers to better understand related computer architecture issues, which
enables them to take full advantages of the particular hardware and software features of each
microcontroller.
128 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
3.9.1 OUR APPROACH
Acknowledging the advantages offered by both high-level languages and assembly languages, we
use the C language in this book. Once we establish the necessary foundation of the hardware and
software systems, we use the C programming language to concentrate on functional capabilities
of the MSP430 microcontrollers. Many of the examples provided in the book, written in C, are
also available in assembly language within MSPWare (www.ti.com).

3.10 ACCESSING AND DEBUGGING TOOLS

There are three different ways to download programs to, interact with, and debug programs on
MSP430. The first one uses the built-in eZ-FET Debug Probe resident onboard both the MSP-
EXP430FR2433 and the MSP-EXP430FR5994. The second and third methods use joint test
action group ( JTAG) interface, which uses either four wire signals (conventional) or two wire
signals (Spy-Bi-Wire). Most of the MSP430 boards contain JTAG interfaces.

3.11 LABORATORY EXERCISE: PROGRAMMING THE

MSP430 IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
In this laboratory exercise we will complete three separate programs:

• flash an LED on the MSP-EXP430FR2433 evaluation board,

• illuminate an LED on the MSP-EXPFR2433 evaluation board when a switch is de-

pressed, and

• perform some mathematical operations and observe the flag values generated.

3.11.1 PART 1: FLASH AN LED VIA ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Introduction. In Chapter 2, we illuminated the LEDs on the MSP-EXP430FR2433 evaluation
board using a C program. In this laboratory exercise, we employ assembly language to illustrate
how to configure, assemble, and execute a program. This basic program may serve as a template
for writing future assembly language programs.
Background. The MSP-EXP430FR2433 experimenter board is equipped with two switches
(S1 and S2) and two LEDs (LED1 and LED2). These components are hardwired to the fol-
lowing pins on the MSP430 microcontroller (MSP-EXP430FR2433 evaluation board).

• Switch S1, P2.3, switch S1 is active low

• Switch S2, P2.7, switch S2 is active low

• LED1, P1.0, requires logic 1 to illuminate LED

 3.11. LABORATORY EXERCISE: PROGRAMMING MSP430 IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 129
• LED2, P1.1, requires logic 1 to illuminate LED

There are several registers associated with each port.

• PxIN, Port x input. This register is read only and is used to determine the current value of
the specified port. For example, to read Port 2, you would read register P2IN.

• PxOUT, Port x output. This is the output register for the specified port. When a value is
written to this register, the value written appears at the specified port pins.

• PxDIR, Port x direction register. This is the pin direction register for the specified port.
Each port pin has internal interface hardware which is used to configure each pin as an
input pin or an output pin. Setting the PxDIR register for a specific port pin to a logic 1
configures the pin as an output pin. A logic 0 configures the pin as an input pin.

• PxSEL, Port x function select. Many pins on the MSP430 microcontroller have alternate
functions besides their general purpose I/O function. A logic 0 configures the pin for
general purpose I/O, whereas a logic 1 connects the pin to its alternate function.

• PxREN, Port x Pull-up/Pull-down resistor enable register. A logic 0 disables the pull-
up/pull-down resistor for the corresponding pin; whereas, a logic 1 connects the pin to a
pull-up/pull-down resistor as shown in Figure 3.15.

PxDIR PxREN PxOUT I/O Configuration

0 0 x Input
0 1 0 Input with pull-down resistor
0 1 1 Input with pull-up resistor
1 x x Output

Figure 3.15: MSP430 port configuration registers.

Provided below is an assembly language program to flash an LED. Execute the code on
the MSP-EXP430FR2433 evaluation board. To assemble the code, use the same procedure as
that used for the C program. An abbreviated version of the steps is provided here for convenience
(adapted from SLAU157AP [2017]).

1. Plug the MSP-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad into the host PC via the USB cable.

2. Start up Code Composer Studio (CCS)

3. Select File > New > CCS Project

130 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
4. Select Target Family (MSP430FRxxx) and Target (MSP430FR2433).
5. Select TI MSP430 USB1 [Default] and press [Identify].
6. Enter the project name, click Next.
7. Check “Configure as an assembly only project.”
8. Click Finish.
9. Select File > New > Source File.

10. Enter a file name with the suffix .asm.

11. Type or paste program text into the file.
12. Select Project > Build Project.

13. Select Run > Debug to program the MSP430FR2433 memory.

14. Select Run > Resume to start the program.

15. Important step: Select Run > Terminate to properly stop the program.

; ******************************************************************
; MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
;MSP430 code examples are self-contained low-level programs that
;typically demonstrate a single peripheral function or device feature
;in a highly concise manner. For this the code may rely on the
;device's power-on default register values and settings such as the
;clock configuration and care must be taken when combining code from
;several examples to avoid potential side effects. Also see
;www.ti.com/grace for a GUI- and www.ti.com/msp430ware for an API
;functional library-approach to peripheral configuration.
;
; --/COPYRIGHT--
;********************************************************************
;MSP430FR243x Demo - Toggle P1.0 using software
;
;Description: Toggle P1.0 every 0.1s using software.
;By default, FR413x select XT1 as FLL reference.
;If XT1 is present, the XIN and XOUT pin needs to configure.
;If XT1 is absent, switch to select REFO as FLL reference
;automatically.
; XT1 is considered to be absent in this examples.
3.11. LABORATORY EXERCISE: PROGRAMMING MSP430 IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 131
; ACLK = default REFO ~32768Hz, MCLK = SMCLK = default DCODIV ~1MHz.
;
; MSP430FR2433
; ---------------
; /|\| |
; | | |
; --|RST |
; | P1.0|-->LED
;
;Cen Fang
;Texas Instruments Inc.
;June 2013
;Built with Code Composer Studio v6.0
;********************************************************************
.cdecls C,LIST,"msp430.h" ;Include device header file
;--------------------------------------------------------------------
.def RESET ;Export program entry-point to
;make it known to linker.
;--------------------------------------------------------------------
.global __STACK_END
.sect .stack ;Make stack linker segment known

.text ;Assemble to Flash memory

.retain ;Ensure current section linked
.retainrefs

RESET mov.w #__STACK_END,SP ;Initialize stack pointer

StopWDT mov.w #WDTPW+WDTHOLD,&WDTCTL ;Stop WDT
SetupP1 bic.b #BIT0,&P1OUT ;Clear P1.0 output
bis.b #BIT0,&P1DIR ;P1.0 output
bic.w #LOCKLPM5,PM5CTL0 ;Unlock I/O pins

Mainloop xor.b #BIT0,&P1OUT ;Toggle P1.0 every 0.1s

Wait mov.w #50000,R15 ;Delay to R15
L1 dec.w R15 ;Decrement R15
jnz L1 ;Delay over?
jmp Mainloop ;Again

;---------------------------------------------------------------------
132 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
; Interrupt Vectors
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
.sect RESET_VECTOR ;MSP430 RESET Vector
.short RESET ;
.end

;*********************************************************************

3.11.2 PART 2: ILLUMINATE A LED VIA ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE

Provided in Figure 3.16 is the UML activity diagram for this portion of the laboratory assign-
ment. Also, the assembly language code is provided that will illuminate LED1 when switch S1
is depressed. Review the UML activity diagram and the assembly language code.

Include C header
file for MSP430

Initialize Stack Pointer (SP)

Stop Watchdog Timer (WDT)

Clear P1.0, Set P1.0 as output

Set P1.3 as input
Unlock I/O pins
No
Switch 1 No
asserted?
Yes
Assert LED1 Deassert LED1

Figure 3.16: UML activity diagram for laboratory part 2.

;********************************************************************
; MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
; --/COPYRIGHT--
;********************************************************************
3.11. LABORATORY EXERCISE: PROGRAMMING MSP430 IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 133
;MSP430FR243x Demo - Software Poll P1.3, Set P1.0 if P1.3 = 1
;
;Description: Poll P1.3 in a loop. Set P1.0 if P1.3 = 1, or reset P1.0.
;By default, FR413x select XT1 as FLL reference.
;If XT1 is present, the XIN and XOUT pin needs to be configured.
;If XT1 is absent, REFO is automatically switched for FLL reference.
;XT1 is considered to be absent.
; ACLK = default REFO ~32768Hz, MCLK = SMCLK = default DCODIV ~1MHz
;
; MSP430FR2433
; ---------------
; /|\| |
; | | |
; --|RST |
; /|\ | |
; --o--|P1.3 P1.0|-->LED
; \|/ | |
; | |
;
;Cen Fang
;Texas Instruments Inc.
;June 2013
;Built with Code Composer Studio v6.0
;*******************************************************************
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
.cdecls C,LIST,"msp430.h" ;Include device header file
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
.def RESET ;Export program entry-point
;to make it known to linker
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
.global __STACK_END
.sect .stack ;Make stack linker segment
;

.text ;Assemble to Flash memory

.retain ;Ensure current section gets
;linked
.retainrefs
134 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
RESET mov.w #__STACK_END,SP ;Initialize stackpointer
mov.w #WDTPW+WDTHOLD,&WDTCTL ;Stop WDT - SET BREAKPOINT HERE

SetupP1 bic.b #BIT0,&P1OUT ;Clear P1.0 output

bis.b #BIT0,&P1DIR ;P1.0 output
bic.b #BIT3,&P1DIR ;Set P1.3 as inputs
bic.w #LOCKLPM5,PM5CTL0 ;Unlock I/O pins

Mainloop bit.b #BIT3,&P1IN

jz Clear
bis.b #BIT0,&P1OUT
jmp Mainloop
Clear bic.b #BIT0,&P1OUT
jmp Mainloop
nop

;-------------------------------------------------------------------
; Interrupt Vectors
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
.sect RESET_VECTOR ;MSP430 RESET Vector
.short RESET ;
.end

;********************************************************************

Execute the code on the MSP-EXP430FR2433 evaluation board. Then modify the pro-
gram to illuminate LED1 when switch S1 is depressed, illuminate LED2 when switch S2 is
depressed, and exit the program when switch S1 and S2 are depressed simultaneously. Provide
a UML activity diagram of the modified program in your lab notebook.

3.11.3 PART 3: MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS IN ASSEMBLY

LANGUAGE
In this portion of the laboratory, we execute and observe a number of mathematical operations.
Background. In your lab notebook, provide a brief definition of status register bits V, N, Z, and
C.
Procedure:

1. For each of the operations listed below, predict the final result and the value of flags V, N,
Z, and C.
 3.12. SUMMARY 135
2. Perform the following operations in assembly language. At least three different addressing
modes must be employed.
(a) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Rotate R12 two bits to the right.
(b) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Rotate R12 two bits to the left.
(c) Perform (CAFE)h + (DABA)h.
(d) Perform (CAFE)h - (DABA)h.
(e) Perform (CA)h x (FE)h.
(f ) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Clear even bits.
(g) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Clear odd bits.
(h) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Set even bits.
(i) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Set odd bits.
(j) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Increment R12.
3. Compare predicted and actual results. There are several features with Code Composer
Studio (CCS) that will prove very helpful in this step.
• Register contents may be viewed by selecting View > Registers.
• You can single step through the program by selecting Target > Assembly Step
Into.
• The single step progress can be viewed in the Disassembly window within the CCS
main screen.

3.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we introduced a number of fundamental concepts and tools used to program
MSP430 microcontrollers. These include the programming model which allows programmers to
“see” the current operation status of the controller, a number of power-saving operating modes,
the hardware and software organizations of the controller, the instruction set architecture (and
available instructions), directives which are the instructions to assemblers, and the overall as-
sembly process. We also presented good software programming skills called top-down design
and bottom-up implementation and the use of high-level and assembly languages when pro-
gramming embedded controllers such as MSP430.

3.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

68HC12 CPU12 Reference Manual (CPU12 RM/AD Rev 1), Motorala, 1997. 95
Barrett, S. F. Arduino Microcontroller: Processing for Everyone!, Morgan & Claypool Publishers,
2010. DOI: 10.2200/s00522ed1v01y201307dcs043.
136 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
Code Composer StudioTM v7.x for MSP430TM User’s Guide, (SLAU157AP), Texas Instruments,
2017. 129
Hamann, J. C. EE2390 Laboratory Manual, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Wyoming. 95
Miller, G. H. Microcomputer Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1995. 95
Morris Mano, M. Digital Design, 3rd ed., Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2002. 95
MSP430 Assembly Language Tools User’s Guide, (SLAU131R), Texas Instruments, 2018. 101
MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontroller, (SLASE59D), Texas Instruments, 2018. 83, 86
MSP430FR4xx and MSP430FR2xx Family User’s Guide (SLAU445G), Texas Instruments,
2016. 88
MSP430FR58xx, MSP430FR59xx, and MSP430FR6xx Family User’s Guide (SLAU367O),
Texas Instruments, 2017. 85, 89
MSP430FR599x, MSP430FR596x Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLASE54C), Texas Instru-
ments, 2018. 83, 86
Texas Instruments MSP430x4xx Family User’s Guide “RISC 16-Bit CPU” (SLAU056L), Texas
Instruments, 2013. 96, 100, 120
Texas Instruments MSP430x5xx/MSP430x6xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU208Q), Texas Instru-
ments, 2018. 94, 99

3.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Fundamental
1. What is the function of the SP, PC, and SR registers?
2. Define each bit in the SR register.
3. Perform the following operations. Express the final result in decimal, binary, and hexadec-
imal.
(a) (BABA)h + (DADA)h
(b) (BABA)h - (DADA)h
(c) (BA)h x (DA)h
(d) Describe how to observe registers during program execution with Texas Instruments
Code Composer Studio.
 3.14. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 137
Advanced
1. Compare and contrast the RISC vs. the CISC approach to computer architecture design.

2. Provide a one-line definition for each system of the MSP430 microcontroller.

3. The registers onboard the MSP430 microcontroller are 16 bits wide. What is the largest
unsigned integer that can be stored in 16 bits? Signed integer?

4. What is the fundamental premise of the low-power operating modes of the MSP430 mi-
crocontroller?

5. Construct a summary chart of the MSP430 low-power operating modes. Include the status
register bit settings to enter a specific mode and the clock status for each mode.

6. Provide an example of each addressing mode.

7. For each of the operations listed below, predict the final result and the value of flags V, N,
Z, and C.

(a) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Rotate R12 three bits to the right.
(b) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Rotate R12 three bits to the left.
(c) Perform (CAFE)h + (DABA)h. Add the carry bit to the result. State any assumptions
made.
(d) Perform (CAFE)h - (DABA)h. Subtract the carry bit from the result. State any as-
sumptions made.
(e) Perform (CA)h x (FE)h.
(f ) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Clear even bits.
(g) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Clear odd bits.
(h) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Set even bits.
(i) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Set odd bits.
(j) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Increment R12.
(k) Place (CAFE)h into R12. Swap the high- and low-order bytes.

Challenging
1. Write an assembly language program which increments a variable. If the variable is even,
LED1 on the MSP-EXP430FR2433 evaluation board will illuminate, whereas LED2 will
illuminate for an even value. Note: You will need to single step through the program to
observe program operation.
138 3. HARDWARE ORGANIZATION AND SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING
2. Write an assembly language program which loads a variable and then performs a sequential
logical shift right. If the bit shifted out is even, LED1 on the MSP-EXP430FR2433
experimenter board will illuminate, whereas LED2 will illuminate for an even value. Note:
You will need to single step through the program to observe program operation.
 139

CHAPTER 4

MSP430 Operating Parameters

and Interfacing
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to:

• describe the voltage and current parameters for the Texas Instruments MSP430 micro-
controller;

• apply the knowledge of voltage and current parameters toward properly interfacing input
and output devices to the MSP430 microcontroller;

• distinguish between low voltage 3.3 VDC and 5.0 VDC microcontroller operations;

• interface the MSP430 microcontroller operating at 3.3 VDC with a peripheral device
operating at 5.0 VDC;

• interface a wide variety of input and output devices to the MSP430 microcontroller;

• describe the special concerns that must be followed when the MSP430 microcontroller is
used to interface to a high-power DC or AC device;

• describe how to control the speed and direction of a DC motor; and

• describe how to control several types of AC loads.

In this chapter, we introduce the important concepts of the operating envelope for a micro-
controller. We begin by reviewing the voltage and current electrical parameters for the MSP430
microcontroller. We use this information to properly interface input and output devices to the
MSP430 microcontroller. The MSP430 operates at a low voltage (3.3 VDC and below). There
are many compatible low voltage peripheral devices. However, many peripheral devices still
operate at 5.0 VDC. We discuss how to interface a 3.3 VDC microcontroller to 5.0 VDC pe-
ripherals. We then discuss the special considerations for controlling a high-power DC or AC
load such as a motor. Throughout the chapter, we provide several detailed examples to illustrate
concepts.
140 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
4.1 OPERATING PARAMETERS
A microcontroller is an electronic device which has precisely defined operating conditions. If
the microcontroller is used within its defined operating parameter limits, it should continue to
operate correctly. However, if the allowable conditions are violated, spurious results or micro-
controller damage may result.

4.1.1 MSP430 3.3 VDC OPERATION

Any time a device is connected to a microcontroller, careful interface analysis must be performed.
The MSP430 is a low operating voltage microcontroller. It may be operated with a supply voltage
between 2.2 and 3.6 VDC. To perform the interface analysis, there are eight different electrical
specifications we must consider. The electrical parameters are:

• VOH : the lowest guaranteed output voltage for a logic high;

• VOL : the highest guaranteed output voltage for a logic low;

• IOH : the output current for a VOH logic high;

• IOL : the output current for a VOL logic low;

• VIH : the lowest input voltage guaranteed to be recognized as a logic high;

• VIL : the highest input voltage guaranteed to be recognized as a logic low;

• IIH : the input current for a VIH logic high; and

• IIL : the input current for a VIL logic low.

These drive parameters cannot be used at their face value. To properly interface a periph-
eral device to the microcontroller, the parameters provided in Figure 4.1 must be used. As shown
in the figure, operating parameter curves for the MSP430 microcontroller operating at 3.0 VDC
change under varying conditions.
It is important to realize that these are static values taken under specific operating con-
ditions. If external circuitry is connected such that the microcontroller acts as a current source
(current leaving microcontroller) or current sink (current entering microcontroller), the voltage
parameters listed above will also be affected.
In the current source case, an output voltage VOH is provided at the output pin of the
microcontroller when the load connected to this pin draws a current of IOH . If a load draws
more current from the output pin than the IOH specification, the value of VOH is reduced. If the
load current becomes too high, the value of VOH falls below the value of VIH for the subsequent
logic circuit stage, and it will not be recognized as an acceptable logic high signal. When this
situation occurs, erratic and unpredictable circuit behavior results.
 4.1. OPERATING PARAMETERS 141

25

20

Low-Level Output Current (mA)

15

10

5
85°C
0 25°C
-40°C
-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3.5 3
Low-Level Output Voltage (V)
DVCC = 3 V
Typical Low-Level Output Current vs. Low-Level
Output Voltage

5
85°C
0 25°C
High-Level Output Current (mA)

-5 -40°C

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3.5 3
High-Level Output Voltage (V)
DVCC = 3 V
Typical High-Level Output Current vs. High-Level
Output Voltage

Figure 4.1: MSP430 drive current parameters [SLASE59C, 2018]. Illustration used with per-
mission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).
142 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
In the sink case, an output voltage VOL is provided at the output pin of the microcontroller
when the load connected to this pin delivers a current of IOL to this logic pin. If a load delivers
more current to the output pin of the microcontroller than the IOL specification, the value of
VOL increases. If the load current becomes too high, the value of VOL rises above the value of VIL
for the subsequent logic circuit stage, and it will not be recognized as an acceptable logic low
signal. When this situation occurs, erratic and unpredictable circuit behavior results.
You must also ensure that total current limits for an entire microcontroller port and overall
bulk port specifications are observed. For planning purposes, the sum of current sourced or
sinked from a port should not exceed 48 mA. As before, if these guidelines are not complied
with, erratic microcontroller behavior may result. Several examples are provided in an upcoming
section.

4.1.2 COMPATIBLE 3.3 VDC LOGIC FAMILIES

For the rest of this chapter, we limit our discussion to the MSP430 operating with a 3.3 VDC
supply voltage. There are several compatible logic families that operate at 3.3 VDC. These fam-
ilies include the LVC, LVA, and the LVT logic families. Key parameters for the low voltage
compatible families are provided in Figure 4.2 [SDYU001AB, 2017].

4.1.3 MICROCONTROLLER OPERATION AT 5.0 VDC

The MSP430 operates at 3.3 VDC and below. However, many HC CMOS microcontroller
families and peripherals operate at a supply voltage of 5.0 VDC. For completeness, we pro-
vide operating parameters for these 5.0 VDC devices. This information is essential should the
MSP430 be interfaced to a 5 VDC CMOS device or peripheral.
Typical values for a microcontroller in the HC CMOS family, assuming VDD D 5:0 volts
and VSS D 0 volts, are provided below. The minus sign on several of the currents indicates a
current flowing out of the device. A positive current indicates current flowing into the device.

• VOH = 4.2 volts,

• VOL = 0.4 volts,

• IOH = 0.8 milliamps,

• IOL = 1.6 milliamps,

• VIH = 3.5 volts,

• VIL = 1.0 volt,

• IIH = 10 microamps, and

• IIL = 10 microamps.
 4.1. OPERATING PARAMETERS 143

Output Gate Input Gate

Parameters Parameters
VDD = 3.3 VDC VDD = 3.3 VDC

VOH = 2.4 V IOH

IIH VIH = 2.0 V

IIL VIL = 0.8 V

VOL = 0.4 V IOL

VSS = 0 VDC VSS = 0 VDC

(a) Voltage and current electrical parameters

LVC LVA LVT

Vcc 1.65–3.6 V 2.0–5.5 V 2.7–3.6 V

tpd 5.5 ns 14 ns 3.5 ns

loc 10 uA 20 uA 190 uA

(b) LV parameters

Figure 4.2: Low voltage compatible logic families [SDYU001AB, 2017].

144 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
4.1.4 INTERFACING 3.3 VDC LOGIC DEVICES WITH 5.0 VDC LOGIC
FAMILIES
Although there are a wide variety of available 3.3 VDC peripheral devices available for the
MSP430, you may find a need to interface the controller with 5.0 VDC devices. If bidirec-
tional information exchange is required between the microcontroller and a peripheral device,
a bidirectional level shifter should be used. The level shifter translates the 3.3 VDC signal up
to 5 VDC for the peripheral device and back down to 3.3 VDC for the microcontroller. There
are a wide variety of unidirectional and bidirectional level shifting devices available. Texas In-
struments level shifting options include: unidirectional, bidirectional, and direction-controlled
level shifters. For example, the LSF0101, LSF0102, LSF0204, and LSF0108 level shifters are
available in the LSF010XEVM-001 Bi-Directional Multi-Voltage Level Translator Evalua-
tion Module (LSFEVM) (www.ti.com), see Figure 4.3. Later in the chapter we show how the
LSF010XEVM module is used to interface the MSP430 with a LED special effects cube.

Figure 4.3: LSF010XEVM-001 bi-birectional multi-voltage level translator evaluation module

(LSFEVM). Illustration used with permission of Texas Instruments SDLU003A [2015].

Example: Large LED displays. Large seven-segments displays with character heights of 6.5
inches are available from SparkFun Electronics (www.sparkfun.com). Multiple display char-
acters may be daisy chained together to form a display panel of desired character length. Only
four lines from the MSP430 are required to control the display panel (ground, latch, clock,
and serial data). Each character is controlled by a Large Digit Driver Board (#WIG-13279)
equipped with the Texas Instruments TPIC6C596 IC Program Logic 8-bit Shifter Register.
The shift register requires a 5 VDC supply and has a VIH value of 4.25 VDC. The MSP430,
when supplied at 3.3 VDC, has a maximum VOH value of 3.3 VDC. Since the output signal
levels from the MSP430 are not high enough to control the TPIC6C596, a level shifter (e.g.,
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 145
LSF010XEVM module) is required to up convert the MSP430 signals to be compatible to the
ones for the TPIC6C596 [SLIS093D, 2015].

4.2 INPUT DEVICES

In this section, we discuss how to properly interface input devices to a microcontroller. We start
with the most basic input component, a simple on/off switch.

4.2.1 SWITCHES
Switches come in a variety of types. As a system designer, it is up to you to choose the appropriate
switch for a specific application. Switch varieties commonly used in microcontroller applications
are illustrated in Figure 4.4a. Provided below is a brief summary of the different types.
• Slide switch: A slide switch has two different positions: on and off. The switch is manually
moved to one position or the other. For microcontroller applications, slide switches are
available that fit in the profile of a common integrated circuit size dual inline package
(DIP). A bank of four or eight DIP switches in a single package is commonly available.
• Momentary contact pushbutton switch: A momentary contact pushbutton switch comes
in two varieties: normally closed (NC) and normally open (NO). A normally open switch,
as its name implies, does not normally provide an electrical connection between its con-
tacts. When the pushbutton portion of the switch is depressed, the connection between
the two switch contacts is made. The connection is held as long as the switch is depressed.
When the switch is released, the connection is opened. The converse is true for a nor-
mally closed switch. For microcontroller applications, pushbutton switches are available
in a small Tactile (tact) type switch configuration. The MSP-EXP430FR2433 and the
MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPads are each equipped with two pushbutton tactile (tact)
switches designated S1 and S2.
• Push on/push off switches: This switch type of is also available in a normally open or nor-
mally closed configuration. For the normally open configuration, the switch is depressed
to make connection between the two switch contacts. The pushbutton must be depressed
again to release the connection.
• Hexadecimal rotary switches: Small profile rotary switches are available for microcon-
troller applications. These switches commonly have sixteen rotary switch positions. As the
switch is rotated to each position, a unique four-bit binary code is provided at the switch
contacts.
A common switch interface is shown in Figure 4.4b. This interface allows a logic one or
zero to be properly introduced to a microcontroller input port pin. The basic interface consists
of the switch in series with a current limiting resistor. The node between the switch and the
146 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

DIP switch Tact switch PB switch Hexadecimal

rotary switch
(a) Switch varieties

VDD VDD
microcontroller
4.7 kOhm pullup resistor
To microcontroller input activated
- Logic one when switch open
- Logic zero when switch is closed

(b) Switch interface

VDD

4.7 kOhm 74LVC14

470 kOhm

0.1 μF

(c) Switch interface equipped with debouncing circuitry

Figure 4.4: Switch interface.

 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 147
resistor is provided to the microcontroller input pin. In the configuration shown, the resistor
pulls the microcontroller input up to the supply voltage VDD . When the switch is closed, the
node is grounded and a logic zero is detected by the microcontroller input pin. To reverse the
logic of the switch configuration, the position of the resistor and the switch is simply reversed.

4.2.2 SWITCH DEBOUNCING

Mechanical switches do not make a clean transition from one position (on) to another (off ).
When a switch is moved from one position to another, it makes, and breaks, contact multiple
times. This activity may go on for tens of milliseconds. A microcontroller is relatively fast as
compared to the action of the switch. Therefore, the microcontroller is able to recognize each
switch bounce as a separate and erroneous transition.
To correct the switch bounce phenomena, additional external hardware components may
be used or software techniques may be employed. A hardware debounce circuit is illustrated in
Figure 4.4c. The node between the switch and the limiting resistor of the basic switch circuit
is fed to a low-pass filter (LPF), formed by the 470 kOhm resistor and the capacitor. The LPF
prevents abrupt changes (bounces) in the input signal from the microcontroller. The LPF is
followed by a 74LVC14 Schmitt trigger which is simply an inverter equipped with hysteresis.
The Schmitt trigger has a different value of threshold voltage to trigger an output change for a
positive transitioning (logic low to high) signal vs. a negative transitioning (logic high to low)
signal. This difference in threshold voltages results in typical hysteresis values of 0.3 VDC. The
hysteresis further limits the switch bouncing.
Switches may also be debounced using software techniques. This is accomplished by in-
serting a 30–50 ms lockout delay in the function responding to port pin changes. The delay pre-
vents the microcontroller from responding to the multiple switch transitions related to bouncing.
You must carefully analyze a given design to determine if hardware or software switch
debouncing techniques should be used. It is important to remember that all switches exhibit
bounce phenomena and therefore must be debounced.

4.2.3 KEYPADS
A keypad is an extension of the simple switch configuration. A typical keypad configuration and
interface are shown in Figure 4.5. As you can see, the keypad contains multiple switches in a
two-dimensional array configuration. The switches in the array share common row and column
connections. The common column connections are pulled up to Vcc by external 10 K resistors
or by pull-up resistors within the MSP430.
To determine if a switch has been depressed, a single row of keypad switches is first as-
serted by the microcontroller, followed by a reading of the host keypad column inputs. If a switch
has been depressed, the keypad pin corresponding to the column the switch is in will also be
asserted. The combination of a row and a column assertion can be decoded to determine which
key has been pressed. The keypad rows are sequentially asserted. Since the keypad is a collection
148 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Ro w 3

1
Row 2
Row 4
C l1
C l2
C l3
Ro l 4

w
1
2
3
4

o
o
o
o
C
ol
ol
ol
ol
EFGH J KLM

C
C
C
C
0 1 2 3 Row 1

4 5 6 7 Row 2
8 9 A B Row 3
C D E F Row 4

Grayhill 88BB2 Reverse View

0 1 2 3
M row 1 (31)

4 5 6 7

L row 2 (32)

8 9 A B
K row 3 (33)

C D E F
J row 4
(34)
Vcc

Internal Pull-up Resistors Asserted

E F G H
column 4 (38)
Vcc

column 3 (37)
Vcc

column 2 (36)
Vcc

column 1 (35)

Figure 4.5: Keypad interface.

 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 149
of switches, debounce techniques must also be employed. In the example code provided, a 200
ms delay is provided to mitigate switch bounce. In the keypad shown, the rows are sequentially
asserted active low (0).
The keypad is typically used to capture user requests to a microcontroller. A standard key-
pad with alphanumeric characters may be used to provide alphanumeric values to the microcon-
troller such as providing your personal identification number (PIN) for a financial transaction.
However, some keypads are equipped with removable switch covers such that any activity can
be associated with a key press.
Example: Keypad. In this example a Grayhill 88BB2 4-by-4 matrix keypad is interfaced to the
MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad. The example shows how a specific switch depression can
be associated with different activities by using a “switch” statement.
//*********************************************************************
//keypad_4X4
//Specified pins are for the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LuanchPad
//This code is in the public domain.
//*********************************************************************

#define row1 31
#define row2 32
#define row3 33
#define row4 34

#define col1 35
#define col2 36
#define col3 37
#define col4 38

unsigned char key_depressed = '*';

void setup()
{
//start serial connection to monitor
Serial.begin(9600);

//configure row pins as ouput

pinMode(row1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(row2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(row3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(row4, OUTPUT);
150 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

//configure column pins as input and assert pullup resistors

pinMode(col1, INPUT_PULLUP);
pinMode(col2, INPUT_PULLUP);
pinMode(col3, INPUT_PULLUP);
pinMode(col4, INPUT_PULLUP);
}

void loop()
{
//Assert row1, deassert row 2,3,4
digitalWrite(row1, LOW); digitalWrite(row2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(row3, HIGH); digitalWrite(row4, HIGH);

//Read columns
if (digitalRead(col1) == LOW)
key_depressed = '0';
else if (digitalRead(col2) == LOW)
key_depressed = '1';
else if (digitalRead(col3) == LOW)
key_depressed = '2';
else if (digitalRead(col4) == LOW)
key_depressed = '3';
else
key_depressed = '*';

if (key_depressed == '*')
{
//Assert row2, deassert row 1,3,4
digitalWrite(row1, HIGH); digitalWrite(row2, LOW);
digitalWrite(row3, HIGH); digitalWrite(row4, HIGH);

//Read columns
if (digitalRead(col1) == LOW)
key_depressed = '4';
else if (digitalRead(col2) == LOW)
key_depressed = '5';
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 151
else if (digitalRead(col3) == LOW)
key_depressed = '6';
else if (digitalRead(col4) == LOW)
key_depressed = '7';
else
key_depressed = '*';
}

if (key_depressed == '*')
{
//Assert row3, deassert row 1,2,4
digitalWrite(row1, HIGH); digitalWrite(row2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(row3, LOW); digitalWrite(row4, HIGH);

//Read columns
if (digitalRead(col1) == LOW)
key_depressed = '8';
else if (digitalRead(col2) == LOW)
key_depressed = '9';
else if (digitalRead(col3) == LOW)
key_depressed = 'A';
else if (digitalRead(col4) == LOW)
key_depressed = 'B';
else
key_depressed = '*';
}

if (key_depressed == '*')
{
//Assert row4, deassert row 1,2,3
digitalWrite(row1, HIGH); digitalWrite(row2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(row3, HIGH); digitalWrite(row4, LOW);

//Read columns
if (digitalRead(col1) == LOW)
key_depressed = 'C';
else if (digitalRead(col2) == LOW)
key_depressed = 'D';
else if (digitalRead(col3) == LOW)
152 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
key_depressed = 'E';
else if (digitalRead(col4) == LOW)
key_depressed = 'F';
else
key_depressed = '*';
}

if(key_depressed != '*')
{
Serial.write(key_depressed);
Serial.write(' ');

switch(key_depressed)
{
case '0' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 0");
break;

case '1' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 1");

break;

case '2' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 2");

break;

case '3' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 3");

break;

case '4' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 4");

break;

case '5' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 5");

break;

case '6' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 6");

break;

case '7' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 7");

break;

case '8' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 8");

 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 153
break;

case '9' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case 9");

break;

case 'A' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case A");

break;

case 'B' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case B");

break;

case 'C' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case C");

break;

case 'D' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case D");

break;

case 'E' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case E");

break;

case 'F' : Serial.println("Do something associated with case F");

break;
}
}
//limit switch bounce
delay(200);
}
//*********************************************************************

4.2.4 SENSORS
A microcontroller is typically used in control applications where data is collected. The data is
assimilated and processed by the host algorithm, and a control decision and accompanying sig-
nals are provided by the microcontroller. Input data for the microcontroller is collected by a
complement of input sensors. These sensors may be digital or analog in nature.

Digital Sensors
Digital sensors provide a series of digital logic pulses with sensor data encoded. The sensor data
may be encoded in any of the parameters associated with the digital pulse train such as duty cycle,
154 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
frequency, period, or pulse rate. The input portion of the timing system may be configured to
measure these parameters.
An example of a digital sensor is the optical encoder. An optical encoder consists of a
small plastic transparent disk with opaque lines etched into the disk surface. A stationary optical
emitter and detector pair are placed on either side of the disk. As the disk rotates, the opaque
lines break the continuity between the optical source and detector. The signal from the optical
detector is monitored to determine disk rotation, as shown in Figure 4.6.

Stationary Optical
Source and Detector
Rotating Pair
Disk D

Detector Output

(a) Incremental tachometer encoder

Ch A

Ch B

(b) Incremental quadrature encoder

Figure 4.6: Optical encoder.

There are two major types of optical encoders: incremental encoders and absolute en-
coders. An absolute encoder is used when it is required to retain position information when
power is lost. For example, if you were using an optical encoder in a security gate control
system, an absolute encoder would be used to monitor the gate position. The absolute en-
coder is equipped with multiple data tracks to determine the precise location of the encoder
disk [Stegmann].
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 155
An incremental encoder is used in applications where velocity and/or direction informa-
tion is required. The incremental encoder types may be further subdivided into tachometers and
quadrature encoders. An incremental tachometer encoder consists of a single track of etched
opaque lines as shown in Figure 4.6a. It is used when the velocity of a rotating device is re-
quired. To calculate velocity, the number of detector pulses is counted in a fixed amount of
time. Since the number of pulses per encoder revolution is known, velocity may be calculated.
The quadrature encoder contains two tracks shifted in relationship to one another by 90ı . This
allows the calculation of both velocity and direction. To determine direction, one would monitor
the phase relationship between Channel A and Channel B, as shown in Figure 4.6b [Stegmann].
Example: Optical encoder. An optical encoder provides 200 pulses per revolution. The encoder
is connected to a rotating motor shaft. If 80 pulses are counted in a 100 ms span, what is the
speed of the motor in revolutions per minute (RPM)?

.1 rev=200 pulses/  .80 pulses=0:100 s/  .60 s=min/ D 240 RPM:

Analog Sensors and Transducers

Analog sensors or transducers provide a DC voltage that is proportional to the physical param-
eter being measured. The analog signal may be first preprocessed by external analog hardware
such that it falls within the voltage references of the conversion subsystem. In the case of the
MSP430 microcontroller, the transducer output must fall between 0 and 3.3 VDC. The analog
voltage is then converted to a corresponding binary representation.
An example of an analog sensor is the flex sensor shown in Figure 4.7a. The flex sensor
provides a change in resistance for a change in sensor flexure. At 0ı flex, the sensor provides
10 kOhms of resistance. For 90ı flex, the sensor provides 30–40 kOhms of resistance. Since
the microcontroller cannot measure resistance directly, the change in flex sensor resistance is
converted to a change in a DC voltage. This is accomplished using the voltage divider network
shown in Figure 4.7c. For increased flex, the DC voltage will increase. The voltage can be mea-
sured using the MSP430’s analog to digital converter subsystem.
The flex sensor may be used in applications such as virtual reality data gloves, robotic
sensors, biometric sensors, and in science and engineering experiments [Images Company]. One
of the co-authors used the circuit provided in Figure 4.7 to help a colleague in zoology monitor
the movement of a newt salamander during a scientific experiment.
Example: Joystick. The thumb joystick is used to select a desired direction in an X–Y plane
as shown in Figure 4.9. The thumb joystick contains two built-in potentiometers (horizontal
and vertical). A reference voltage of 3.3 VDC is applied to the VCC input of the joystick. As
the joystick is moved, the horizontal (HORZ) and vertical (VERT) analog output voltages will
change to indicate the joystick position. The joystick is also equipped with a digital select (SEL)
button.
156 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

0.25 in (0.635 cm)

4.5 in (11.43 cm)

(a) Flex sensor physical dimentions

VDD

10 K Fixed
Resistor

Flex Sensor:
-- 0° flex, 10 K
-- 90° flex , 30–40 K
(b) Flex action

(c) Equivalent circuit

Figure 4.7: Flex sensor.

Xmax
X1max X2max

X1min
K X2min
Xmin Screen
Input Transducer Multiplier ADC Input

B
(Bias)

Figure 4.8: A block diagram of the signal conditioning for an analog-to-digital converter. The
range of the sensor voltage output is mapped to the analog-to-digital converter input voltage
range. The scalar multiplier maps the magnitudes of the two ranges and the bias voltage is used
to align two limits.
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 157
Y-Vertical
(analog)
0 VDC

X-Horizontal Select X-Horizontal

(analog) (push) (analog)
0 VDC 3.3 VDC

Y-Vertical
(analog)
3.3 VDC (b) Sparkfun joystick (COM-09032) and
(a) Joystick operation breakout board (BOB-09110)

3.3 VDC

VERT 10 K
Vcc to MSP430
sel to MSP430
3.3 VDC
SEL
HORZ
to MSP430 GND

(c) Thumb joystick circuit

Figure 4.9: Thumb joystick. Images used with permission of Sparkfun (www.sparkfun.com).

Example: IR sensor. In Chapter 2, a Sharp IR sensor is used to sense the presence of maze
walls. In this example, we use the Sharp GP2Y0A21YKOF IR sensor to control the intensity
of an LED. The profile of the Sharp IR sensor is provided in Figure 4.10.
//****************************************************************
//IR_sensor
//
//The circuit:
//- For the MSP-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad, the IR sensor signal pin is
// connected to analog pin 0 (2).
//- The sensor power and ground pins are connected to 5 VDC and
// ground respectively.
//- The analog output is designated as the onboard red LED.
//
158 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
3V

Sensor Output Voltage (V)

5 cm
Range (cm)

Figure 4.10: Sharp GP2Y0A21YKOF IR sensor profile.

//Created: Dec 29, 2008

//Modified: Aug 30, 2011
//Author: Tom Igoe
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//****************************************************************

const int analogInPin = 2; //Energia analog input pin A0

const int analogOutPin = RED_LED; //Energia onboard red LED pin

int sensorValue = 0; //value read from the OR sensor

int outputValue = 0; //value output to the PWM (red LED)

void setup()
{
// initialize serial communications at 9600 bps:
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop()
{
//read the analog in value:
sensorValue = analogRead(analogInPin);
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 159

// map it to the range of the analog out:

outputValue = map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 255);

// change the analog out value:

analogWrite(analogOutPin, outputValue);

// print the results to the serial monitor:

Serial.print("sensor = " );
Serial.print(sensorValue);
Serial.print("\t output = ");
Serial.println(outputValue);

// wait 10 milliseconds before the next loop

// for the analog-to-digital converter to settle
// after the last reading:
delay(10);
}

//****************************************************************

Example: Ultrasonic sensor. The ultrasonic sensor pictured in Figure 4.11 is an example of an
analog-based sensor. The sensor is based on the concept of ultrasound or sound waves that are at
a frequency above the human range of hearing (20 Hz to 20 kHz). The ultrasonic sensor pictured
in Figure 4.11c emits a sound wave at 42 kHz. The sound wave reflects from a solid surface and
returns to the sensor. The amount of time for the sound wave to transit from the surface and back
to the sensor may be used to determine the range from the sensor to the wall. Figure 4.11c,d
show an ultrasonic sensor manufactured by Maxbotix (LV-EZ3). The sensor provides an output
that is linearly related to range in three different formats: (a) a serial RS-232 compatible output
at 9600 bits per second, (b) a pulse output which corresponds to 147 us/in width, and (c) an
analog output at a resolution of 10 mV/in. The sensor is powered from a 2.5–5.5 VDC source
(www.sparkfun.com).
Example: Inertial measurement unit. Pictured in Figure 4.12 is an inertial measurement unit
(IMU) which consists of an IDG5000 dual-axis gyroscope and an ADXL335 triple axis ac-
celerometer. This sensor may be used in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), autonomous heli-
copters and robots. For robotic applications the robot tilt may be measured in the X and Y
directions as shown in Figure 4.12c,d (www.sparkfun.com).
Example: Level sensor. Milone Technologies manufacture a line of continuous fluid level sen-
sors. The sensor resembles a ruler and provides a near liner response, as shown in Figure 4.13.
160 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

20 Hz 20 kHz 42 kHz Frequency (Hertz)

Bass Midrange Treble Ultrasonic
(a) Sound spectrum

Ultrasonic
Transducer

(b) Ultrasonic range finding

O1: leave open

O2: PW
O3: analog output
O4: RX
O5: TX
O6: V+(3.3–5.0V)
O7: gnd

(c) Ultrasonic range finder Maxbotix LV-EZ3 (d) Pinout

(SparkFun SEN-08501)

Figure 4.11: Ultrasonic sensor. (Sensor image used courtesy of SparkFun, Electronics (www.sp
arkfun.com).)
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 161

IMU
IDG500/ADXL335
VDD raw
grnd
xrate
yrate x4.5out
vref y4.5out
st ptats
zout az
yout
xout

(a) SparkFun IMU Analog Combo Board (b) IDG500/ADXL335 pinout

5 Degrees of Freedom IDF500/ADXL335 SEN

IR Sensor IR Sensor
Array Array
Starboard Port Stern Bow

drive drive
motor motor
battery
compartment

(c) (left) Robot front view and (right) side view

sor
Sen y S te
IR Arra t rn
Por

-30° roll -30° pitch

ve
driotor
m IR
com bat Bo S
w Ar enso
d par ter y ray r
rb oar ve
driotor
tm
ent
Sta m

(d) (left) Roll and (right) pitch

Figure 4.12: Inertial measurement unit. (IMU image used courtesy of SparkFun, Electronics
(www.sparkfun.com).)
162 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
The sensor reports a change in resistance to indicate the distance from sensor top to the fluid
surface. A wide resistance change occurs from 700 ohms at a 1-in fluid level to 50 ohms at a
12.5-in fluid level (www.milonetech.com). To covert the resistance change to a voltage change
measurable by the MSP430, a voltage divider circuit as shown in Figure 4.13 may be used. With
a supply voltage (VDD ) of 3.3 VDC, a VTAPE voltage of 0.855 VDC results for a one inch fluid
level. Whereas, a fluid of 12.5 in provides a VTAPE voltage level of 0.080 VDC.

4.2.5 TRANSDUCER INTERFACE DESIGN (TID) CIRCUIT

In addition to transducers, we also need a signal conditioning circuitry before we can apply the
signal for analog-to-digital conversion. The signal conditioning circuitry is called the transducer
interface. The objective of the transducer interface circuit is to scale and shift the electrical signal
range to map the output of the input transducer to the input range of the analog-to-digital
converter, which is typically 0–3.3 VDC. Figure 4.8 shows the transducer interface circuit using
an input transducer.
The transducer interface consists of two steps: scaling and shifting via a DC bias. The scale
step allows the span of the transducer output to match the span of the ADC system input range.
The bias step shifts the output of the scale step to align with the input of the ADC system. In
general, the scaling and bias process may be described by two equations:

V2max D .V1max  K/ C B
V2min D .V1min  K/ C B:

The variable V1max represents the maximum output voltage from the input transducer. This
voltage occurs when the maximum physical variable (Xmax ) is presented to the input transducer.
This voltage must be scaled by the scalar multiplier (K) and then have a DC offset bias voltage
(B) added to provide the voltage V2max to the input of the ADC converter [USAFA].
Similarly, the variable V1min represents the minimum output voltage from the input trans-
ducer. This voltage occurs when the minimum physical variable (Xmin ) is presented to the input
transducer. This voltage must be scaled by the scalar multiplier (K) and then have a DC offset
bias voltage (B) added to produce voltage V2min , the input of the ADC converter.
Usually the values of V1max and V1min are provided with the documentation for the trans-
ducer. Also, the values of V2max and V2min are known. They are the high and low reference voltages
for the ADC system (usually 3.3 VDC and 0 VDC for the MSP430 microcontroller). We thus
have two equations and two unknowns to solve for K and B. The circuits to scale by K and add
the offset B are usually implemented with operational amplifiers.
Example: A photodiode is a semiconductor device that provides an output current, correspond-
ing to the light impinging on its active surface. The photodiode is used with a transimpedance
amplifier to convert the output current to an output voltage. A photodiode/transimpedance am-
plifier provides an output voltage of 0 volt for maximum rated light intensity and -2.50 VDC
 4.2. INPUT DEVICES 163

700

600

500

Resistance [ohms]
400

300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Distance from Sensor Top to Fluid Level (inches)
(a) Characteristics for Milone Technologies eTape TM fluid level sensor

Sensor Lead
Connections
Connection
Area
VDD = 3.3 VDC
Max
2 kOhm fixed
resistor
12

eTape sensor
-- 700 ohms at 1” fluid
--50 ohms at 12.5” fluid

(c) Equivalent Circuit

1
eTape

(b) eTape Sensor

Figure 4.13: Milone technologies fluid level sensor (www.milonetech.com).

164 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
output voltage for the minimum rated light intensity. Calculate the required values of K and B
for this light transducer, so it may be interfaced to a microcontroller’s ADC system.

V2max D .V1max  K/ C B
V2min D .V1min  K/ C B
3:3V D .0V  K/ C B
0V D . 2:50V  K/ C B:

The values of K and B may then be determined to be 1.3 and 3.3 VDC, respectively.

4.2.6 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

In the previous section, we discussed the transducer interface design (TID) process. Going
through this design process yields a required value of gain (K) and DC bias (B). Operational
amplifiers (op amps) are typically used to implement a TID interface. In this section, we briefly
introduce operational amplifiers including ideal op amp characteristics, classic op amp circuit
configurations, and an example to illustrate how to implement a TID with op amps. Op amps
are also used in a wide variety of other applications, including analog computing, analog filter
design, and a myriad of other applications. The interested reader is referred to the References
section at the end of the chapter for pointers to some excellent texts on this topic.

The Ideal Operational Amplifier

A generic ideal operational amplifier is shown in Figure 4.14. An ideal operational does not
exist in the real world. However, it is a good first approximation for use in developing op amp
application circuits.
The op amp is an active device (requires power supplies) equipped with two inputs, a
single output, and several voltage source inputs. The two inputs are labeled Vp, or the non-
inverting input, and Vn, the inverting input. The output of the op amp is determined by taking
the difference between Vp and Vn and multiplying the difference by the open loop gain (Avol)
of the op amp, which is typically a large value much greater than 50,000. Due to the large value
of Avol , it does not take much of a difference between Vp and Vn before the op amp will saturate.
When an op amp saturates, it does not damage the op amp, but the output is limited to ˙Vcc .
This will clip the output, and hence distort the signal, at levels slightly less than ˙Vcc . Due
to this reason, op amps are typically used in a closed loop, negative feedback configuration. A
sample of classic operational amplifier configurations with negative feedback are provided in
Figure 4.15 [Faulkenberry, 1977].
It should be emphasized that the equations provided with each operational amplifier cir-
cuit are only valid if the circuit configurations are identical to those shown. Even a slight varia-
tion in the circuit configuration may have a dramatic effect on circuit operation. To analyze each
operational amplifier circuit, use the following steps.
 4.3. OUTPUT DEVICES 165

Vcc
In Vo
Vn - Vcc saturation

Ip Vo = Avol (Vp - Vn)

Vp +
linear region
- Vcc Vi = Vp - Vn

Ideal conditions:
--In = Ip = 0
saturation -Vcc
-- Vp = Vn
-- Avol >> 50,000
-- Vo = Avol (Vp - Vn)

Figure 4.14: Ideal operational amplifier characteristics.

• Write the node equation at Vn for the circuit.

• Apply ideal op amp characteristics to the node equation.

• Solve the node equation for Vo.

As an example, we provide the analysis of the non-inverting amplifier circuit in Fig-
ure 4.16. This same analysis technique may be applied to the remaining circuits in Figure 4.15
to arrive at the equations for Vout provided.
Example: In the previous section, it was determined that the values of K and B were 1.3 and
3.3 VDC, respectively. The two-stage op amp circuitry in Figure 4.17 implements these values
of K and B. The first stage provides an amplification of -1.3 due to the use of the non-inverting
amplifier configuration. In the second stage, a summing amplifier is used to add the output of
the first stage with a bias of 3.3 VDC. Since this stage also introduces a minus sign to the result,
the overall result of a gain of 1.3 and a bias of C3.3 VDC is achieved.
Low-voltage operational amplifiers, operating in the 2.7–5 VDC range, are readily avail-
able from Texas Instruments.

4.3 OUTPUT DEVICES

An external device should not be connected to a microcontroller without first performing careful
interface analysis to ensure the voltage, current, and timing requirements of the microcontroller
and the external device are met. In this section, we describe interface considerations for a wide
variety of external devices. We begin with the interface for a single LED.
166 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Rf
+Vcc

Ri +Vcc -
- Vout = Vin
+
Vin Vout = - (Rf / Ri )(Vin )
+ Vin -Vcc
-Vcc

(a) Inverting amplifier (b) Voltage follower

Rf Ri Rf

+Vcc V1 +Vcc
Ri
- -
Vout = ((Rf + Ri )/Ri)(Vin ) Vout = (Rf /Ri)(V2 -V1 )
+ +
Vin -Vcc V2 -Vcc

Ri Rf
(c) Non-inverting amplifier (d) Differential input amplifier

R1
Rf Rf
V1
R2
V2 +Vcc +Vcc
R3
V3 - -
Vout = - (Rf / R1 )(V1 ) Vout = - (I Rf )
+ +
- (Rf / R2 )(V2 ) I
-Vcc -Vcc
- (Rf / R3 )(V3 )
(e) Scaling adder amplifier (f) Transimpedance amplifier
(current-to-voltage converter)

Rf C

+Vcc Rf +Vcc
C
- -
Vin Vout = - Rf C (dVin /dt) Vin Vout = - 1/(Rf C) (Vin dt)
+ +
-Vcc -Vcc

(g) Differentiator (h) Integrator

Figure 4.15: Classic operational amplifier configurations. (Adapted from Faulkenberry [1977].)
 4.3. OUTPUT DEVICES 167

Rf Node equation at Vn :

(Vn - Vin)/ Ri + (Vn - Vout)/Rf + In = 0

Vn +Vcc
Ri Apply ideal conditions:
-
In In = Ip = 0
Vin Vout
Ip
+ Vn = Vp = 0 (since Vp is grounded)

Vp -Vcc
Solve node equation for Vout :

Vout = - (Rf / Ri )(Vin )

Figure 4.16: Operational amplifier analysis for the non-inverting amplifier. (Adapted
from Faulkenberry [1982].)

Rf = 13 K
Rf = 10 K

+Vcc
Ri = 10 K +Vcc
- Ri = 10 K
Vin -
+ -Vcc Vout
Ri = 10 K +
-Vcc
10 K bias = 3.3 VDC -Vcc

Figure 4.17: Operational amplifier implementation of the TID example circuit.

168 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
4.3.1 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES (LEDS)
A LED is typically used as a logic indicator to inform the presence of a logic one or a logic
zero at a specific pin of a microcontroller. An LED has two leads: the anode or positive lead
and the cathode or negative lead. To properly bias an LED, the anode lead must be biased at
a level approximately 1.7–2.2 volts higher than the cathode lead. This specification is known as
the forward voltage (Vf ) of the LED. The LED current must also be limited to a safe current
level known as the forward current (If ). The diode voltage and current specifications are usually
provided by the manufacturer.
An example of various LED biasing circuit is provided in Figure 4.18. In Figure 4.18a,
a logic one asserted by the microcontroller provides the voltage to forward bias the LED. The

VDD = 3.3 VDC

from
micro

I I R
R
+ +

from
micro
(a) LED illuminates (b) LED illuminates
for a logic high for a logic high

VDD = 3.3 VDC VDD = 5.0 VDC

I R RC
+ +
Vf
C
If
from from B
micro micro
74LVC04 RB E

(c) LED illuminates (d) LED illuminates

for a logic high for a logic high

Figure 4.18: Interfacing an LED.

 4.3. OUTPUT DEVICES 169
microcontroller also acts as the source for the forward current through the LED. To properly bias
the LED, the value of the limit resistor (R) is chosen. Also, we must insure the microcontroller
can safely supply the voltage and current to the LED using Figure 4.1.
Example: A red (635 nm) LED is rated at 1.8 VDC with a forward operating current of 10
mA. Design a proper bias for the LED using the configuration of 4.18a.
Answer: In the configuration of Figure 4.18a, the MSP430 microcontroller pin can be viewed
as an unregulated power supply. That is, the pin’s output voltage is determined by the current
supplied by the pin as shown in Figure 4.1. The current flows out of the microcontroller pin
through the LED and resistor combination to ground (current source). In this example, we use
the MSP430 high-level output voltage characteristics provided at Figure 4.1b. When supplying
10 mA in the logic high case, the high-level output voltage drops to approximately 2.25 VDC.
The value of R may be calculated using Ohm’s Law. The voltage drop across the resistor is the
difference between the 2.25 VDC supplied by the microcontroller pin and the LED forward
voltage of 1.8 VDC. The current flowing through the resistor is the LED’s forward current (10
mA). This renders a resistance value of approximately 45 ohms. The nearest standard resistor
value is 47 ohms. The resistor’s required power rating is determined using P D V  I . This
yields a value of 4 mW. An eighth watt rated resistor may be used.
For the LED interface provided in Figure 4.18b, the LED is illuminated when the mi-
crocontroller provides a logic low. In this case, the current flows from the power supply back
into the microcontroller pin (current sink). As before, the MSP microcontroller parameters pro-
vided in Figure 4.1 must be used. For the logic low case, the characteristic curve for the low-level
output voltage must be used (Figure 4.1, upper subfigure).
If LEDs with higher forward voltages and currents are used, alternative interface circuits
may be employed. Figures 4.18c,d provide two more LED interface circuits. In Figure 4.18c, a
logic one is provided by the microcontroller to the input of the inverter. The inverter generates
a logic zero at its output, which provides a virtual ground at the cathode of the LED. Therefore,
the proper voltage biasing for the LED is provided. The resistor (R) limits the current through
the LED. A proper resistor value can be calculated using R D .VDD VDIODE /=IDIODE . It is
important to note that the inverter used must have sufficient current sink capability (IOL ) to safely
handle the forward current requirements of the LED. As in previous examples, the characteristic
curves of the inverter must be carefully analyzed.
An NPN transistor such as a 2N2222 (PN2222 or MPQ2222) may be used in place of
the inverter as shown in Figure 4.18d. In this configuration, the transistor is used as a switch.
When a logic low is provided by the microcontroller, the transistor is in the cutoff region. When
a logic one is provided by the microcontroller, the transistor is driven into the saturation region.
To properly interface the microcontroller to the LED, resistor values RB and RC must be chosen.
The resistor RB is chosen to limit the base current.
170 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
Example: Using the interface configuration of Figure 4.18d, design an interface for an LED
with Vf of 2.2 VDC and If of 20 mA.
Answer: In this example, we use the current vs. voltage characteristics of the MSP430 (reference
Figure 4.1b). If we choose an IOH value of 2 mA, the VOH value will be approximately 2.8 VDC.
A loop equation, which includes these parameters, may be written as:
VOH D .IB  RB / C VBE :
The transistor VBE is typically 0.7 VDC. Therefore, all equation parameters are known
except RB . Solving for RB yields a value of 1050 ohms. The closest standard value is 1 kOhm.
In this interface configuration, resistor RC is chosen to safely limit the forward LED
current to prescribed values. A loop equation may be written that includes RC :
VCC .If  RC / Vf VCE.sat/ D 0:
A typical value for VCE.sat/ is 0.2 VDC. All equation values are known except RC . The
equation may be solved rendering an RC value of 130 ohms. For the PN2222 transistor, ˇ is
typically 100, insuring the transistor is driven into saturation when a logic one is provided by
the MSP430 [Sedra and Smith, 2004].

4.3.2 SEVEN-SEGMENT LED DISPLAYS

To display numeric data, seven-segment LED displays are available as shown in Figure 4.19b.
Different numerals can be displayed by asserting the proper LED segments. For example, to
display the number five, segments a, c, d, f, and g would be illuminated; see Figure 4.19a. Seven
segment displays are available in common cathode (CC) and common anode (CA) configura-
tions. As the CC designation implies, all seven individual LED cathodes on the display are tied
together.
As shown in Figure 4.19b, an interface circuit is required between the microcontroller
and the seven-segment LED. We use a 74LVC4245A octal bus transceiver circuit to translate
the 3.3 VDC output from the microcontroller up to 5 VDC and also provide a maximum IOH
value of 24 mA. A limiting resistor is required for each segment to limit the current to a safe
value for the LED. Conveniently, resistors are available in DIP packages of eight for this type
of application.
Seven segment displays are available in multi-character panels. In this case, separate mi-
crocontroller ports are not used to provide data to each seven-segment character. Instead, a single
port is used to provide character data. A portion of another port is used to sequence through each
of the characters as shown in Figure 4.19b. An NPN (for a CC display) transistor is connected
to the common cathode connection of each individual character. As the base contact of each
transistor is sequentially asserted, the specific character is illuminated. If the microcontroller se-
quences through the display characters at a rate greater than 30 Hz, the display will have steady
illumination.
 4.3. OUTPUT DEVICES 171

Common Cathode
VOH : 5.0 VDC 7-segment Display
DIP
IOH : 24 mA (Vf 1.85 VDC @ If 12 mA)
Resistor
a a

Microcontroller Port
b
c 74LVC4245A f b
d Octal Bus
e Transceiver
f g
g
e c

R = (VOH - Vf ) / If
d
R = (5.0 - 1.85)/ 12 mA
R = 262 ohms ~ 270 ohms

(a) Seven segment display interface

74LVC4245A
octal bus
Quad Common Cathode
transceiver
7-segment Display
dp (1) (16) (dp)3
PORTx[7]
a (2) (15) (a)11 a a a a
b (3) (14) (b) 7
f b f b f b f b
c (4) (13) (c) 4
d g g g g
(5) (12) (d) 2
e (6) (11) (e) 1 e c e c e c e c
f (7) (10) (f) 10
d d d d
g (8) (9) (g) 5
PORTx[0]
(6) (8) (9) (12)

(1) (7) (8) (14)

1.2K (2)
PORTy[3]
1.2K (6)
numeral select MPQ2222
1.2K (9)

1.2K (13)
PORTy[0]
(3) (5) (10) (12)

(b) Quad seven segment display interface

dp PORTx[7]

a PORTx[6]

b PORTx[5]

d PORTx[3]

g PORTx[0]
c PORTx[4]

e PORTx[2]

f PORTx[1]
Numeral

12 7
hex rep

a a a a

f b f b f b f b

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0x7E g g g g

e c e c e c e c

1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0x30 d d d d

2 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0x6D
1 6
3 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0x79
4 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0x33
(d) Quad seven segment display pinout
5 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0x5D UN(M)5624-11 EWRS
6 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0x1F
7 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0x70
8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0x7F
9 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0x73

(c) Numeral to segment converion

Figure 4.19: LED display devices.

172 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
4.3.3 TRI-STATE LED INDICATOR
A tri-state LED indicator is shown in Figure 4.20. It is used to provide the status of an entire
microcontroller port. The indicator bank consists of eight green and eight red LEDs. When an
individual port pin is logic high the green LED is illuminated. When logic low, the red LED
is illuminated. If the port pin is at a tri-state, high impedance state, no LED is illuminated.
Tri-state logic is used to connect a number of devices to a common bus. When a digital circuit
is placed in the Hi-z (high impedance) state it is electrically isolated from the bus.
The NPN/PNP transistor pair at the bottom of the figure provides a 2.5 VDC voltage
reference for the LEDs. When a specific port pin is logic high, the green LED will be forward
biased since its anode will be at a higher potential than its cathode. The 47 ohm resistor limits
current to a safe value for the LED. Conversely, when a specific port pin is at a logic low (0
VDC), the red LED will be forward biased and illuminate. For clarity, the red and green LEDs
are shown as being separate devices. LEDs are available that have both LEDs in the same device.
The 74LVC4245A octal bus transceiver translates the output voltage of the microcontroller from
3.3–5.0 VDC.

4.3.4 DOT MATRIX DISPLAY

The dot matrix display consists of a large number of LEDs configured in a single package. A
typical 5 x 7 LED arrangement is a matrix of five columns of LEDs with seven LEDs per row, as
shown in Figure 4.21. Display data for a single matrix column [R6-R0] is provided by the micro-
controller. That specific row is then asserted by the microcontroller using the column select lines
[C2-C0]. The entire display is sequentially built up a column at a time. If the microcontroller
sequences through each column fast enough (greater than 30 Hz), the matrix display appears to
be stationary to a viewer.
In Figure 4.21, we have provided the basic configuration for the dot matrix display for a
single display device. However, this basic idea can be expanded in both dimensions to provide a
multi-character, multi-line display. A larger display does not require a significant number of mi-
crocontroller pins for the interface. The dot matrix display may be used to display alphanumeric
data as well as graphics data. Several manufacturers provide 3.3 VDC compatible dot matrix
displays with integrated interface and control circuitry.

4.3.5 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

An LCD is an output device to display text information as shown in Figure 4.22. LCDs come
in a wide variety of configurations including multi-character, multi-line format. A 16 x 2 LCD
format is common. That is, it has the capability of displaying two lines of 16 characters each.
The characters are sent to the LCD via American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) format a single character at a time. For a parallel configured LCD, an 8-bit data path
and two lines are required between the microcontroller and the LCD as shown in Figure 4.22a.
Many parallel configured LCDs may also be configured for a 4-bit data path thus saving several
 4.3. OUTPUT DEVICES 173

47 G

47 G

VOH : 5.0 VDC 47 G

IOH : 24 mA
R

Microcontroller Port
47 G

74LVC4245A R
Octal Bus
Transceiver 47 G

47 G

47 G

47 G

5 VDC
5 VDC
5 VDC
3.0 K 2N2222
-
LM324
+
2N2907
3.0 K

Figure 4.20: Tri-state LED display.

174 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

C2

Column
Select
Interface
C1
Circuitry
C0

Microcontroller
R6
R5

Row Select

Circuitry
R4

Interface
R3
R2
R1
R0

5 x 7 Dot
Matrix Display

Figure 4.21: Dot matrix display.

ta
d/da
n
a e
mm abl ata ata
V cc co en d ald
V cc i
ser
10K
DB3-10

DB5-12
DB6-13
DB7-14
RS-4
Vo-3
GND-1
VDD-2

R/W-5
E-6
DB0-7
DB1-8
DB2-9

DB4-11

line1 line1
line2 line2

(a) Parallel configuration (b) Serial configuration

Figure 4.22: LCD display with (a) parallel interface and (b) serial interface.
 4.3. OUTPUT DEVICES 175
precious microcontroller pins. A small microcontroller mounted to the back panel of the LCD
translates the ASCII data characters and control signals to properly display the characters. Sev-
eral manufacturers provide 3.3 VDC compatible displays.
To conserve precious, limited microcontroller I/O pins, a serial configured LCD may be
used. A serial LCD reduces the number of required microcontroller pins for interface, from ten
down to one, as shown in Figure 4.22b. Display data and control information is sent to the LCD
via an asynchronous UART serial communication link (8 data bits, 1 stop bit, no parity, 9600
Baud). A serial configured LCD costs slightly more than a similarly configured parallel LCD.
Example: LCD. In this example a Sparkfun LCD-09067, 3.3 VDC, serial, 16 by 2 charac-
ter, black on white LCD display is connected to the MSP430. Communication between the
MSP430 and the LCD is accomplished by a single 9600 bits per second (baud) connection us-
ing the onboard universal asynchronous receiver transmitter (UART). The UART is configured
for 8 data bits, no parity, and one stop bit (8-N-1). The MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad is
equipped with two UART channels. One is the back channel UART connection to the PC.
The other is accessible by pin 3 (RX, P6.1) and pin 4 (TX, P6.0). Provided below is the sample
Energia code to print a test message to the LCD. Note the UART is designated “Serial1” in the
program. The back channel UART for the Energia serial monitor display is designated “Serial.”
//*******************************************************************
//Serial_LCD_energia
//Serial 1 accessible at:
// - RX: P6.1, pin 3
// - TX: P6.0, pin 4
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//*******************************************************************

void setup()
{
//Initialize serial channel 1 to 9600 baud and wait for port to open
Serial1.begin(9600);
}

void loop()
{
Serial1.print("Hello World");
delay(500);
Serial1.println("...Hello World");
delay(500);
}
176 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

//*******************************************************************

4.4 HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES

There are a wide variety of DC motor types that may be controlled by a microcontroller. To
properly interface a motor to the microcontroller, we must be familiar with the different types
of motor technologies. Motor types are illustrated in Figure 4.23.
General categories of DC motor types include the following.

• DC motor: A DC motor has a positive and a negative terminal. When a DC power supply
of suitable current rating is applied to the motor, it will rotate. If the polarity of the supply
is switched with reference to the motor terminals, the motor will rotate in the opposite
direction. The speed of the motor is roughly proportional to the applied voltage up to the
rated voltage of the motor.

• Servo motor: A servo motor provides a precision angular rotation for an applied pulse
width modulation duty cycle. As the duty cycle of the applied signal is varied, the angular
displacement of the motor also varies. This type of motor is used to change mechanical
positions such as the steering angle of a wheel.

• Stepper motor: A stepper motor, as its name implies, provides an incremental step change
in rotation (typically 2.5ı per step) for a step change in control signal sequence. The motor
is typically controlled by a two or four wire interface. For the four wire stepper motor,
the microcontroller provides a 4-bit control sequence to rotate the motor clockwise. To
turn the motor counterclockwise, the control sequence is reversed. The low-power control
signals are interfaced to the motor via metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors
(MOSFETs) or power transistors to provide for the proper voltage and current require-
ments of the pulse sequence.

• Linear actuator: A linear actuator translates the rotation motion of a motor to linear for-
ward and reverse movement. The actuators are used in a number of different applications
where precisely controlled linear motion is required. The control software and interface for
linear actuators are very similar to DC motors.

Example: DC motor interface. A general-purpose DC motor interface is provided in Fig-

ure 4.24. This interface allows the low-voltage (3.3 VDC), low-current control signal to be
interfaced to a higher voltage, higher current motor. This interface provides for unidirectional
control. To control motor speed, PWM techniques may be used. The control signal from the
MSP430 is fed to the TIP 120 NPN Darlington transistor. The Darlington configuration al-
lows high current gain to drive the motor. Diodes are placed in series with the motor to reduce
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 177

Vmotor
Veff

Veff = Vmotor × duty cycle (%)

(a) DC motor

(b) Servo motor

1 Step
4 Control Interface
Signals Circuitry
Power
Ground
(c) Stepper motor

Figure 4.23: Motor types.

9.0 VDC

1N4001
1N4001
Diodes
protection
+ diode
7.2 VDC M
at 300 mA
-

330
From Motor
TIP 120
MSP430 Current

TIP 120 NPN

Darlington Transistor

Figure 4.24: General-purpose motor interface.

178 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
the motor supply voltage to the required motor voltage. Each diode provides a drop of approxi-
mately 0.7 VDC. A reverse biased diode is placed across the motor and diode string to allow a
safe path for reverse current. This configuration may be adjusted for many types of DC motors
by appropriately adjusting supply voltage, number of series diodes, and the value of the base
resistance.
Example: Inexpensive laser light show. An inexpensive laser light show can be con-
structed using two servos. This application originally appeared in the third edition of Arduino
Microcontroller Processing for Everyone! The example has been adapted with permission for com-
patibility with the MSP430 [Barrett, 2013]. In this example we use two Futaba 180ı range
servos (Parallax 900-00005, available from Jameco #283021) mounted as shown in Figure 4.25.
The servos operates from 4–6 VDC. The servos expect a pulse every 20 ms (50 Hz). The pulse
length determines the degree of rotation from 1000 microseconds (5% duty cycle, 90ı rota-

Vcc = 5 VDC
y_ch_pin (3) (4)
(1) x
(pin 39, P2.6) (2) LM324
(11)

5 VDC
White
mirror
10 K 2.5 VDC
Threshold Parallax 900-00005
Setting servo motor
10 K
Red
Black
Vcc = 5 VDC
Vcc = 5 VDC
x_ch_pin (5) (4)
(7) White
(pin 40, P2.7) (6) LM324
(11) laser source
mirror

Vcc = 5 VDC Red servo

Black

Figure 4.25: Inexpensive laser light show.

 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 179
ı
tion) to 2000 s (10% duty cycle, C90 rotation). The X and Y control signals are provided by
the MSP430. The X and Y control signals are interfaced to the servos via LM324 operational
amplifiers. The 3.3 VDC control signals from the MSP430 are up converted to 5.0 VDC by
the op-amps. The op-amps serve as voltage comparators with a 2.5 VDC threshold. The laser
source is provided by an inexpensive laser pointer.
Energia contains useful servo configuration and control functions. The “attach” function
initializes the servo at the specified pin. The MSP430-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad has pulse
width modulated output features available on pins 19 (P5.7), 37 (P3.4), 38 (P3.5), 39 (P3.6), and
40 (P3.7). The “write” function rotates the servo the specified number of degrees. The program
sends the same signal to both channel outputs (x_ch_pin, y_ch_pin) and traces a line with the
laser. Any arbitrary shape may be traced by the laser using this technique.

//*************************************************************
//X-Y ramp
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//*************************************************************

#include <Servo.h> //Use Servo library, included with IDE

Servo myServo_x; //Create Servo objects to control the

Servo myServo_y; //X and Y servos

void setup()
{
myServo_x.attach(40); //Servo is connected to PWM pin 40
myServo_y.attach(39); //Servo is connected to PWM pin 39
}

void loop()
{
int i = 0;
for(i=0; i<=180; i++) //Rotates servo 0 to 180 degrees
{
myServo_x.write(i); //Rotate servo counter clockwise
myServo_y.write(i); //Rotate servo counter clockwise
delay(20); //Wait 20 milliseconds
if(i==180)
delay(5000);
}
180 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
}

//*************************************************************

4.4.1 DC MOTOR INTERFACE, SPEED, AND DIRECTION CONTROL

Interface. A number of direct current load devices are controlled with an electronic switching
device such as a MOSFET. Specifically, an N-channel enhancement MOSFET may be used to
switch a high current load on and off (such as a motor) using a low-current control signal from a
microcontroller, as shown in Figure 4.26. The low current control signal from the microcontroller
is connected to the gate of the MOSFET via a MOSFET driver. As shown in Figure 4.26, an
LTC 1157 MOSFET driver is used to boost the control signal from the microcontroller to be
compatible with an IRLR024 power MOSFET. The IRLR024 is rated at 60 VDC VDS and a
continuous drain current ID of 14 amps. The IRLR024 MOSFET switches the high current
load on and off consistent with the control signal. In a low-side connection, the high current
load is connected between the MOSFET source and ground.

3.3 VDC

10 uF

(8.7 VDC) IRLR024

IN1 G1 Power
MOSFET
MSP430 LTC1157 3.3 VDC
Microcontroller Load
MOSFET
Driver
(8.7 VDC) IRLR024
IN2 G2 Power
MOSFET
3.3 VDC
Load

Figure 4.26: MOSFET drive circuit (adapted from Linear Technology).

Speed. As previously mentioned, DC motor speed may be varied by changing the applied
voltage. This is difficult to do with a digital control signal. However, PWM techniques combined
with a MOSFET interface circuit may be used to precisely control motor speed. The duty cycle
of the PWM signal governs the percentage of the motor supply voltage applied to the motor
and hence the percentage of rated full speed at which the motor will rotate. The interface circuit
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 181
to accomplish this type of control is shown in Figure 4.27. It is a slight variation of the control
circuit provided in Figure 4.26. In this configuration, the motor supply voltage may be different
than the microcontroller’s 3.3 VDC supply. For an inductive load, a reverse biased protection
diode should be connected across the load. The interface circuit allows the motor to rotate in a
given direction.

DC Motor
3.3 VDC Supply Voltage

10 uF Protection
M Diode

30 K MTD3055EL
IN1 G1 Power FET

MSP430 LTC1157
Microcontroller MOSFET
Driver
IN2 G2

Figure 4.27: DC motor interface.

Direction. For a DC motor to operate in both the clockwise and counterclockwise di-
rections, the polarity of the DC motor supplied must be changed. To operate the motor in the
forward direction, the positive battery terminal must be connected to the positive motor ter-
minal while the negative battery terminal must be attached to the negative motor terminal. To
reverse the motor direction, the motor supply polarity must be reversed. An H-bridge is a cir-
cuit employed to perform this polarity switch. An H-bridge may be constructed from discrete
components as shown in Figure 4.28. If PWM signals are used to drive the base of the transis-
tors, both motor speed and direction may be controlled by the circuit. The transistors used in
the circuit must have a current rating sufficient to handle the current requirements of the motor
during start and stall conditions.
Texas Instruments provides a self-contained H-bridge motor controller integrated circuit,
the DRV8829. Within the DRV8829 package is a single H-bridge driver. The driver may control
DC loads with supply voltages from 8–45 VDC with a peak current rating of 5 amps. The
182 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

12 VDC

1000 uF
200 200
ZTX451 11DQ06 ZTX451

M
+

-
11DQ06 to PD5
to PD4
470 ZTX551 ZTX551 470

Figure 4.28: H-bridge control circuit.

single H-bridge driver may be used to control a DC motor or one winding of a bipolar stepper
motor [DRV8829].
Example: MIKROE-1526 DC MOTOR click. MikroElectronica (www.mikroe.com) man-
ufactures a number of motor interface products including the MIKROE-1526 DC MOTOR
click motor driver board. The board features the T.I. DRV8833RTY H-bridge motor driver. A
test circuit to control a DC motor’s speed and direction is provided in Figure 4.29. We use one
of the motors from the Mini Round Autonomous Maze Navigating Robot (Chapter 2).
In the test circuit, a tach switch is used to determine motor direction and a potentiometer
for motor speed control. These two inputs are read by the Energia program and proper control
signals are issued to the MIKROE-1526 (SL1, SL2, and PWM) for motor speed and direction.
The nSLP pin on the MIKROE-1526 must be logic high to enable the devive. For the test
circuit, the pin is tied to Vcc (3.3 VDC) (www.mikroe.com).

//****************************************************************
//MIKROE-1526 DC Motor click
//Sketch demonstrates operation of the MIKROE-1526 DC Motor click
//
//The circuit:
// - Motor speed control potentiometer.
// Potentiometer connected to analog pin 0 (2). The center wiper
// pin of the potentiometer goes to the analog pin. The side
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 183

3.3 VDC
Mini round
robot motor M
3.3 VDC

4.7 K forward/reverse (MSP430:5)

(ground: pin 20)

(a) Forward/reverse control

3.3 VDC
(MSP430:19)
3.3 VDC PWM
(MSP430:6) SL1
to MSP430:2 (MSP430: 7) SL2

3.3VDC

(b) Speed control

(c) MIKROE-1526 DC MOTOR click

Figure 4.29: MIKROE-1526 DC MOTOR click. (Illustration used with permission (www.mi
kroe.com).)
184 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
// pins of the potentiometer go to +3.3 VDC and ground.
// - Motor forward/reverse control.
// Tact switch connected to pin 5 of MSP430.
// - MIKROE-1526 connections:
// -- Select 1 (SL1) to MSP430 pin 6
// -- Select 2 (SL2) to MSP430 pin 7
// -- PWM to MSP430 pin 19
// -- nSLEEP to Vcc (3.3 VDC) to enable device
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//****************************************************************

int analog_in = 2; //analog input (0 to 1023)

int analog_out = 19; //analog output (0 to 255)
int forward_reverse = 5; //direction control
int select1 = 6; //motor direction control
int select2 = 7; //SL1, SL2
int speed_value; //potentiometer input value
int switch_value;
int output_value;

void setup()
{
pinMode(forward_reverse, INPUT);
pinMode(select1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(select2, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
//Deteremine motor direction
switch_value = digitalRead(forward_reverse);
if(switch_value == HIGH) //forward direction
{
digitalWrite(select1, LOW);
digitalWrite(select2, LOW);
}
else //reverse direction
{
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 185
digitalWrite(select1, LOW);
digitalWrite(select2, HIGH);
}

//read analog in value

speed_value = analogRead(analog_in);

//map to analog out range

output_value = map(speed_value, 0, 1023, 0, 255);

//update analog out value

analogWrite(analog_out, output_value);

delay(50);
}

//****************************************************************

4.4.2 DC SOLENOID CONTROL

The interface circuit for a DC solenoid is shown in Figure 4.30. A solenoid is used to acti-
vate a mechanical insertion (or extraction). As in previous examples, we employ the LTC1157
MOSFET driver between the microcontroller and the power MOSFET used to activate the
solenoid. A reverse biased diode is placed across the solenoid. Both the solenoid power supply
and the MOSFET must have an appropriate voltage and current rating to support the solenoid
requirements.

4.4.3 STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL

Stepper motors are used to provide a discrete angular displacement in response to a control
signal step. There are a wide variety of stepper motors including bipolar and unipolar types
with different configurations of motor coil wiring. Due to space limitations we only discuss
the unipolar, 5-wire stepper motor. The internal coil configuration for this motor is shown in
Figure 4.31b.
Often, a wiring diagram is not available for the stepper motor. Based on the wiring con-
figuration (Figure 4.31b), one can find out the common line for both coils. It has a resistance
that is one-half of all of the other coils. Once the common connection is found, one can con-
nect the stepper motor into the interface circuit. By changing the other connections, one can
determine the correct connections for the step sequence. To rotate the motor either clockwise
186 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
DC Solenoid
3.3 VDC Supply Voltage

10 uF Protection
Diode

30 K
MTD3055EL
IN1 G1 Power FET

MSP430 LTC1157
Microcontroller MOSFET
Driver
IN2 G2

Figure 4.30: Solenoid interface circuit.

or counterclockwise, a specific step sequence must be sent to the motor control wires as shown
in Figure 4.31b.
The microcontroller does not have sufficient capability to drive the motor directly. There-
fore, an interface circuit is required as shown in Figure 4.32. The speed of motor rotation is
determined by how fast the control sequence is completed.
//**********************************************************
//stepper
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//**********************************************************

//external switches
#define ext_sw1 36
#define ext_sw2 35

//stepper channels
#define stepper_ch1 31
#define stepper_ch2 32
#define stepper_ch3 33
#define stepper_ch4 34
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 187

(a) A stepper motor rotates a fixed angle per step

step

(b) Coil configuration and step sequence

Figure 4.31: Unipolar stepper motor. (Illustration used with permission of Texas Instruments
(www.ti.com).)
188 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

3.3 VDC
4.7 K

External Switch 1
(clockwise)
36
3.3 VDC
35
4.7 K

External Switch 2
(clockwise)

12 VDC
orange

1N4001

brown green red yellow

31: stepper_ch1 Adafruit
10 K
TIP120
32: stepper_ch2 TXB010B TIP120
33: stepper_ch3 10 K
level TIP120
34: stepper_ch4 10 K TIP
shifter TIP120 120
10 K

BCE
42BYG016, 4 phase unipolar, 1.8o/step, 12 VDC, 160 mA

Figure 4.32: Unipolar stepper motor interface circuit.

 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 189

int switch_value1, switch_value2;

int motor_speed = 1000; //motor increment time in ms
int last_step = 1;
int next_step;

void setup()
{
//Screen
Serial.begin(9600);

//external switches
pinMode(ext_sw1, INPUT);
pinMode(ext_sw2, INPUT);

//stepper channel
pinMode(stepper_ch1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stepper_ch2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stepper_ch3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stepper_ch4, OUTPUT);

void loop()
{
switch_value1 = digitalRead(ext_sw1);
switch_value2 = digitalRead(ext_sw2);

if(switch_value1 == LOW) //switch1 asserted

{
while(switch_value1 == LOW) //clockwise
{
if(last_step == 1)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 1");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
190 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
next_step = 2;
}
else if(last_step == 2)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 2");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 3;
}
else if(last_step == 3)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 3");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 4;
}
else if(last_step == 4)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 4");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, HIGH);
next_step = 1;
}
else
{
;
}
last_step = next_step;
delay(motor_speed);
switch_value1 = digitalRead(ext_sw1);
}//end while
}//end if
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 191
else if(switch_value2 == LOW) //switch2 asserted
{
while(switch_value2 == LOW) //counter clockwise
{
if(last_step == 1)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 1");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 4;
}
else if(last_step == 2)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 2");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 1;
}
else if(last_step == 3)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 3");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 2;
}
else if(last_step == 4)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 4");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, HIGH);
next_step = 3;
192 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
}
else
{
;
}
last_step = next_step;
delay(motor_speed);
switch_value2 = digitalRead(ext_sw2);
}//end while
}//end if

else
{
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
}
}
//**********************************************************

Example. Adafruit (www.adafruit.com) manufactures a DC stepper motor breakout board

(#3297) based on the Texas Instruments DRV8833RTY H-bridge motor driver. The board can
provide up to 1.2 A per channel for motors from 2.7–10.8 VDC. In this example, we use the
board to drive a Jameco (www.jameco.com) #238538 unipolar stepper motor rated at 12 VDC,
0.4 A. We power the motor at 10 VDC. The interface between the MSP-EXP430FR2433
LaunchPad, the breakout board, and the stepper motor in shown in Figure 4.33. Two external
switches are used to select motor direction.
The code used in the previous stepper motor example is modified with the step sequence
required by the driver/motor combination.

//**********************************************************
//stepper2
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//**********************************************************

//external switches
#define ext_sw1 2
#define ext_sw2 5
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 193

3.3 VDC
4.7 K
2
external Switch 1
(clockwise)
5
3.3 VDC
4.7 K

external Switch 2
(counter clockwise)

C
VD

VD
3.3

3.3
6 7 8 9

+
10 VDC

Blk Yel Grn

Step Sequence
CW

Step Aout1 Aout2 Bout2 Bout1

Red 1 1 0 1 0
2 0 1 1 0
3 0 1 0 1 CCW
4 1 0 0 1
WhT

Blu

Figure 4.33: Unipolar stepper motor with DRV8833 breakout board. (Illustration used with
permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
194 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

//stepper channels
#define stepper_ch1 6
#define stepper_ch2 7
#define stepper_ch3 8
#define stepper_ch4 9

int switch_value1, switch_value2;

int motor_speed = 10; //motor increment time in ms
int last_step = 1;
int next_step;

void setup()
{
//Screen
Serial.begin(9600);

//external switches
pinMode(ext_sw1, INPUT);
pinMode(ext_sw2, INPUT);

//stepper channel
pinMode(stepper_ch1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stepper_ch2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stepper_ch3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(stepper_ch4, OUTPUT);

void loop()
{
switch_value1 = digitalRead(ext_sw1);
switch_value2 = digitalRead(ext_sw2);

if(switch_value1 == LOW) //switch1 asserted

{
while(switch_value1 == LOW) //clockwise
{
if(last_step == 1)
 4.4. HIGH-POWER DC INTERFACES 195
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 1");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 2;
}
else if(last_step == 2)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 2");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 3;
}
else if(last_step == 3)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 3");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, HIGH);
next_step = 4;
}
else if(last_step == 4)
{
Serial.println("Switch 1: low, step 4");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, HIGH);
next_step = 1;
}
else
{
;
}
196 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
last_step = next_step;
delay(motor_speed);
switch_value1 = digitalRead(ext_sw1);
}//end while
}//end if

else if(switch_value2 == LOW) //switch2 asserted

{
while(switch_value2 == LOW) //counter clockwise
{
if(last_step == 1)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 1");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 4;
}
else if(last_step == 2)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 2");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
next_step = 1;
}
else if(last_step == 3)
{
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 3");
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, HIGH);
next_step = 2;
}
else if(last_step == 4)
{
 4.5. INTERFACING TO MISCELLANEOUS DC DEVICES 197
Serial.println("Switch 2: low, step 4");aq 1q
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, HIGH);
next_step = 3;
}
else
{
;
}
last_step = next_step;
delay(motor_speed);
switch_value2 = digitalRead(ext_sw2);
}//end while
}//end if

else
{
digitalWrite(stepper_ch1, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch2, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch3, LOW);
digitalWrite(stepper_ch4, LOW);
}
}
//**********************************************************

4.4.4 OPTICAL ISOLATION

It is a good design practice to provide optical isolation between a motor control circuit and
the motor. A typical optical isolator (e.g., 4N25) consists of an LED and an optical transistor
in a common package, as shown in Figure 4.34. The LED is driven by a low voltage control
signal from the MSP430, whereas the optical transistor provides the control signal to the motor
interface circuit. The link between the MSP430 to the motor interface circuit is now enabled
by light rather than an electrical link. This provides a high level of noise isolation between the
processor and the motor interface circuit. Many optical isolators also provide a signal inversion.

4.5 INTERFACING TO MISCELLANEOUS DC DEVICES

In this section, we present a potpourri of interface circuits to connect a microcontroller to a wide
variety of DC peripheral devices.
198 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

1 6 Vcc

RL
2 5

3 4
nc

Figure 4.34: 4N25 optical isolator (www.vishay.com).

4.5.1 SONALERTS, BEEPERS, AND BUZZERS

In Figure 4.35, we show several circuits used to interface a microcontroller to a buzzer, beeper, or
other types of annunciator devices such as a sonalert. It is important that the interface transistor
and the supply voltage are matched to the requirements of the sound producing device.

Vcc = 5 VDC Vcc = 12 VDC

Buzzer, 3850 Hz Annunciator

5 VDC, 3-14 mA 12 VDC, 8 mA

220 220

from 10 K from 10 K
2N2222 2N2222
micro micro

(a) 5 VDC buzzer interface (b) 12 VDC annunciator

Figure 4.35: Sonalert, beepers, and buzzers.

 4.6. AC DEVICES 199
4.5.2 VIBRATING MOTOR
A vibrating motor is often used to gain one’s attention as in a cell phone. These motors are
typically rated at 3 VDC and a high current. The interface circuit shown in Figure 4.26 is used
to drive the low voltage motor.

4.5.3 DC FAN
The interface circuit shown in Figure 4.24 may also be used to control a DC fan. As before, a
reverse biased diode is placed across the DC fan motor.

4.5.4 BILGE PUMP

A bilge pump is a pump specifically designed to remove water from the inside of a boat. The
pumps are powered from a 12 VDC source and have typical flow rates from 360 to over 3,500
gallons per minute. They range in price from U.S. $20–$80 (www.shorelinemarinedevelop
ment.com). An interface circuit to control a bilge pump from MSP430 is shown in Figure 4.36.
The interface circuit consists of a 470 ohm resistor, a power NPN Darlington transistor (TIP
120) and a 1N4001 diode. The 12 VDC supply should have sufficient current capability to supply
the needs of the bilge pump.

12 VDC

Shoreline
Bilge Pump BP 1N4001

470Ω TIP 120 NPN

from
MSP430 Darlington
Transistor

(a) Shoreline (b) MSP430 to bilge pump interface

Bilge Pump

Figure 4.36: Bilge pump interface.

4.6 AC DEVICES
A high-power alternating current (AC) load may be switched on and off using a low power
control signal from the microcontroller. In this case, a Solid State Relay is used as the switching
200 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
device. Solid state relays are available to switch a high power DC or AC load [Crydom]. For
example, the Crydom 558-CX240D5R is a printed circuit board-mounted, air-cooled, single-
pole single-throw (SPST), normally open (NO) solid-state relay. It requires a DC control voltage
of 3-15 VDC at 15 mA. This microcontroller compatible DC control signal is used to switch
12-280 VAC loads rated from 0.06–5 amps [Crydom].
To vary the direction of an AC motor, you must use a bi-directional AC motor. A bi-
directional motor is equipped with three terminals: common, clockwise, and counterclockwise.
To turn the motor clockwise, an AC source is applied to the common and clockwise connections.
In like manner, to turn the motor counterclockwise, an AC source is applied to the common and
counterclockwise connections. This may be accomplished using two of the Crydom SSRs.
PowerSwitch manufacturers an easy-to-use AC interface the PowerSwitch Tail II. The
device consists of a control module with attached AC connections rated at 120 VAC, 15 A. The
device to be controlled is simply plugged inline with the PowerSwitch Tail II. A digital control
signal from MSP430 (3 VDC at 3 mA) serves as the on/off control signal for the controlled
AC device. The controlled signal is connected to the PowerSwitch Tail II via a terminal block
connection. The PowerSwitch II may be configured as either normally closed (NC) or normally
open (NO) (www.powerswitchtail.com).
Example: PowerSwitch Tail II. In this example, we use an IR sensor to detect someone’s pres-
ence. If the IR sensor’s output reaches a predetermined threshold level, an AC desk lamp is
illuminated, as shown in Figure 4.37.
//****************************************************************
//switch_tail
//
//The circuit:
// - The IR sensor signal pin is connected to analog pin 3 (6).
// The sensor power and ground pins are connected to 5 VDC and
// ground respectively.
// - The analog output is designated as the onboard red LED.
// - The switch tail control signal is connected to P6.2 (pin 5)
//
//Adapted for code originally written by Tom Igoe
//Created: Dec 29, 2008
//Modified: Aug 30, 2011
//Author: Tom Igoe
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//****************************************************************

const int analogInPin = 6; //Energia analog input pin A3

 4.6. AC DEVICES 201

Desk Lamp

PowerSwitch Tail II
To AC

3: Gnd
1: +in
2: -in
Wall Outlet

5 VDC

5
6
GND
RYB
IR Sensor

Figure 4.37: PowerSwitch Tail II. (Illustration used with permission of Texas Instruments (ww
w.ti.com).)
202 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
const int analogOutPin = RED_LED; //Energia onboard red LED pin
const int switch_tail_control =5zz; //Switch Tail control signal

int sensorValue = 0; //value read from the OR sensor

int outputValue = 0; //value output to the PWM (red LED)

void setup()
{
//initialize serial communications at 9600 bps:
Serial.begin(9600);

//configure Switch Tail control pin

pinMode(switch_tail_control, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
//read the analog in value:
sensorValue = analogRead(analogInPin);

//map it to the range of the analog out:

outputValue = map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 255);

//change the analog out value:

analogWrite(analogOutPin, outputValue);

//Switch Tail control signal

if(outputValue >= 128)
{
digitalWrite(switch_tail_control, HIGH);
Serial.print("Light on");
}
else
{
digitalWrite(switch_tail_control, LOW);
Serial.print("Light off");
}

// print the results to the serial monitor:

 4.7. MSP430FR5994: EDUCATIONAL BOOSTER PACK MKII 203
Serial.print("sensor = " );
Serial.print(sensorValue);
Serial.print("\t output = ");
Serial.println(outputValue);

// wait 10 milliseconds before the next loop

// for the analog-to-digital converter to settle
// after the last reading:
delay(10);
}

//****************************************************************

4.7 MSP430FR5994: EDUCATIONAL BOOSTER PACK MKII

The Educational Booster Pack MkII allows rapid prototyping of designs. Shown in Figure 4.38,
it is equipped with a variety of transducers and output devices. The MkII may be mounted to the
MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad. Energia provides a variety of test programs for the MkII.

Light Sensor Temp Sensor Accelerometer

Servo Motor
Control

Joystick Switches
Color 128 × 128 TFT LCD
RGB LED
Microphone
Buzzer

Figure 4.38: Educational Booster Pack MkII. (Illustration used with permission of Texas In-
struments (www.ti.com).)
204 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
In the list of features below, pin numbers provided refer to the MkII pin placement. The MkII
is equipped with a [SLAU599].

• Two-axis joystick. The ITEAD Studio IM130330001 is a two-axis analog joystick

equipped with a pushbutton. The two analog signals are generated by x and y oriented
potentiometers. As the joystick is moved the analog signals relay the joystick position to
the MSP430 via the J1.2 (X) and J3.26 (Y) header pins. The joystick select pushbutton is
connected to pin J1.5.

• Microphone. The MkII is equipped with the CUI CMA-4544PW-W electret micro-
phone. The microphone signal is amplified via an OPA344 operational amplifier. The mi-
crophone has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The microphone is connected to
MSP430 pin J1.6.

• Light sensor. The light sensor aboard the MkII is the OPT3001 digital ambient light
sensor. The sensor measures ambient light intensity and it is tuned to the light response
of the human eye. It also has filters to reject infrared (IR) light. It detects light intensity
in the range from 0.01–83 lux. The I2C compatible output of the sensor is provided to
MSP430 via pins J1.9 (I2C SCL), J1.10 (I2C SDA), and J1.8 (sensor interrupt).

• Temperature sensor. The temperature sensor is also I2C compatible. The TMP006 is a
noncontact sensor that passively absorbs IR wavelengths from 4–16 m. The I2C com-
patible output is provided to the MSP430 via pins J1.9 (I2C SCL), J1.10 (I2C SDA), and
J2.11 (sensor interrupt).

• Servo motor controller. The MkII is equipped with a convenient connector for a servo
motor. The servo motor control signal is provided by MSP430 signal pin J2.19.

• Three-axis accelerometer. Aboard the MkII is a Kionix KXTC9-2050 three-axis ac-

celerometer that measures acceleration in the X, Y, and Z directions. The three-channel
analog output corresponds to acceleration from ˙1:5 g to ˙6 g. The three channels of
analog output are provided to the MSP430 via pins J3.23 (X), J3.24 (Y), and J3.25 (Z).

• Pushbuttons. The MkII is equipped with two pushbuttons designated S1 and S2. They
are connected to the MSP430 via pins J4.33 (S1) and J4.32 (S2).

• Red-Green-Blue (RGB) LED. The RGB LED aboard the MkII is the Cree CLV1A-
-FKB RGB multicolor LED. The three-color components are accessible via pins J4.39
(red), J4.38 (green), and J4.37 (blue). The intensity of each component may be adjusted
using PWM techniques.

• Buzzer. The piezo buzzer aboard the MkII is the CUI CEM-1230. The buzzer will operate
at various frequencies using PWM techniques. The buzzer is accessible via pin J4.40.
 4.8. GROVE STARTER KIT FOR LAUNCHPAD 205
• Color TFT LCD. The color 2D LCD aboard the MkII is controlled via the serial pe-
ripheral interface (SPI) system. The Crystalfontz CFAF 128128B-0145T is a color 128
by 128 pixel display.
Provided in Energia is considerable software support for the MkII. This software will
be explored in the Laboratory Exercise, Section 4.10. It is important to note that not all of
the Educational Booster Pack MkII examples included within Energia are compatible with the
MSP430FR5994.

4.8 GROVE STARTER KIT FOR LAUNCHPAD

The Seeed company provides a Grove Starter Kit for the MSP430 LaunchPad shown in Fig-
ure 4.39. It consists of a BoosterPack configured breakout board for a number of sensors and
output devices including (www.seeedstudio.com):
• buzzer
• four-digit seven-segment LED display
• relay
• proximity infrared sensor (PIR) sensor
• ultrasonic ranger
• light sensor
• rotary angle sensor
• sound sensor
• moisture sensor
• temperature and humidity sensor
The Grove Starter Kit is enhanced by considerable software support we explore in the
Laboratory Exercise, Section 4.11.

4.9 APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE

To illustrate some of the fundamentals of MSP430 interfacing, we construct a three-dimensional
LED cube. This design was inspired by an LED cube kit available from Jameco (www.jameco.c
om). This application originally appeared in the third edition of Arduino Microcontroller Processing
for Everyone! The LED cube example has been adapted with permission for compatibility with
the MSP430 [Barrett, 2013].
The MSP430-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad is a 3.3 VDC system. With this in mind, we
take two different design approaches:
206 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

Figure 4.39: Grove starter kit for LaunchPad (www.seeedstudio.com). (Illustrations used with
permission of Texas Instruments (www.TI.com).)

1. Interface the 3.3 VDC MSP430 to an LED cube designed for 5 VDC operation via a
3.3–5.0 VDC level shifter.

2. Modify the design of the LED cube to operate at 3.3 VDC.

We explore each design approach in turn.

Approach 1: 5 VDC LED cube. The LED cube consists of 4 layers of LEDs with 16
LEDs per layer. Only a single LED is illuminated at a given time. However, different effects may
be achieved by how long a specific LED is left illuminated and the pattern of LED sequence
followed. A specific LED layer is asserted using the layer select pins on the microcontroller using
a one-hot-code (a single line asserted while the others are de-asserted). The asserted line is fed
through a 74HC244 (three state, octal buffer, line driver) which provides an IOH =IOL current
of ˙ 35 mA, as shown in Figure 4.40. A given output from the 74HC244 is fed to a common
anode connection for all 16 LEDs in a layer. All four LEDs in a specific LED position, each
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 207

LED0
Idiode LED
0 1 2

_
_

_
3
- +

+
+

+
Cocktail
Straw
Spacer

4 5 6

_
_

_
7
- +

+
+

+
_ 8 9 10

_
_

_
11
- + +

+
+

+
LED horizontal layer 3
LED horizontal layer 2
LED horizontal layer 1
Idiode
12 13 14
_

_
Side _ 15

+_
Vcc = 5 VDC
View - +
+

+
+

+
220 18 16 14 12 9 7 5 3
LED horizontal layer 0 20
Idiode = top view 74HC244

/OEa-1
/OEb-19
IOL = +/- 25 mA 10
Vcc = 5 VDC 2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 1516 17 24
74HC154
/E0-18 4-to-16 decoder
/E1-19
20 21 22 23 12
D C B A
LED select

31 led_sel0
32 led_sel1
33 led_sel2
34 led_sel3
MSP430

Adafruit
TXB0108
Level
layer select

35 layer_sel0
Shifter
36 layer_sel1
37 layer_sel2
38 layer_sel3

Notes:
1. LED cube consists of 4 layers of 16 LEDs each.
2. Each LED is individually addressed by asserting the appropriate cathode signal (0‒15)
and asserting a specific LED layer.
3. All LEDs in a given layer share a common anode connection.
4. All LEDs in a given position (0‒15) share a common cathode connection.

Figure 4.40: 5 VDC LED special effects cube.

208 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
in a different layer, share a common cathode connection. That is, an LED in a specific location
within a layer shares a common cathode connection with three other LEDs that share the same
position in the other three layers. The common cathode connection from each LED location
is fed to a specific output of the 74HC154 4-to-16 decoder. The decoder has a one-cold-code
output (one output at logic low while the others are at logic high). To illuminate a specific
LED, the appropriate layer select and LED select line are asserted using the layer_sel[3:0] and
led_sel[3:0] lines, respectively. This basic design may be easily expanded to a larger LED cube.
To interface the 5 VDC LED cube to the 3.3 VDC MSP430, a 3.3 VDC-to-5 VDC
level shifter is required for each of the control signals (layer_sel and led_sel). In this example,
a TXB0108 (low voltage octal bidirectional transceiver) is employed to shift the 3.3 VDC sig-
nals of the MSP430 to 5 VDC levels. Adafruit provides a breakout board for the level shifter
(#TXB0108)(www.adafruit.com). Alternatively, a Texas Instruments LSF0101XEVM-001,
discussed earlier in the chapter, may be used for level shifting.
Approach 2: 3.3 VDC LED cube: A 3.3 VDC LED cube design is shown in Figure 4.41.
The 74HC154 1-of-16 decoder has been replaced by two 3.3 VDC 74LVX138 1-of-8 decoders.
The two 74LVX138 decoders form a single 1-of-16 decoder. The led_sel3 is used to select be-
tween the first decoder via enable pin /E2 or the second decoder via enable pin E3. Also, the
74HC244 has been replaced by a 3.3 VDC 74LVX244.

4.9.1 CONSTRUCTION HINTS

To limit project costs, low-cost red LEDs ( Jameco #333973) are used. This LED has a forward
voltage drop (Vf ) of approximately 1.8 VDC and a nominal forward current (If ) of 20 mA. The
project requires a total of 64 LEDs (4 layers of 16 LEDs each). An LED template pattern was
constructed from a 500 by 500 piece of pine wood. A 4-by-4 pattern of holes was drilled into the
wood. Holes were spaced 3/400 apart. The hole diameter was slightly smaller than the diameter
of the LEDs to allow for a snug LED fit.
The LED array was constructed a layer at a time using the wood template. Each LED
was tested before inclusion in the array. A 5 VDC power supply with a series 220 ohm resistor
was used to insure each LED was fully operational. The LED anodes in a given LED row were
then soldered together. A fine-tip soldering iron and a small bit of solder were used for each
interconnect as shown in Figure 4.42. Cross wires were then used to connect the cathodes of
adjacent rows. A 22 gage bare wire was used. Again, a small bit of solder was used for the
interconnect points. Four separate LED layers (4-by-4 array of LEDs) were completed.
To assemble the individual layers into a cube, cocktail straw segments were used as spacers
between the layers. The straw segments provided spacing between the layers and also offered
improved structural stability. The anodes for a given LED position were soldered together. For
example, all LEDs in position 0 for all four layers shared a common anode connection.
The completed LED cube was mounted on a perforated printed circuit board (perfboard)
to provide a stable base. LED sockets for the 74LS244 and the 74HC154 were also mounted to
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 209

LED0
Idiode
- +
Cocktail LED
Straw 0 1 2

_
_

_
3

+
Spacer

+
- +

4 5 6

_
_

_
7

+
+

+
- +

8 10
_

_
9

_
11
+

+
+

+
LED horizontal layer 3
Side LED horizontal layer 2
View - +
LED horizontal layer 1
Idiode
Idiode = 12 13
_

_
14
_

15

+
_
Vcc = 5 VDC
+

+
+

+
220 18 16 14 12 9 7 5 3
IOL = +/- 25 mA 74LVX244 20

/OE1-1
/OE2-19
10
2 4 6 8 11 13 15 17
LE C

C
D 0
D 1
D 2
LE 13

D 4
15
VD

VD
LE 0
LE 1
LE 2
LE 3
LE 4
LE 5
LE 6
7

LE 8
LE 9
LE 1
LE 1
LE 1

LE 1
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

D
D
D

D
5

5
LE

cc =

cc =
V

O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 (16) O0 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 (16)V
(15) (14) (13)(12) (11) (10) ( 9) ( 7) (15) (14) (13)(12) (11) (10) ( 9) ( 7)
74LVX138 74LVX138
(4) (5) (6) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1) (2) (3)
/E1 /E2 E3 A0 A1 A2 (8) /E1 /E2 E3 A0 A1 A2 (8)
5 VDC
LED select

31 led_sel0
32 led_sel1
33 led_sel2
34 led_sel3
MSP430
Layer Select

35 layer_sel0
36 layer_sel1
37 layer_sel2
38 layer_sel3

Figure 4.41: LED special effects cube.

210 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

LED Solder Connection

0 1 2 3

_
_

_
+

+
+

+
LED anodes are connected together
to form a common anode crossbar
between LED rows and columns
4 5 6 7

_
_

_
+

+
+

+
8 10 11
_

_
9

_
+

+
+

+
12 13 15
_

_
14
_

_
+

+
+

+
(a) LED soldering diagram

-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+
-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+

-+ -+ -+ -+

(b) 3D LED array mounted within plexiglass cube

Figure 4.42: LED cube construction.

 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 211
the perfboard. Connections were routed to a 16-pin ribbon cable connector. The other end of
the ribbon cable was interfaced to the appropriate pins of the MSP430 via the level shifter. The
entire LED cube was mounted within a 400 plexiglass cube. The cube is available from the Con-
tainer Store (www.containerstore.com). A construction diagram is provided in Figure 4.42.
A picture of the LED cube is shown in Figure 4.43.

Figure 4.43: LED cube (photo courtesy of J. Barrett).

4.9.2 LED CUBE MSP430 ENERGIA CODE

Provided below is the basic code template to illuminate a single LED (LED 0, layer 0). This
basic template may be used to generate a number of special effects (e.g., tornado, black hole,
etc.). Pin numbers are provided for the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad.
//************************************************
//led_cube
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//************************************************

//led select pins

#define led_sel0 31
212 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
#define led_sel1 32
#define led_sel2 33
#define led_sel3 34

//layer select pins

#define layer_sel0 35
#define layer_sel1 36
#define layer_sel2 37
#define layer_sel3 38

void setup()
{
pinMode(led_sel0, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(layer_sel0, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel3, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
//illuminate LED 0, layer 0
//led select
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
//layer select
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);

delay(500); //delay specified in ms

}
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 213

//*********************************************
In the next example, a function “illuminate_LED” has been added. To illuminate a specific
LED, the LED position (0–15), the LED layer (0–3), and the length of time to illuminate the
LED in milliseconds are specified. In this short example, LED 0 is sequentially illuminated in
each layer. An LED grid map is shown in Figure 4.44. It is useful for planning special effects.
//************************************************
//led_cube2
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//************************************************

//led select pins

#define led_sel0 31
#define led_sel1 32
#define led_sel2 33
#define led_sel3 34

//layer select pins

#define layer_sel0 35
#define layer_sel1 36
#define layer_sel2 37
#define layer_sel3 38

void setup()
{
pinMode(led_sel0, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(layer_sel0, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel3, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
214 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
0 1 2 3
layer 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3
layer 2

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3
layer 1

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3
layer 0

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

Figure 4.44: LED grid map.

 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 215
illuminate_LED(0, 0, 500);
illuminate_LED(0, 1, 500);
illuminate_LED(0, 2, 500);
illuminate_LED(0, 3, 500);
}

//*********************************************

void illuminate_LED(int led, int layer, int delay_time)

{
if(led==0)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==1)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==2)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==3)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==4)
216 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==5)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==6)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==7)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
if(led==8)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==9)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 217
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==10)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==11)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==12)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==13)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==14)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==15)
{
218 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}

if(layer==0)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(layer==1)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(layer==2)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(layer==3)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, HIGH);
}

delay(delay_time);
}

//*********************************************
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 219
In the next example, a “fireworks” special effect is produced. The firework goes up, splits
into four pieces, and then falls back down as shown in Figure 4.45. It is useful for planning
special effects.

//************************************************
//fireworks
//
//This example code is in the public domain.
//************************************************

//led select pins

#define led_sel0 31
#define led_sel1 32
#define led_sel2 33
#define led_sel3 34

//layer select pins

#define layer_sel0 35
#define layer_sel1 36
#define layer_sel2 37
#define layer_sel3 38
//*********************************************

void setup()
{
pinMode(led_sel0, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(led_sel3, OUTPUT);

pinMode(layer_sel0, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel2, OUTPUT);
pinMode(layer_sel3, OUTPUT);
}

void loop()
{
int i;
220 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING

0 1 2 3
layer 3

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3
layer 2

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3
layer 1

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

0 1 2 3
layer 0

4 5 6 7

8 9 10 11

12 13 14 15

Figure 4.45: LED grid map for a fire work.

 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 221
//firework going up
illuminate_LED(5, 0, 100);
illuminate_LED(5, 1, 100);
illuminate_LED(5, 2, 100);
illuminate_LED(5, 3, 100);

//firework exploding into four pieces

//at each cube corner
for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
illuminate_LED(0, 3, 10);
illuminate_LED(3, 3, 10);
illuminate_LED(12, 3, 10);
illuminate_LED(15, 3, 10);
delay(10);
}

delay(200);

//firework pieces falling to layer 2

for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
illuminate_LED(0, 2, 10);
illuminate_LED(3, 2, 10);
illuminate_LED(12, 2, 10);
illuminate_LED(15, 2, 10);
delay(10);
}

delay(200);

//firework pieces falling to layer 1

for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
illuminate_LED(0, 1, 10);
illuminate_LED(3, 1, 10);
illuminate_LED(12, 1, 10);
illuminate_LED(15, 1, 10);
delay(10);
222 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
}

delay(200);

//firework pieces falling to layer 0

for(i=0;i<=10;i++)
{
illuminate_LED(0, 0, 10);
illuminate_LED(3, 0, 10);
illuminate_LED(12, 0, 10);
illuminate_LED(15, 0, 10);
delay(10);
}

delay(10);
}

//*********************************************

void illuminate_LED(int led, int layer, int delay_time)

{
if(led==0)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==1)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==2)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 223
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==3)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==4)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==5)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==6)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(led==7)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, LOW);
}
if(led==8)
224 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==9)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==10)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==11)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==12)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==13)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
 4.9. APPLICATION: SPECIAL EFFECTS LED CUBE 225
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==14)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}
else if(led==15)
{
digitalWrite(led_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(led_sel3, HIGH);
}

if(layer==0)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(layer==1)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(layer==2)
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, HIGH);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, LOW);
}
else if(layer==3)
226 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
{
digitalWrite(layer_sel0, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel1, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel2, LOW);
digitalWrite(layer_sel3, HIGH);
}

delay(delay_time);
}

//*********************************************

4.10 LABORATORY EXERCISE: INTRODUCTION TO THE

EDUCATIONAL BOOSTER PACK MKII AND THE
GROVE STARTER KIT
Introduction. In this laboratory exercise, we get acquainted with the features of the Educational
Booster Pack MkII and the Grove Starter Kit.
Procedure 1: Access the MkII support software available with Energia. Execute the software
and interact with the peripherals aboard the MkII. Develop a table of features for the MkII.
The table should have column headings for:

• MkII feature,

• MSP430 pins used for interface, and

• notes on interesting aspects.

Procedure 2: Access the Grove Starter Kit support software. Execute the software and interact
with the peripherals aboard the Grove. Develop a table of features for the Grove. The table
should have column headings for:

• grove feature,

• MSP430 pins used for interface, and

• notes on interesting aspects.

 4.11. LABORATORY: COLLECTION AND DISPLAY OF WEATHER INFORMATION 227
4.11 LABORATORY: COLLECTION AND DISPLAY OF
WEATHER INFORMATION
Introduction and Background. In the last chapter of the book, we design and implement a
multifunction weather station. In preparation for this design project, an interface and support
software functions are required for a serial LCD.
Procedure: Earlier in the chapter, we discussed the interface for a serial configured LCD. Re-
search and locate a serial LCD compatible with the MSP430 microcontroller. Design and im-
plement the interface and support software for the LCD.

4.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we presented the voltage and current operating parameters for the MSP430 mi-
crocontroller. We discussed how this information may be applied to properly design an interface
for common input and output circuits. It must be emphasized a carefully and properly designed
interface allows the microcontroller to operate properly within its parameter envelope. If due
to a poor interface design, a microcontroller is used outside its prescribed operating parameter
values, spurious and incorrect logic values will result. We provided interface information for a
wide range of input and output devices. We also discussed the concept of interfacing a motor to a
microcontroller using PWM techniques coupled with high power MOSFET or SSR switching
devices.

4.13 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

4N25 Optocoupler, Phototransistor Output, with Base Connection, Doc: 83725, 2010. www.vishay
.com
Barrett, S. F. Arduino Microcontroller Processing for Everyone!, 3rd ed., Morgan & Claypool, 2013.
DOI: 10.2200/s00522ed1v01y201307dcs043. 178, 205
Barrett, S. F. and Pack, D. J. Microcontrollers Fundamentals for Engineers and Scientists, Morgan
& Claypool Publishers, 2006. DOI: 10.2200/s00025ed1v01y200605dcs001.
Crydom Corporation, San Diego, CA. www.crydom.com 200
Electrical Signals and Systems. Primis Custom Publishing, McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
Department of Electrical Engineering, United States Air Force Academy, CO.
Faulkenberry, L. An Introduction to Operational Amplifiers, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977.
164, 166
Faulkenberry, L. Introduction to Operational Amplifiers with Linear Integrated Circuit Applications,
1982. 167
228 4. MSP430 OPERATING PARAMETERS AND INTERFACING
Images Company, Staten Island, NY, 10314. 155

Linear Technology, LTC1157 3.3 Dual Micropower High-Side/Low-Side MOSFET Driver. 180

MikroElektronika. www.mikroe.com

Milone Technologies-eTape Liquid Level Sensors. www.milonetech.com

MSP430FR2433 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR2433), (SLAU739), Texas In-

struments, 2017.

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLAB034AD), Texas Instruments, 2017.

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontroller, (SLASE59C), Texas Instruments, 2018. 141

MSP430FR5994 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR5994), (SLAU678A), Texas In-

struments, 2016.

MSP430FR599x, MSP430FR596x Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLASE54C), Texas Instru-

ments, 2018.

Power Switch Tail II. www.powerswitchtail.com

Sedra, A. and Smith, K. Microelectronic Circuits, 5th ed., Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2004.
170

Seeed-The IoT Hardware Enabler. www.seeed.com

Shoreline Marine. www.shorelinemarinedevelopment.com

Sick Stegmann Incorporated, Dayton, OH. www.stegmann.com 154, 155

Sparkfun. www.sparkfun.com

Texas Instruments H-Bridge Motor Controller IC, (SLVSA74A), 2010.

Texas Instruments Logic Guide, (SDYU001AB), Texas Instruments, 2017. 142, 143

Texas Instruments LSF010XEVM-001 User’s Guide, (SDLU003A), Texas Instruments, 2015. 144

Texas Instruments TPIC6C596 Power Logic 8-Bit Shift Register, (SLIS093D), 2015. 145
 4.14. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 229
4.14 CHAPTER PROBLEMS
Fundamental
1. What will happen if a microcontroller is used outside of its prescribed operating envelope?
2. Discuss the difference between the terms “sink” and “source” as related to current loading
of a microcontroller.
3. Can an LED with a series-limiting resistor be directly driven by the MSP430 microcon-
troller? Explain.
4. In your own words, provide a brief description of each of the microcontroller electrical
parameters.
5. What is switch bounce? Describe two techniques to minimize switch bounce.
6. Describe a method of debouncing a keypad.

Advanced
1. What is the difference between an incremental encoder and an absolute encoder? Describe
applications for each type.
2. What must be the current rating of the 2N2222 and 2N2907 transistors used in the tri-
state LED circuit? Support your answer.

Challenging
1. Draw the circuit for a six-character seven segment display. Fully specify all components.
Write a program to display “MSP430.”
2. Repeat the question above for a dot matrix display.
3. Repeat the question above for a LCD display.
4. An MSP430 has been connected to a JRP 42BYG016 unipolar, 1.8ı per step, 12 VDC
at 160 mA stepper motor. A 1-s delay is used between the steps to control motor speed.
Pushbutton switches SW1 and SW2 are used to assert CW and CCW stepper motion.
Write the code to support this application.
 231

CHAPTER 5

Power Management and Clock

Systems
Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to:
• describe strategies to minimize power consumption in an MSP430-based microcontroller
application;
• balance the power demands of a MSP430 controlled system and the power supply through
available power sources;
• describe different methods to enable ultra-low power (ULP) operation;
• define different operating modes for the MSP430 microcontroller and how they contribute
to ULP operation;
• illustrate the MSP430 PMM and how it contributes to ULP operation;
• configure the MSP430 supply voltage supervisor (SVS) system and describe how it con-
tributes to ULP operation;
• explain the MSP430 CS and how it contributes to ULP operation;
• define battery capacity and its related parameters;
• describe voltage regulation and different methods of achieving regulation;
• describe Energy Trace Technology features of the MSP430 microcontroller; and
• employ a high-efficiency charge pump circuit to operate an MSP430 microcontroller from
a single 1.5 VDC battery.

5.1 OVERVIEW
In a basic circuits course, we learn energy consumption is the product of power and time. We
also learn that power is the product of voltage and current. This chapter discusses techniques
to minimize the energy consumption in an MSP430 microcontroller-based application. The
overriding chapter theme is to strategically use different techniques to minimize the time the
microcontroller is operated in high voltage and current modes.
232 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
We begin the chapter with a discussion on the balancing act microcontroller-based sys-
tem designers perform between the energy requirements of a given application and available
power sources. We also provide an overview of the ultra-low power strategies and features of
the MSP430 microcontroller that support such strategies. We then discuss the LPMs of the
MSP430 and how they help to reduce power consumption. We investigate the MSP430 subsys-
tems which contribute to ULP operation, including the Power Management Module, the Supply
Voltage Supervisor, and the CS. The MSP430 CS provides for a variety of clock sources and
operating frequencies for the MSP430. Since operating frequency is directly related to power
consumption, the goal is to choose the lowest operating frequency and still accomplish the mi-
crocontroller’s task. We then consider the battery supply. We begin with a discussion of battery
capacity and its key parameters. We also describe the important concept of voltage regulation
and different methods of achieving a stable voltage source within a circuit. The chapter concludes
with a laboratory exercise to investigate current drain in different MSP430 operating modes and
methods to operate an MSP430 using various power sources including a single 1.5 VDC battery
by employing a high-efficiency charge pump integrated circuit.

5.2 BACKGROUND THEORY

The MSP430 is the lowest-power consuming microcontroller available on the market [Day,
2009]. It has been designed with a wide variety of ultra-low power features. Although it can be
used in a wide variety of applications, the controller is intended for battery-operated applications
where frequent battery replacement is undesirable or impractical. Application examples include
battery-operated toys, portable measurement instruments, home automation products, medical
instruments, metering applications, and portable smart card readers [SLVS362A, 2001].
Using its power saving capabilities, the MSP430 microcontroller is typically employed in
applications where operation on a battery supply is required over an extended period. To meet
this operational requirement, the power demands of the MSP430 must be balanced with the
capacity of the battery source. The overall current demand of the MSP430, although the lowest
in the industry, increases with [Day, 2009]:

• supply voltage level,

• CPU clock speed,

• operating temperature,

• peripheral device selection,

• I/O use, and

• memory type and size.

 5.3. OPERATING MODES 233
The MSP430 microcontroller was designed as an ultra-low power processor. Taking ad-
vantage of the ULP features is more involved than simply minimizing the effects listed above.
The general approach is to minimize instantaneous current draw while maximizing the time
spent in LPMs. To do this, the designer must be well acquainted with the MSP430 operating
modes, the Power Management Module, and the CS of the MSP430.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the designer must also ensure that peripheral devices are prop-
erly interfaced to the microcontroller. Input peripherals must provide a logic high at the supply
voltage level and a logic low at ground level. This avoids intermediate input voltages that may
wreak havoc upon the microcontroller. Also, a proper interface must be designed for all output
devices. Furthermore, any unused microcontroller pins should be set as outputs.
To become better acquainted with MSP430 ULP features, we review operating modes,
the PMM, the SVS, and the CS in the next several sections.

5.3 OPERATING MODES

The basic premise behind the lower power operating modes is to turn off system clocks (e.g.,
ACLK: auxiliary clock, MCLK: master clock) that are not currently in use. Since a CMOS cir-
cuit consumes power when switching logic states, turning off clocks not in use conserves power.
The operating mode of the controller is determined by the settings of four bits within the Status
Register (R2): CPUOFF, OSCOFF, SCG0 (System Clock Generator 0), and SCG1 (System
Clock Generator 1). By configuring these four bits, a designer can select the operating mode for
the controller based on the system application and at different times within an application. The
different processor operating modes are summarized in Figure 5.1. It is interesting to note that
current consumption is lower, the higher the LPM number selected. In the laboratory exercise,
we investigate the current requirements of several different low power operating modes.
One of the advantages of designating the low power operating mode with Status Register
bits is that when an interrupt occurs, the operating mode configuration is automatically saved
onto the stack. The same operating mode configuration is then retrieved and restored at the
completion of the interrupt service routine, automatically switching between two power modes.
Example: In this example, the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad is placed in LPM 4.5 until
the switch on P1.3 is asserted. The current is measured in the different power modes.
We program in C using the Energia integrated development environment. To compile,
upload, and execute a C program in Energia; perform the following steps.
• Connect the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad to the Energia host computer.
• Select the board type using Tools- >Board.
• Start a new sketch using File- >New.
• Click on the small down arrow icon in the top right corner of the Energia screen and then
select “New Tab.”
234 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
to LPM4.5

PMMREGOFF=1
CPUOFF=1 CPUOFF=1
OSCOFF=0 OSCOFF=1
LPM0: SCG0=0 SCG0=1 LPM4:
CPU/MCLK = off SCG1=0 Active Mode: SCG1=1 CPU/MCLK = off
FLL = on - CPU is active FLL = off
ACLK = on - Various modules ACLK = off
Int/NMI are active Int/NMI
Vcore = on Vcore = on
CPUOFF=1 CPUOFF=1
OSCOFF=0 OSCOFF=0
SCG0=1 SCG0=1
SCG1=0 SCG1=1
Int/NMI Int/NMI
LPM1: LPM3:
CPU/MCLK = off CPUOFF=1
Int/NMI CPU/MCLK = off
FLL = off OSCOFF=0
FLL = off
ACLK = on SCG0=0 ACLK = on
Vcore = on SCG1=1 Vcore = on

LPM2:
CPU/MCLK = off
FLL = off
ACLK = on
Vcore = on

Figure 5.1: MSP430 operating modes. Adapted from Texas Instruments SLAU208Q [2018].
(Illustration used with permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)

• Insert filename.c into the white box at the bottom right corner of the Energia screen and
click “OK.” A new tab will now open with the designation filename.c.
• The C program may now be written in the new tab.
• Compile and load the program to the LaunchPad using the check and right arrow icons.

Note: The MSP-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad may also be used for this example; however,
the 32 kHz crystal is not connected. Procedures for connecting the crystal is provided in the
MSP430FR2433 LaunchPad Development Kit User’s Guide [SLAU739, 2017].
Use the following procedures to measure the current used by the LaunchPad [SLAU678A,
2016]:
• Remove the 3V3 jumper that links the eZ-FET Debug Probe from the MSP430FR5994
portion of the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad, as shown in Figure 5.2.
• Connect an ammeter in place of the jumper. Insure the ammeter is capable of measuring
microamps.
 5.3. OPERATING MODES 235
• Disconnect the UART channel back to the host computer by removing the TXD jumper.
• Declare all unused pins as output.
• Once the current measurement is complete, restore the 3V3 and TXD jumpers.

//********************************************************************
// --COPYRIGHT--,BSD_EX
// Copyright (c) 2014, Texas Instruments Incorporated
// All rights reserved.
//
// MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
//
//********************************************************************
//MSP430FR5x9x Demo - Entering and waking up from LPM4.5 via P1.3
//interrupt with SVS disabled.
//
//Description:
//- Download and run the program.
//- When LPM4.5 entered, no LEDs should be on.
//- Use a multimeter to measure current on JP1 and compare to the
// datasheet.
//- When a positive voltage is applied to P1.3 the device should
// wake up from LPM4.5. This will enable the LFXT oscillator
// and blink the LED (on P1.0).
//
// MSP430FR5994
// ---------------
// /|\| XIN|-
// | | | 32KHz Crystal
// --|RST XOUT|- /|\
// | | |
// | P1.0|---> LED / switch
// | | |
// | P1.3|<------------------
// Pulled-down internally.
// Apply positive voltage.
//
//William Goh
//Texas Instruments Inc.
//October 2015
236 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS

USB
to A
Host

eZ-FET Energy Trace

Debug Technology
Probe

Jumper Isolation
Block

LED1

Figure 5.2: Configuring the FR5994 for current measurements. (Illustration used with permis-
sion of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
 5.3. OPERATING MODES 237
//Built with IAR Embedded Workbench V6.30 & Code Composer Studio V6.1
//**********************************************************************

#include <msp430.h>

//Function prototypes
void configure_GPIO(void);

int main(void)
{
WDTCTL = WDTPW | WDTHOLD; //stop watchdog timer
configure_GPIO(); //configure I/O

//Determine if MSP430 is coming out of an LPMx.5 or a regular RESET.

//SYSRSTIV used to determine source of interrupt or reset
if(SYSRSTIV == SYSRSTIV__LPM5WU)
{
PJSEL0 = BIT4 | BIT5; //for XT1

//Clock System Setup

CSCTL0_H = CSKEY_H; //Unlock CS registers
CSCTL1 = DCOFSEL_0; //Set DCO to 1MHz
CSCTL2 = SELA__LFXTCLK | SELS__DCOCLK | SELM__DCOCLK;
CSCTL3 = DIVA__1 | DIVS__1 | DIVM__1; //Set all dividers
CSCTL4 &= ~LFXTOFF;

//Configure LED pin for output

P1DIR |= BIT0;

//After wakeup from LPM4.5 state of I/Os are locked until the LOCKLPM5
//bit in the PM5CTL0 register is cleared.
//Disable the GPIO power-on default high-impedance mode to activate
//previously configured port settings. The oscillator should now
//start...
PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5;

do{
CSCTL5 &= ~LFXTOFFG; //Clear XT1 fault flag
SFRIFG1 &= ~OFIFG;
238 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
}while (SFRIFG1 & OFIFG); //Test oscillator fault flag
}//end if
else
{
//Configure P1.3 Interrupt
P1OUT &= ~BIT3; //Pull-down resistor on P1.3
P1REN |= BIT3; //Select pull-down mode for P1.3
P1DIR = 0xFF ^ BIT3; //Set all but P1.1 to output
//direction
P1IES &= ~BIT3; //P1.3 Lo/Hi edge
P1IFG = 0; //Clear all P1 interrupt flags
P1IE |= BIT3; //P1.3 interrupt enabled

//Disable the GPIO power-on default high-impedance mode to activate

//previously configured port settings
PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5;
PMMCTL0_H = PMMPW_H; //Open PMM Registers for write
PMMCTL0_L &= ~(SVSHE); //Disable high-side SVS
PMMCTL0_L |= PMMREGOFF; //and set PMMREGOFF
PMMCTL0_H = 0; //Lock PMM Registers

//Enter LPM4 Note that this operation does not return. The LPM4.5
//will exit through a RESET event, resulting in a re-start
//of the code.
__bis_SR_register(LPM4_bits); //SCG1+SCG0+OSCOFF+CPUOFF

// Should never get here...

while (1);
}

//Now blink the LED in an endless loop.

while(1)
{
P1OUT ^= BIT0; //P1.0 = toggle
__delay_cycles(100000);
}
}

//*********************************************************************
 5.4. THE POWER MANAGEMENT MODULE AND SUPPLY VOLTAGE SUPERVISOR 239

void configure_GPIO(void)
{
P1OUT = 0; P1DIR = 0xFF; P2OUT = 0; P2DIR = 0xFF;
P3OUT = 0; P3DIR = 0xFF; P4OUT = 0; P4DIR = 0xFF;
P5OUT = 0; P5DIR = 0xFF; P6OUT = 0; P6DIR = 0xFF;
P7OUT = 0; P7DIR = 0xFF; P8OUT = 0; P8DIR = 0xFF;

PJOUT = 0; PJSEL0 = BIT4 | BIT5; // For XT1

PJDIR = 0xFFFF;
}

//*********************************************************************

5.4 THE POWER MANAGEMENT MODULE (PMM) AND

SUPPLY VOLTAGE SUPERVISOR (SVS)
The PMM is responsible for providing the main core voltage for the MSP430 microcontroller,
shown in Figure 5.3. The core voltage is designated as VCORE and is derived from the supply
voltage provided to the microcontroller. The externally provided supply voltage is designated as
the device VCC or DVCC . The VCORE voltage, as its name implies, provides a voltage source for the
core features of the microcontroller: the central processing unit (CPU), memories, and digital
modules. The supply voltage DVCC is primarily used to provide a voltage source for the I/O, the
oscillators, and the analog modules [SLAU208Q, 2018].
As part of the PMM, the MSP430 has an onboard, integrated low-dropout voltage reg-
ulator designated as the LDO. The LDO steps the high side supply voltage DVCC down to
the low side core voltage VCORE . The VCORE voltage may be programmed in four distinct steps.
The specific voltage is determined based on the anticipated system operating frequency, that is,
the MCLK rate. As shown in Figure 5.4, higher system operating frequencies require higher
supply voltages. The settings for the PMMCOREVx control bits for the LDO regulator (see
Figure 5.3) are shown within the field intersections in Figure 5.4. Figure 5.4 is a generic fig-
ure for microcontrollers within the MSP430 family. Each family member has a specific system
frequency vs. supply voltage profile [SLAU208Q, 2018].

5.4.1 SUPPLY VOLTAGE SUPERVISOR

In addition to providing the VCORE voltage, the PMM has a wide variety of voltage supervisory
options for both DVCC and VCORE via the SVS modules, shown in Figure 5.3. The SVS provides
two different levels of voltage level sensing: supervision and monitoring. If supervision options
are selected, the microcontroller will perform a power on reset (POR) when the sensed voltage
240 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
PMM Registers
PMM control register 0 (PMMCTL0)
PMM control register 1 (PMMCTL1)
PMM control register 2 (PMMCTL2)
PMM control register 5 (PMMCTL5)
PMM interrupt flag register (PMMIFG)

Device VCC(DVCC) Control

- from external source Bits CMMCOREVx:
- to I/Os, controls VCORE values VCORE to CPU,
oscillators, memory digital
analog modules modules
Integrated low drop out
regulator (LDO)

Supervisor-Supervised Supervisor-Supervised
High Side (SVSH) LowSide (SVSL) Brownout
Supervisor-Monitored Reference Supervisor-Monitored Reset
High Side (SVMH) Low Side (SVML) (BOR)

Ports NOR OR Reset

ON

High side Low side

Figure 5.3: Power management module and supply voltage supervisor. (Adapted from
SLAU208Q [2018].)

f3
System Frequency (MHz)

3
f2
2 2,3
f1
1 1, 2 1, 2,3
f0
0 0, 1 0, 1, 2 0, 1, 2,3
1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 3.6

Supply Voltage (V)

Figure 5.4: Operating frequency vs. supply voltage profile for the MSP430 microcontroller.
(Adapted from SLAU208Q [2018].)
 5.5. CLOCK SYSTEM 241
falls below a prescribed level. If monitoring options are selected, an interrupt is generated to
indicate which sensed voltage has fallen below prescribed levels [SLAU208Q, 2018].
The SVS also has brownout reset (BOR) circuitry which monitors the VCORE voltage.
During startup, the BOR keeps the microcontroller in the reset state until voltages have reached
minimum levels and stabilized. During normal operation, the BOR will generate a reset if VCORE
falls below prescribed levels [SLAU208Q, 2018].

5.4.2 PMM REGISTERS

All activities of the PMM and SVS are controlled by the user-defined settings of the PMM and
SVS-related registers, listed in Figure 5.3. Space does not permit a detailed description of these
registers. Refer to the specific documentation for a given MSP430 microcontroller for details
on the register settings.

5.5 CLOCK SYSTEM

The MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 share a similar CS, as shown in Figure 5.5. The
CS allows the MSP430 to operate from many different clock sources: two external (XT1CLK
and XT2CLK) and four internal (VLOCLK, REFOCLK, DCOCLK, and the MODOSC).
The FR2433 is not equipped with the XT2CLK external clock.
The clock sources are routed through frequency dividers to the three main clocks for the
MSP430:
• Auxiliary Clock (ACLK)
• Master Clock (MCLK)
• Subsystem Master Clock (SMCLK)
The frequency dividers allow the clock sources to be divided down by a factor of 1, 2,
4, 8, 16, or 32. This allows the frequency of a specific clock to be set optimally for a given
application. A variety of clock sources provides flexibility for use in a specific application. They
are the following.
• XT1CLK, or external clock 1, provides a connection for an external clock source. The
external clock source is typically a low-frequency 32,768 Hz source from a crystal or a
resonator.1 This time base may be processed and conveniently used to provide a 1-s time
base for RTC applications. In the default configuration for the MSP-EXP430FR2433
LaunchPad, the timebase is populated but not connected.
• VLOCLK is an internal, low-frequency, low-power consumption oscillator with a fre-
quency typically of 10 kHz.
1A crystal time base is typically more stable than a resonator type time base.
242 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
Clock System Control Registers
Clock System Control 0 Register (CSCTL0)
Clock System Control 1 Register (CSCTL1)
Clock System Control 2 Register (CSCTL2)
Clock System Control 3 Register (CSCTL3)
Clock System Control 4 Register (CSCTL4)
Clock System Control 5 Register (CSCTL5)
Clock System Control 6 Register (CSCTL6)
Clock System Control 7 Register (CSCTL7)
Clock System Control 8 Register (CSCTL8)

XT1CLK: 32.768 kHz crystal

- FR2433 not connected
- FR5994 connected
Frequency
VLOCLK Divider Auxiliary Clock (ACLK)
10 kHz - low frequency peripherals
- source: XT1CLK or REFOCLK
REFOCLK Clock
32.768 kHz Selection Frequency
DCOCLK Divider Master Clock (MCLK)
1 MHz - CPU, CRC
- source: REFOCLK, DCOCLK,
MODOSC XT1CLK, VLOCLK
5 MHz
Frequency
Divider Subsystem Master Clock (SMCLK)
XT2CLK: HF crystal - peripheral clock
- FR5994 not populated - source: MCLK

Figure 5.5: Clock system (CS) overview.

• REFOCLK is an internal low-frequency reference oscillator with a frequency of 32768

Hz.
• DCOCLK is an internal digitally controlled oscillator set for 1 MHz.
• MODOSC is an internal digitally controlled oscillator set for 5 MHz.
• XT2CLK provides a connection for an external, high-frequency clock source. This source
is not available in the MSP430FR2433. In the default configuration for the MSP-
EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad, the timebase is not populated on the printed circuit board.
The operation and configuration of the clock system is controlled by the CS con-
trol registers and their specific control bit settings. The detailed CS block diagrams for the
MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 are shown in Figures 5.6 and 5.7. Both diagrams
provide clock sources on the left, clock divider features in the center, and clock outputs on
 5.5. CLOCK SYSTEM 243
the right. We examine the flexibility of the CS with several examples [SLAU445G, 2016,
SLAU367O, 2017].
Example: In this example, the MSP-EXP430FR2433 LaunchPad is used to configure the
MCLK for 16 MHz operation. The MCLK, SMCLK, and the ACLK are routed to external
pins for observation on an oscilloscope or logic analyzer.
//********************************************************************
// --COPYRIGHT--,BSD_EX
// Copyright (c) 2014, Texas Instruments Incorporated
// All rights reserved.
//
// MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
//
//********************************************************************
//MSP430FR243x Demo - Configure MCLK for 16MHz operation,
// and REFO sourcing FLLREF and ACLK.
//
//Description:
//- Configure MCLK for 16MHz. FLL reference clock is REFO. At this
// speed, the FRAM requires wait states.
//- ACLK = default REFO ~32768Hz, SMCLK = MCLK = 16MHz.
//- Toggle LED to indicate that the program is running.
//
// MSP430FR2433
// ---------------
// /|\| |
// | | |
// --|RST |
// | P1.0 |---> LED
// | P1.3 |---> MCLK = 16MHz
// | P1.7 |---> SMCLK = 16MHz
// | P2.2 |---> ACLK = 32768Hz
//
//
//Ling Zhu, Texas Instruments Inc., Feb 2015
//Built with IAR Embedded Workbench v6.20 & Code Composer Studio v6.0.1
//*********************************************************************

#include <msp430.h>
244 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS

FLLWARNEN, FLLULIE
FLLUNLOCKHIS, FLLUNLOCK
FLLULIFG, DCOFFG

DC OF TRIM
SELREF FLLREFDIV DCORSEL, DCO
DISMOD, MOD
REFOCLK
FD
LPF
REFO

DCOCLK
DCO

Note: XT1HF setting is device specific. FLLN FLLD

SELMS
Refer to the device-specific data sheet
for details.
XT1AUTOOFF 00
DCOCLKDIV
XT1AGCOFF
XT1DRIVE DIVM CPUOFF
XTS XT1BYPASS
01
MCLK
XT1IN

XT1 10
VLOAUTOOFF
XT1OUT
SMCLK
XT1 11
ENSTFCNT1 DIVS SMCLKOFF
XT10FFG VLO
VLOCLK

ACLK

SELA
MODCLK
DIVA MODO

XT1CLK

From Peripherals
MODCLK Request
MODCLKREQEN

From Peripherals
MCLK Request
MCLKREQEN

SMCLK Request From Peripherals

SMCLKREQEN

From Peripherals
ACLK Request
ACLKREQEN

MCLK Request From Peripherals

MCLKREQEN

SMCLK Request From Peripherals

SMCLKREQEN

ACLK Request From Peripherals

ACLKREQEN

Figure 5.6: MSP430FR2433 clock system (CS) overview [SLAU445G, 2016]. (Illustration used
with permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
 5.5. CLOCK SYSTEM 245
ACLK_REQEN
ACLK_REQ

SELA OSCOFF

Faut ACLK Enable Logic

LFXTBYPASS Detection
EN

1 LFXTCLK
LFXIN 000
0 001 DIVA
010
Divider
rsvd 011
LFXOUT /1/2/4/8/16/32 0 ACLK
rsvd 100
LFXTDRIVE LFXT rsvd 101 1

rsvd 110
rsvd 111

MCLK_REQEN
MCLK_REQ

SELM CPUOFF

MCLK Enable Logic

EN
Faut
HFXTBYPASS Detection
000
001 DIVM
1 HFXTCLK
HFXIN 010
0 Divider
011
/1/2/4/8/16/32 0 MCLK
100
101 1
HFXOUT
rsvd 110
HFXTDRIVE HFXT rsvd 111

SMCLK_REQEN
SMCLK_REQ
VLOCLK
VLO SELS SMCLKOFF

DCOFSEL DCORSEL SMCLK Enable Logic

EN

000
001 DIVS

2.7/3.3/4/5.3/6.7/8MHz 010
0 DCOCLK Divider
011 0 SMCLK
16/20/24 MHz 1 /1/2/4/8/16/32
100
101 1
DCO rsvd 110
rsvd 111

MODOSC_REQEN VLOCLK

MODOSC_REQ
LFXTCLK
SELA OSCOFF
Unconditional MODOSC
requests
MODOSC Enable
Logic
EN LFMODCLK
/128
MODCLK
MODOSC /1

Figure 5.7: MSP430FR5994 clock system (CS) overview [SLAU367O, 2017]. (Illustration used
with permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
246 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
int main(void)
{
WDTCTL = WDTPW | WDTHOLD; //Stop watchdog timer

//Configure one FRAM wait state as required by the device datasheet

//for MCLK operation beyond 8MHz before configuring the clock system.
FRCTL0 = FRCTLPW | NWAITS_1;

__bis_SR_register(SCG0); //disable FLL

CSCTL3 |= SELREF__REFOCLK; //Set REFO as FLL reference
CSCTL0 = 0; //clear DCO and MOD registers
CSCTL1 &= ~(DCORSEL_7); //clear DCO freq select bits first
CSCTL1 |= DCORSEL_5; //Set DCO = 16MHz
CSCTL2 = FLLD_0 + 487; //DCOCLKDIV = 16MHz
__delay_cycles(3);
__bic_SR_register(SCG0); //enable FLL
while(CSCTL7 & (FLLUNLOCK0 | FLLUNLOCK1)); //FLL locked
CSCTL4 = SELMS__DCOCLKDIV | SELA__REFOCLK;

//set default REFO(~32768Hz) as ACLK source, ACLK = 32768Hz

//default DCOCLKDIV as MCLK and SMCLK source

P1DIR |= BIT0 | BIT3 | BIT7; //set MCLK SMCLK and LED pin as output
P1SEL1 |= BIT3 | BIT7; //set MCLK, SMCLK pin as second func
P2DIR |= BIT2; //set ACLK pin as output
P2SEL1 |= BIT2; //set ACLK pin as second function
PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5; //disable the GPIO power-on default
//high-impedance mode
//to activate previously configured
//port settings
while(1)
{
P1OUT ^= BIT0; //Toggle P1.0 using exclusive-OR
__delay_cycles(8000000); //delay for 8000000*(1/MCLK)=0.5s
}
}

//*********************************************************************
 5.5. CLOCK SYSTEM 247
Example: In this example the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad is used to configure the
MCLK and SMCLK for 8 MHz operation. The ACLK is sourced by the VLOCLK and di-
vided for a 9.4 kHZ output. The clock signals are routed to external pins for observation on an
oscilloscope or logic analyzer.

//********************************************************************
// --COPYRIGHT--,BSD_EX
// Copyright (c) 2014, Texas Instruments Incorporated
// All rights reserved.
//
// MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
//
//********************************************************************
//MSP430FR5x9x Demo - Configure MCLK for 8MHz operation
//
//Description: Configure SMCLK = MCLK = 8MHz, ACLK = VLOCLK.
//
// MSP430FR5994
// ---------------
// /|\| |
// | | |
// --|RST |
// | |
// | P1.0|---> LED
// | P2.0|---> ACLK = ~9.4kHz
// | P3.4|---> SMCLK = MCLK = 8MHz
//
//William Goh, Texas Instruments Inc., October 2015
//Built with IAR Embedded Workbench V6.30 & Code Composer Studio V6.1
//*********************************************************************

#include <msp430.h>

int main(void)
{
WDTCTL = WDTPW | WDTHOLD; //Stop WDT
//Configure GPIO
P1OUT &= ~BIT0;

//Clear P1.0 output latch for a defined power-on state

248 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
P1DIR |= BIT0; //Set P1.0 to output direction

P2DIR |= BIT0;
P2SEL0 |= BIT0; //Output ACLK
P2SEL1 |= BIT0;

P3DIR |= BIT4;
P3SEL1 |= BIT4; //Output SMCLK
P3SEL0 |= BIT4;

//Disable the GPIO power-on default high-impedance mode to activate

//previously configured port settings
PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5;

//Clock System Setup

CSCTL0_H = CSKEY_H; //Unlock CS registers
CSCTL1 = DCOFSEL_0; //Set DCO to 1MHz

//Set SMCLK = MCLK = DCO, ACLK = VLOCLK

CSCTL2 = SELA__VLOCLK | SELS__DCOCLK | SELM__DCOCLK;

//Per Device Errata set divider to 4 before changing frequency to

//prevent out of spec operation from overshoot transient
CSCTL3=DIVA__4 | DIVS__4 | DIVM__4;//Set all corresponding clk sources
//to divide by 4 for errata
CSCTL1 = DCOFSEL_6; //Set DCO to 8MHz

//Delay by ~10us to let DCO settle.

//60 cycles = 20 cycles buffer + (10us / (1/4MHz))
__delay_cycles(60);
CSCTL3=DIVA__1 | DIVS__1 | DIVM__1;//Set all dividers to 1 for 8MHz
//operation
CSCTL0_H = 0; //Lock CS Registers

while(1)
{
P1OUT ^= BIT0; //Toggle LED
__delay_cycles(8000000); //Wait 8,000,000 CPU Cycles
}
 5.6. BATTERY OPERATION 249
}
//*********************************************************************

5.6 BATTERY OPERATION

Many embedded applications involve remote, portable systems, operating from a battery supply.
To properly design a battery source for an embedded system, the operating characteristics of the
embedded system must be matched to the characteristics of the battery supply. To properly
match the battery supply to the embedded system, the following questions must be addressed.

• What are the voltage and current required by the embedded system?

• How long must the embedded system operate before battery replacement or recharge?

• Will the embedded system be powered from primary, non-rechargeable batteries or sec-
ondary, rechargeable batteries?

• Are there weight or size limitations to be considered in selecting a battery?

Once these questions have been answered, a battery may be chosen for a specific applica-
tion. To choose an appropriate battery, the following items must be specified:

• battery voltage,

• battery capacity,

• battery size and weight, and

• primary or secondary battery.

Battery capacity is typically specified as a mAH rating. The capacity is the product of the
current drain and the battery operational life at that current level. It provides an approximate
estimate of how long a battery will last under a given current drain. The capacity is reduced at
higher discharge rates. It is important to note that a battery’s voltage declines as the battery
discharges. Provided in Figure 5.8 are approximate capacity ratings for common battery sizes
and technologies (www.duracell.com).
Primary and secondary batteries are manufactured using a wide variety of processes.
In general, primary (non-rechargeable) batteries have a higher capacity than their secondary
(rechargeable) counterparts. Also, batteries with higher capacity are more expensive than those
using a lower-capacity technology. A thorough review of the manufacturers’ literature is recom-
mended to select a battery for a specific application.
250 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS

Primary Secondary
Other Battery
(non-rechargeable) (rechargeable)
Technologies
Alkaline Battery Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cad)
Battery Rated Rated Rated
Designator Voltage Capacity Voltage Capacity Voltage Capacity
D 1.5 V 15,000 mAh 1.2 V 1,200 mAh ---
C 1.5 V 7,000 mAh 1.2 V 1,200 mAh ---
AA 1.5 V 2,250 mAh 1.2 V 500 mAh ---
AAA 1.5 V 1,000 mAh 1.2 V 180 mAh ---
3.7 V (18650) --- --- 3.7 V 6,000 mAh (Li-ion)
9V 9.0 V 550 mAh --- 9.0 V 250 mAh (NI-MH)
12 V --- --- 12.0 V 8.5 Ah (sealed Lead Acid)

Figure 5.8: Approximate battery capacities.

5.7 VOLTAGE REGULATION

It is essential to provide a stable supply voltage to the LaunchPad. As discussed earlier in the
chapter, a voltage regulator is required to stabilize an input voltage source. Since the MSP430
is typically used in a remote application, a battery source coupled with a regulator is used to
provide the stable input voltage. Figure 5.9 provides a sample circuit to provide a C3.3 VDC
source. The LM1117-3.3 is a 3.3 VDC, 800 mA low dropout regulator. The maximum input
voltage to the regulator is 7 VDC [SNOS412N, 2016].

I
LM1117-3.3 O +3.3 VDC

C
+ 10 uF +
Battery 10 uF
Tantalum Tantalum

Figure 5.9: Battery supply circuits employing a 3.3 VDC regulators [SNOS412N, 2016].

5.8 HIGH-EFFICIENCY CHARGE PUMP CIRCUITS

An alternative to using a battery and regulator to power a portable application is to employ a bat-
tery and a high-efficiency charge pump circuit. For example, the Texas Instruments TPS60310
charge pump requires a 0.9–1.8 VDC input (e.g., AAA, AA battery) to produce a 3.3 VDC
output suitable for powering the MSP430 microcontroller. The TPS60310 provides a maxi-
 5.9. LABORATORY EXERCISE: MSP430 POWER SYSTEMS AND LOW-POWER MODE 251
mum output current of 20 mA. In addition to the TPS60310, five additional capacitors are
required, as shown in Figure 5.10 [SLVS362A, 2001].

C1 C2
1 uF 1 uF

C1- C1+ C2- C2+

VIN OUT1 2X IN
40 mA maximum
0.9–1.8 CIN COUT1
VDC 1 uF TPS60310 1 uF
High-efficiency Charge Pump

SNOOZE OUT2 3.3 VDC

R 20 mA maximum
PG COUT2
1 uF
GND

Figure 5.10: High-efficiency charge pump circuit [SLVS362A, 2001].

5.9 LABORATORY EXERCISE: MSP430 POWER SYSTEMS

AND LOW-POWER MODE OPERATION
Throughout this chapter, we have investigated concepts related to providing a power supply to
the MSP430 microcontroller and how to best manage this power source for extended operation.
In this laboratory exercise, we investigate related aspects. The laboratory is divided into three
sections. In Section 5.9.1, the current requirement of the MSP430FR5994 is investigated for
several different modes of operation using the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad. In Sections
5.9.2 and 5.9.3, a battery supply is developed for the MSP430 microcontroller, and its char-
acteristics are studied in detail. Specifically, each supply is characterized for use in a remote,
battery-operated application.

5.9.1 CURRENT MEASUREMENTS IN DIFFERENT OPERATING

MODES
In this portion of the laboratory exercise, we investigate the current consumption of the
MSP430FR5994 using the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad under various operating con-
ditions. Earlier in the chapter we provided code examples to place the MSP430 in different
252 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
LPMs and to change the processor operating frequency. Adapt these examples to measure the
current requirement of the MSP430 operating under a variety of LPMs and frequencies. De-
velop a summary chart of your findings.

5.9.2 OPERATING AN MSP430 FROM A SINGLE REGULATED BATTERY

SOURCE
Earlier in the chapter, we discussed the design of a regulated power supply from a battery source.
Design and construct a regulated battery source. Based on measurements taken in the first sec-
tion of the laboratory, predict the operational life of the MSP430FR5994, when operated from
this supply, when operated in the active mode at the maximum operating frequency. Connect a
resistor to the power supply to simulate the load of the MSP430FR5994 when operating under
these conditions. Plot the voltage degradation as a function of time.

5.9.3 OPERATING AN MSP430 FROM A SINGLE 1.5 VDC BATTERY

Recall the design of a power supply using a single battery and a high-efficiency charge pump.
Design and construct a source of this type. Based on measurements taken in the first section of
the laboratory, predict the operational life of the MSP430FR5994 using this supply when op-
erated in the active mode at the maximum operating frequency. Connect a resistor to the power
supply to simulate the load of the MSP430FR5994 when operating under these conditions. Plot
the voltage degradation as a function of time.

5.10 SUMMARY
In this chapter, we presented the ultra-low power features of the MSP430 microcontroller. We
then reviewed the low-power operating modes to reduce power consumption. We then investi-
gated the MSP430 subsystems which contribute to ULP operation, including the power man-
agement system, the supply voltage supervisor, and the CS. By evaluating the required battery
capacity and the operating modes of the MSP430 controllers, one can choose appropriate bat-
teries to satisfy system requirements.
We then examined the other side of the coin, the battery supply. We began with a dis-
cussion of battery capacity and its key parameters. We also described the important concept of
voltage regulation and different methods of achieving a stable input voltage for the MSP430. The
chapter concluded with a laboratory exercise to investigate current drain in different MSP430
operating modes and how to operate an MSP430 using a single 1.5 VDC battery, by employing
a high-efficiency charge pump integrated circuit.

5.11 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Day, M. Using power solutions to extend battery life in MSP430 applications. Analog Applica-
tions Journal, Texas Instruments Incorporated, 10–12, Fourth Quarter 2009. 232
 5.12. CHAPTER PROBLEMS 253
LM1117 800-mA Low-Dropout Linear Regulator, (SNOS412N), Texas Instruments, 2016. 250

MSP430FR2433 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR2433), (SLAU739), Texas In-

struments, 2017. 234

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLAB034AD), Texas Instruments, 2017.

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontroller, (SLASE59C), Texas Instruments, 2018.

MSP430FR4xx and MSP430FR2xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU445G), Texas Instruments,

2016. 243, 244

MSP430FR58xx, MSP430FR59xx, and MSP430FR6xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU367O),

Texas Instruments, 2017. 243, 245

MSP430FR5994 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR5994), (SLAU678A), Texas In-

struments, 2016. 234

MSP430FR599x, MSP430FR596x Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLASE54C), Texas Instru-

ments, 2018.

Texas Instruments MSP430x5xx/MSP430x6xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU208Q), Texas Instru-

ments, 2018. 234, 239, 240, 241

TPS60310, TPS60311, TPS60312, TPS60313 Single-Cell to 3-V/3.3-V, 20 mA Dual Output

High-Efficiency Charge Pump with Snooze Mode, (SLVS362A), Texas Instruments, Dallas, TX,
2001. 232, 251

5.12 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Fundamental
1. Draw a block diagram and describe the operation of the power management system
(PMM).

2. Draw a block diagram and describe the operation of the supply supervisor system (SVS).

3. Draw a block diagram and describe the operation of the clock system (CS).

4. Describe the differences of the three clocks on the MSP430: the MCLK, ACLK, and
SMCLK.

5. What is the difference between supply voltage supervision (SVS) and monitoring?

6. What is the difference between a primary and a secondary voltage sources?

254 5. POWER MANAGEMENT AND CLOCK SYSTEMS
Advanced
1. Design a 3.3 VDC source for an MSP430 using a single AA battery. Fully specify all
components.
2. Design a 3.3 VDC source for an MSP430 using a battery and a regulator. Fully specify all
components.
3. Write a single-page point paper summarizing best practices for low-power operation.
4. Write a single-page point paper on the concept of battery capacity.
5. Construct a table summarizing low-power modes (LPMs). The table should include bit
settings to enter the specific LPM and features available in the mode.
6. Construct an experiment to monitor battery voltage degradation during use. Plot results
for several different battery technologies.
7. Construct a table summarizing available primary and secondary battery sources. At a min-
imum, the table should include common battery sizes (AA, AAA, C, D, and 9 VDC) and
their capacity.

Challenging
1. Write a function in C to place the MSP430 in a specified low-power mode (LPM). The
desired LPM is passed into the function as a variable.
2. Compile a list of best practices to operate the MSP430 microcontroller in the most efficient
manner.
 255

CHAPTER 6

MSP430 Memory System

Objectives: After reading this chapter, the reader should be able to:

• describe the importance of different memory components in a microcontroller-based sys-

tem;

• employ the binary and hexadecimal numbering systems to describe the contents or address
of a specific memory location;

• specify the length and width of a memory component;

• describe the function of the address, data, and control buses of a memory component;

• list the steps required for a memory component to be read from or written to;

• describe the difference between a Harvard and a von Neumann microcontroller architec-
ture;

• provide the distinguishing features of RAM, ROM, and EEPROM type memory com-
ponents;

• sketch the memory map for the MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994 microcon-
trollers;

• list the advantages of employing DMA techniques to transfer data using the
MSP430FR5994;

• program the MSP430 DMA controller to transfer data from different portions of memory;
and

• explain the key attributes of FRAM.

6.1 OVERVIEW
In general, there are two purposes for a memory system in a microcontroller: the storage and
retrieval space for computer instructions and the storage and working space for data. For a
memory-mapped I/O system, memory locations are used to capture inputs, store outputs, and
256 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
program subsystems of microcontrollers. As its name implies, the memory system allows a mi-
crocontroller to retain the program it is supposed to execute. Various memory components also
allow data to be stored and modified during program execution.
Memory is essential in all microcontroller-based applications. In a smart home applica-
tion, memory is used to store the algorithm to control the environmental factors serving the
entire home. Other memory components are used to store and allow the update of combina-
tions to secure areas of the home, control temperature, and to activate lawn irrigation systems.
Furthermore, external memory components can be used for data logging. For example, key smart
home parameters such as temperature and humidity may be measured and stored on a multi me-
dia card/secure digital (MMC/SD) card. The data may be logged over a long period of time. The
MMC/SD card may be removed from the microcontroller-based system and read by a personal
computer (PC) to examine and analyze the data. From this analysis, trends may be established
to optimize the operation of the smart home control algorithm.
The intent of this chapter is to allow the reader to become acquainted with memory con-
cepts, types of memory, and its operation. The chapter begins with a review of key memory
concepts and terminology. This is followed by detailed maps of the MSP430FR2433 and the
MSP430FR5994 microcontroller memory components. The different memory systems onboard
the MSP430 are then discussed. These include the FRAM, RAM, and the DMA memories.
We also provide examples on how to equip a LaunchPad with an MMC/SD card. The chapter
concludes with a laboratory exercise detailing the operation of the DMA memory controller.

6.2 BASIC MEMORY CONCEPTS

In this section, we review terminology and concepts associated with microcontroller memory.
Figure 6.1a provides a general model for a memory system. A microcontroller’s memory system
consists of a variety of memory technologies, including RAM, ROM, and EEPROM. Each
technology has a specific function within the microcontroller.
Memory may be viewed as a two-dimensional (2D) array of storage elements called bits. A
memory bit can store a single piece of digital information: a logic high or a logic low. Rather than
access a single bit for reading or writing, memory is typically configured such that a collection
of bits is read or written in parallel. The width, or how many bits are simultaneously accessed, is
a function of the specific microcontroller. Memory widths of a byte (8 bits) or a double byte (16
bits) are common. The term “word” is often used to describe the width of the memory system.
A memory system may be viewed as a series of different memory locations each with a
separate and unique address, as shown in Figure 6.1b. At each address is the capacity to store a
memory word of n data bits.

6.2.1 MEMORY BUSES

Memory system activities are controlled by several different buses including the address bus, the
data bus, and the control bus. A bus is a collection of conductors with a common function. The
 6.2. BASIC MEMORY CONCEPTS 257

Memory
System

Address
Bus m

Control
Bus c

Data
Bus n
(a) Memory system model

0000_0000_0000_0000_0000 Word 0
Word 1
Word 2

Memory Length (2m)

1111_1111_1111_1111_1111

Memory Width (n)

(b) Memory length and width

Figure 6.1: (a) General model for a memory system and (b) memory length and width.
258 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
address bus contains a number (m) of separate address lines. Using linear addressing techniques,
the expression 2address lines shows the number of uniquely addressable memory locations. For
example, some variants of the MSP430 microcontroller have 20 address lines and, therefore,
may separately address 220 or 1,048,576 different memory locations.
The data bus width (n) usually matches the width of memory or the number of bits stored
at each memory location. This allows the contents of a specific memory location to be read from
or written to simultaneously. The MSP430 microcontroller has a 16-bit data path. The width of
the data path also determines the maximum size of mathematical arguments that can be easily
processed by the microcontroller. For example, with a 16-bit data width, the maximum unsigned
integer that may be processed without overflow is 216 or 65,535.
The control bus consists of the signal lines required to perform memory operations such
as read and write. There are typically control signals to specify the memory operation (read or
write), a clock input, and an enable output for the memory system.

6.2.2 MEMORY OPERATIONS

Operations that are typically performed on a memory system include read from and write to the
memory system. The memory read operation consists of the following activities.

• The address of the memory location to be read is provided by the microcontroller on its
address bus to the memory system.

• The control signal to read the specified memory location is asserted by the microcontroller.

• The data at the specified memory location is fetched from memory and placed on the
memory system data lines.

• The control signal to enable the memory system output is asserted. This allows the fetched
memory data access to the data bus.

The memory write operation consists of the following activities:

• The address of the memory location to be written to is provided by the microcontroller on

its address bus to the memory system.

• The data to be written to the specified memory location is provided by the microcontroller
on its data bus.

• The control signal to write to the specified memory location is asserted.

• The data is written to the specified memory location.

 6.2. BASIC MEMORY CONCEPTS 259
6.2.3 BINARY AND HEXADECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEMS
The binary, or base 2, numbering system is used to specify addresses and data within microcon-
troller systems. Examples of binary numbers and their equivalent base ten numbers are provided
in Figure 6.2a. The largest unsigned integer that can be specified with a 16-bit binary number
is 1111_1111_1111_1111 or 65; 535. Large binary numbers are difficult to read. To help in the
readability of lengthy binary numbers, underscores maybe inserted between every four bits.

32768
16834
8192
4096
2048
1024
512
256
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
215 214 213 212 211 210 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
(a) Binary number system
Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex Binary Hex
0000 0 0100 4 1000 8 1100 c
0001 1 0101 5 1001 9 1101 d
0010 2 0110 6 1010 a 1110 e
0011 3 0111 7 1011 b 1111 f
(b) Hexadecimal number system
32768
16834
8192
4096
2048
1024
512
256
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1
215 214 213 212 211 210 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

(c) Binary to hexadecimal conversion

Figure 6.2: (a) The binary numbering system, (b) the hexadecimal numbering system, and
(c) conversion from binary to hexadecimal.

As previously mentioned, the address bus of some variants of the MSP430 is 20 bits
wide and the data bus is 16 bits. Rather than specify large binary numbers, the contents of
the address and data bus are often expressed in the hexadecimal numbering system to enhance
readability. A set of equivalent numbers of the binary system and the hexadecimal system is
shown in Figure 6.2b.
To convert from the binary numbering system to the hexadecimal system, binary bits are
grouped in fours from either side of the radix point. Each group of four binary bits is represented
by its hexadecimal equivalent. Various methods are used to indicate that a specific number is rep-
resented in the hexadecimal numbering system. In assembly language, the number is followed
by an “h”. In the C programming language the number is preceded by a 0x. Various documen-
260 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
tation sources will place a dollar sign ($) before the numerical value or a subscripted 16 by the
number indicating the hexadecimal content.
Microcontroller memory capacity is commonly specified in kilobytes (kB). The prefix kilo
specifies .103 / or for a kilobyte, 1,000 bytes. However, in common computer usage a kilobyte is
used to specify 1,024 bytes or 210 bytes.
Examples:

1. Some variants of the MSP430 has 16 address lines, giving it the capability to separately ad-
dress 65,536 different memory locations. What is the address of the first and last memory
location expressed in hexadecimal?
Answer: The first and last addressable memory locations expressed in hexadecimal nota-
tion are .0000/16 and (FFFF)16 .

2. Express the hexadecimal number (CF)16 in binary.

Answer: Each hexadecimal value is converted into its four bit binary equivalent resulting
in the value of .1100_1111/2 .

3. The MSP430 has the value of .0001_1010_1111_1100/2 present on the data base. Express
the value in hexadecimal.
Answer: Each group of four binary bits is expressed with its corresponding hexadecimal
equivalent resulting in (1AFC)16 .

6.2.4 MEMORY ARCHITECTURES

There are two basic types of computer architectures based on the memory organization: the von
Neumann architecture and the Harvard architecture. The von Neumann architecture has com-
puter instructions and data resident within the same memory system, whereas the Harvard ar-
chitecture provides separate paths to obtain instructions and data. The MSP430 microcontroller
employs the von Neumann-type architecture since data and instructions are both retained within
the same memory component.

6.2.5 MEMORY TYPES

Memory systems typically have several different types of memory technology available for use.
Each technology type has its inherent advantages and disadvantages. We briefly describe each
type.

RAM
RAM is volatile. That is, it only retains its memory contents while power is present. Within
a microcontroller system, RAM memory is used for storing global variables, local variables,
 6.2. BASIC MEMORY CONCEPTS 261
stack implementation, and the dynamic allocation of user-defined data types during program
execution.

ROM
ROM is non-volatile. That is, a ROM memory retains its contents even when power is lost. A
ROM variant, EEPROM, is often referred to as flash memory. Flash memory is used to store
programs and system constants that must be retained when system power is lost (non-volatile
memory).

FRAM
Some variants of the MSP430, including the MSP430FR2433 and the MSP430FR5994, have
been equipped with FRAM memory. FRAM is a nonvolatile, ULP with access speeds similar to
RAM. It has been termed a universal memory because it can be used for storing program code,
variables, constants, and for stack operations. Note these functions are typically performed by
nonvolatile ROM and volatile RAM. FRAM also has a high level of write endurance on the
order of 1015 cycles [SLAA526A, 2014, SLAA628, 2014].

External Memory Components

A microcontroller’s memory system may be enhanced or extended using external memory com-
ponents. For example, bulk storage capability may be added to a microcontroller-based system
by interfacing a MMC/SD card. The MMC/SD card is equipped with a large complement of
flash memory. The MMC/SD card is interfaced to the microcontroller via a serial communi-
cation link. The MMC/SD card is typically housed in a socket for easy removal from the host
microcontroller-based system [SanDisk, 2000]. With an MMC/SD card, data may be logged
over a long period of time. The MMC/SD card may then be removed from the microcontroller-
-based system and read by a personal computer (PC) to examine and analyze the data. The
MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad is equipped with an onboard SD card.
Examples: A microcontroller-based application is being developed to log wind data at various
remote locations over long periods of time to determine the efficacy of a wind energy farm at a
specific site. Answer the following questions based on this scenario.
1. The algorithm to store the data is fairly complex and will require much storage space. What
memory component must you insure is adequate to hold the algorithm?
Answer: The coded algorithm to control the data collection system is stored in flash or
FRAM memory. An MSP430 variant must be chosen that has sufficient memory capacity
to hold the algorithm.
2. A good design technique is to compartmentalize specific algorithm operations into subrou-
tines or functions. What memory component is required to support the call to subroutines
or functions?
262 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
Answer: When a subroutine or function is called, local variables are placed on the stack.
The stack is typically implemented as a portion of RAM memory.

3. The data logging system will be dispersed at a number of locations on existing farms and
ranches. The plan is to collect the data over a six-month period and then have the property
owner transfer the data to a central facility for processing. What is the appropriate memory
technology to use in this situation?

Answer: A microcontroller-based data collection system equipped with a removable

MMC/SD card would be a good choice in this situation. The data could be collected
for a long period of time, and the MMC/SD card could then be removed and sent to the
central facility.

4. How do you determine the required capacity for the MMC/SD card to log data over a
six-month period?
Answer: To determine the required memory capacity the following parameters must be
considered.

• How many data variables are collected (e.g., date, time, temperature, wind speed,
altitude) at a time?
• In what format will the data be stored (e.g., integers, floating point numbers, custom
abstract data type such as a record)?
• How often will data be collected (e.g., every 15 min, hourly, every 6 h, daily)?
• Over what time period will data be collected?

6.2.6 MEMORY MAP

The memory map is a visualization tool used to map the memory system onboard the microcon-
troller. As previously mentioned, some variants of the MSP430 has a 20 bit memory address.
This allows the microcontroller to span the address memory space from .00000/16 to (fffff )16 .
Although the microcontroller may span this space, it does not necessarily mean there are mem-
ory components installed at each location. A memory map shows which addresses are occupied
by a specific memory component and what locations are currently available for connection to
other devices. The memory map for the MSP430FR2433 microcontroller is shown in Figure 6.3
and the one for the MSP430FR5994 microcontroller in Figure 6.4.
There are a variety of memory technologies within the MSP430 memory map. For each
memory component, the start and stop address is provided as well as the span on the mem-
ory component. The span is provided as the number of locations in hexadecimal, decimal, and
rounded off to the nearest byte. Most of the memory technologies provided in the memory map
have already been discussed. Some require additional comment, which follows.
 6.2. BASIC MEMORY CONCEPTS 263

Memory Contents Start Address Stop Address Span

(FFFF)16
Interrupt Vectors (80)16
(FRAM) (FF80)16 (FFFF)16 (128)10 ~ 128 bytes
(FF80)16
Code Memory (3C00)16
(FRAM) (C400)16 (FFFF)16 (15360)10 ~ 15K bytes
(C400)16

(3000)16
Random Access (01000)16
Memory (FRAM) (2000)16 (2FFF)16 (4096)10 ~ 4K bytes
(2000)16
Information Memory (00200)16
(FRAM) (1800)16 (19FF)16 (512)10 bytes
(1800)16
Bootstrap Loader (0800)16
(1000)16 (17FF)16
Segment 1 (2048)10 ~ 2K bytes
(1000)16
(1000)16
Peripherals (0000)16 (0FFF)16 (4096)10 ~ 4K bytes
(0000)16

Figure 6.3: The MSP430FR2433 memory map.

Bootstrap Loader
The bootstrap loader (BSL) portion of flash memory allows the user to interact with the flash
memory and RAM onboard the MSP430 microcontroller. Specifically, the user can interact
with the MSP430 via a host PC during prototype development. Data is exchanged between the
host and the microcontroller via a serial link [slau319x].

Interrupt Vectors
Interrupts provide the microcontroller the capability to break out of routine processing and
temporarily respond to a higher priority event. When an interrupt occurs, the microcontroller
will temporarily suspend normal program execution and, instead, execute an interrupt service
routine for the specific interrupt. The interrupt vectors between memory locations (0FF80)16
and (0FFFF)16 show the starting locations for each of the interrupt service routines.
264 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM

Memory Contents Start Address Stop Address Span

(FFFF)16
Interrupt Vectors (80)16
(FRAM) (0FF80)16 (0FFFF)16 (128)10 ~ 128 bytes
(0FF80)16
Code Memory (40000)16
(FRAM) (04000)16 (043FFF)16 (262,144)10 ~ 256K bytes
(03C00)16
Random Access (2000)16
(01C00)16 (03BFF)16
Memory (RAM) (8192)10 ~ 8K bytes
(01C00)16
Device Descriptor (00100)16
(TLV) (FRAM) (01A00)16 (01AFF)16 (256)10 bytes
(01A00)16
Information Memory (00200)16
A-D (FRAM) (01800)16 (019FF)16 (512)10 bytes
(01800)16
Bootstrap Loader (800)16
(01000)16 (017FF)16
Segment 0-3 (2048)10 ~ 2K bytes
(01000)16
(~1000)16
Peripherals (00020)16 (00FFF)16 (4096)10 ~ 4K bytes
(00000)16

Figure 6.4: The MSP430FR5994 memory map.

6.2.7 DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA)

DMA provides the capability to move data from memory location to memory location without
involving the CPU. This is especially useful for low-power operation when moving data from
peripherals to specific memory locations [SLAU367O, 2017].

6.3 ASIDE: MEMORY OPERATIONS IN C USING

POINTERS
Before delving into a detailed look at the MSP430 microcontroller’s memory system, we need
to discuss the concept of pointers in the C language. Pointer syntax allows one to easily refer to
a memory location’s address and the data contained at the address.1

1 The information on pointers and examples provided were adapted from Dr. Jerry Cupal’s, EE4390 Microprocessors class
notes.
 6.3. ASIDE: MEMORY OPERATIONS IN C USING POINTERS 265
A pointer is another name for an address. To declare a pointer, an asterisk () is placed in
front of the variable name. The compiler will designate the variable as an address to the variable
type specified.
Shown below is the syntax to declare an integer and a pointer (address of ) for an integer.
It is helpful to choose a variable name that helps you remember that a pointer variable has been
declared. A pointer may be declared as a global or local variable.
int x;
int *ptr_x;

Once a pointer has been declared, there is other syntax that may be used in the body of a
program to help manipulate memory addresses and data. The ampersand (&) is used to reference
the address of a variable. Whereas, the asterisk () is used as a dereference operator to refer to
the contents of a memory location that a pointer is referencing.
Example: Given the code snapshot below, what is the final value in variable n?
int m,n; //declare integers m and n
int *ptr_m; //declare pointer to integer type

m = 10; //set integer m equal to 10

ptr_m = &m //set integer pointer to address of integer m
n = *ptr_m; //Note use of the deference operator

Answer: The final value of n will be 10. The dereference operator in the last line of code refers
to the contents of the memory location referenced.
Example: In this example, a technique is provided to point to a location in memory space.
char *ptr_mem; //configure a pointer to 8 bit locations

:
:

ptr_mem = (char*) 0x4000; //cast the number 4000h into a pointer

//that points to character locations

The next example shows how a pointer may be used to move about memory locations by
using some basic mathematical operations.
266 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
//************************************************************************
// This function fills a buffer located between memory locations 2000h
// 2FFFh in memory space with incrementing 16 bit numbers. The values
// loaded into memory start with 0000h and increments up to 0FFFh.
//************************************************************************

int x; //integer variable x

int *ptr_buffer; //pointer to buffer

void main( )
{
ptr_buffer = (int*) 0x2000; //cast a pointer equal to 2000
for(x=0x0000; x<=0x0fff; x++)
{
*ptr_buffer = x; //move the variable x into buffer
ptr_buffer++; //increment the pointer
}
}
//***********************************************************************

6.4 DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) CONTROLLER

If you have ever traveled in a big, busy city, you know how frustrating it can be to get bogged
down in heavy traffic. It is particularly stressing if you are trying to get from one end of the city to
the other and you are short on time. It would be nice to have a bypass around the city to avoid the
downtown congestion and arrive safely and quickly to your destination. That is exactly what the
DMA controller provides for the MSP430 microcontroller. The DMA feature allows for the fast
and efficient transfer of data from one memory location to another without involving the CPU.
In fact, the CPU may be left in a low power mode during DMA transfers. The MSP430FR5994
is equipped with six independent DMA channels. In this section, we discuss the overall DMA
system, DMA addressing modes, transfer modes, triggering operations, the DMA register set
and provide a representative DMA transfer example [SLAU367O, 2017].

6.4.1 DMA SYSTEM

The DMA system block diagram is shown in Figure 6.5. The figure may appear overwhelming
at first but realize the DMA system in the MSP430F5438 has three independent channels. We
investigate a single channel in Figure 6.6 [SLAU367O, 2017].
The DMA system allows the efficient transfer of data from a source location(s) in memory
to a destination location(s). The source and destination addresses must be provided to the specific
 6.4. DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) CONTROLLER 267

JTAG Active
NMI Interrupt Request
Halt ENNMI
DMA0TSEL ROUNDROBIN
5 DMADT
DMADSTINCR
DMA0TRIG0 00000 2 DMADSTBYTE 3
DMA0TRIG1 00001
DMA Channel 0
DMA0SA
DMA0DA
DMA0SZ
DMA0TRIG31 11111 2 DMASRSBYTE
DMASRCINCR
to USB DMAEN
if available

DMA Priority and Control

DMA1TSEL DMADT
DMADSTINCR
5
2 DMADSTBYTE 3
DMA1TRIG0 00000
DMA Channel 1
DMA1TRIG1 00001
DMA1SA
DMA1DA Address
Space
DMA1SZ

2 DMASRSBYTE
DMA1TRIG31 11111 DMASRCINCR
DMAEN
to USB
if available DMADT
DMADSTINCR
2 DMADSTBYTE 3
DMAnTSEL
5 DMA Channel n
DMAnSA
DMAnTRIG0 00000
DMAnTRIG1 00001 DMAnDA
DMAnSZ

2
DMASRSBYTE DMAEN
DMASRCINCR
DMARMWDIS
DMAnTRIG31 11111

Halt CPU
to USB
if available

Figure 6.5: DMA block diagram [SLAU367O, 2017]. (Illustration used with permission of
Texas Instruments (www.ti.com).)
268 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM

DMA0TSELx
DMADSTINCR–DMA destination increment
5 DMADSTBYTE–DMA destination byte
DMA0TRIG0 00000 Halt DMADT–sets the DMA transfer mode type
DMA0TRIG1 00001 2 3

DMA Priority and Control

DMA Channel 0
DMA0SA (source address)
DMA0DA (destination address)
DMA0SZ (size)
2
DMAEN–DMA enable

DMA0TRIG31 11111 DMASRSBYTE–DMA source byte

DMASRCINCR–DMA source increment

DMA0TRIGx Sources
0 DMAREQ 16 UCA1RXIFG
1 TA0CCR0 CCIFG 17 UCA1TXIFG
2 TA0CCR2 CCIFG T 18 UCB0RXIFG (SPI)
3 TA1CCR0 CCIFG UCB0RXIFG0 (I2C)
4 TA1CCR2 CCIFG T 19 UCB0TXIFG (SPI)
5 TA2CCR0 CCIFG UCB0TXIFG0 (I2C)
6 TA3CCR0 CCIFG T 20 UCB0RXIFG1 (I2C)
7 TB0CCR0 CCIFG 21 UCB0TXIFG1 (I2C)
8 TB0CCR2 CCIFG T 22 UCB0RXIFG2 (I2C)
9 TA4CCR0 CCIFG 23 UCB0TXIFG2 (I2C)
10 Reserved 24 UCB0RXIFG3 (I2C)
11 AES Trigger 0 25 UCB0TXIFG3 (I2C)
12 AES Trigger 1 26 ADC12 end of conversion
13 AES Trigger 2 27 LEA ready(2)
14 UCA0RXIFG 28 Reserved
15 UCA0TXIFG 29 MPY ready
30 DMA0IFG
31 DMAE0

Figure 6.6: DMA channel. (Illustration used with permission of Texas Instruments (www.ti.c
om).)
 6.4. DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) CONTROLLER 269
DMA channel as shown in Figure 6.6. This information is provided to the DMA channel via
the DMA Source Address Register (DMAxSA) and the DMA Destination Register Address
Register (DMAxDA). The “x” designates the DMA channel number. The DMAxSA, a 32-bit
register, specifies the source address for a single transfer or the first source address for a block
transfer. Similarly, the DMAxDA register specifies the destination address for single transfers
or the first destination address for block transfers [SLAU367O, 2017].
The number of byte/word transfers must also be specified using the DMA Size Address
Register (DMAxSZ). Since the DMAxSZ register is 16 bits, the maximum transfer size that
may be specified is 65,535 bytes or words. During the DMA transfer event, the value within
the DMAxSZ decrements with each byte/word transfer. Generally, two MCLK clock cycles are
required to complete each transfer [SLAU367O, 2017].
Other parameters to tailor the DMA transfer for a specific application are provided within
the DMA Channel x Control Register (DMAxCTL) by the following bits.

• DMASRCINCR specifies the DMA source increment or decrement.

• DMASRCBYTE specifies the DMA source as either a byte (1) or a word (0).

• DMAEN is the DMA enable bit.

• DMADT specifies the type of DMA transfer mode. There are six different transfer modes
that may be specified. In general, the transfer mode dictates the type of transfer (single,
burst, burst-block) and the type of triggered required.

• DMADSTBYTE selects the destination as either a byte (1) or a word (0).

• DMADSTINCR specifies the DMA destination increment or decrement.

The DMA transfer event may be initiated via a variety of different trigger sources as spec-
ified by the DMAxTSELx bits within DMA Control Register 0 (DMACTL0). We now take
a more detailed look at each of these features.

DMA Adressing Modes

The different addressing modes available with the DMA system are illustrated in Fig-
ure 6.7 [SLAU367O, 2017]. Transfers may be specified from:

• a fixed source address to a fixed destination address,

• a fixed source address to a block of destination addresses,

• a block of source addresses to a fixed destination address, and

• a block of source addresses to a block of destination addresses.

270 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM

DMA Address DMA Address

Controller Space Controller Space

(a) Fixed address to fixed address (b) Fixed address to block of addresses

DMA Address DMA Address

Controller Space Controller Space

(c) Block of addresses to fixed address (d) Block of addresses to block of addresses

Figure 6.7: DMA addressing modes [SLAU367O, 2017].

DMA Transfer Modes

There are six different transfer modes that may be specified. In general, the transfer mode dictates
the type of transfer (single, burst, burst-block) and the type of triggered required. The different
DMA transfer modes are illustrated in Figure 6.8 [SLAU367O, 2017].

DMA Triggering
Figure 6.8 summarizes the different triggering requirements for a specific DMA transfer mode.
The actual source of the triggering signal must also be specified. Figure 6.6 provided the various
triggering sources available to a given DMA channel. The specific trigger signal is selected using
the DMA0TSELx bits.
 6.4. DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) CONTROLLER 271

DMAEN After
DMADTx Transfer Mode Trigger Description
Transfer
Each transfer requires a trigger
000 Single transfer 0

A complete block is transferred

001 Block transfer with one trigger 0

CPU activity is interleaved

010, 011 Burst-block transfer with a block transfer 0

Each transfer requires

100 Repeated single transfer a trigger 1

A complete block is
101 Repeated block transfer transferred with one trigger 1

Repeated burst-block CPU activity is interleaved

110, 111 with a block transfer 1
transfer

Figure 6.8: DMA transfer modes [SLAU367O, 2017].

DMA Register Set

In the last several sections, we have seen the efficiency and flexibility of the DMA system in mov-
ing data from one location to another without involving the central processing unit. All DMA
operations are configured using the DMA-related registers illustrated in Figures 6.9 and 6.10.
We have already discussed many of the register features already. In this section, we provide a
concise review of DMA associated registers.
The MSP430FR5994 uses DMA Control Register 0 through 2 (DMACTL0 to
DMACTL2) to select the trigger source for DMA channels 0–5. The DMA trigger source
is specified as a five-bit binary value as described in Figure 6.6 [SLAU367O, 2017].
The DMA systems is also equipped with interrupts. The MSP430 interrupt system will
be discussed in an upcoming chapter.
The DMAxSA provides the source address for the DMA transfer; whereas, the DMA
Destination Address Register (DMAxDA) provides the destination address for the transfer.
The DMAxSZ specifies the number of byte/word data per block transfer [SLAU367O, 2017].
The main control register for the DMA system is the DMAxCTL illustrated in Fig-
ure 6.11.
272 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM

DMA Control 0 Register (DMACTL0)

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

reserved reserved reserved DMA1TSEL DMA1TSEL DMA1TSEL DMA1TSEL DMA1TSEL

r0 r0 r0 rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0)

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

reserved reserved reserved DMA0TSEL DMA0TSEL DMA0TSEL DMA0TSEL DMA0TSEL

r0 rw-1 rw-0 rw-1 r-1 rw-0 rw-0 rw-0

DMA Control Register 4 (DMACTL4)

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 r0

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
ROUND
0 0 0 0 0 DMARMWDIS ENNMI
ROBIN
r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 rw-0 rw-0 rw-0

DMA Interrupt Vector Register (DMAIV)

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 r0 r0

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0 0 DMAIV 0

r0 r0 r0

Figure 6.9: DMA registers [SLAU367O, 2017].

 6.4. DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) CONTROLLER 273

DMA Source Address Register (DMAxSA)

31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24
Reserved
r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
Reserved DMAxSA
r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 rw rw rw rw
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
DMAxSA
rw rw rw rw rw rw rw rw
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
DMAxSA
rw rw rw rw rw rw rw rw
DMA Destination Address Register (DMAxDA)
31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24
Reserved
r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0
23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16
Reserved DMAxDA
r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 rw rw rw rw
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
DMAxDA
rw rw rw rw rw rw rw rw
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
DMAxDA
rw rw rw rw rw rw rw rw

DMA Size Address Register (DMAxSZ)

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0 r-0
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
0 0 DMAIV 0
r-0 r-0 r-(0) r-(0) r-(0) r-(0) r-(0) r-0

Figure 6.10: DMA registers [SLAU367O, 2017].

274 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
DMA Channel x Control Register (DMAxCTL)
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8

Reserved DMADT DMADSTINCR DMASRCINCR

r0 rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0)

DMADT: DMA Transfer Mode DMASRCINCR:
- 000: single transfer DMA Source Increment
- 001: block transfer - 00: source address is unchanged
- 010: burst-block transfer - 01: source address is unchanged
- 011: burst-block transfer - 10: source address is decremented
- 100: repeated single transfer - 11: source address is incremented
- 101: repeated block transfer
- 110: repeated burst-block transfer DMADSTINCR:
- 111: repeated burst-block transfer DMA Destination Increment
- 00: destination address is unchanged
- 01: destination address is unchanged
- 10: destination address is decremented
- 11: destination address is incremented

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
DMA DMA DMALEVEL DMAEN DMAIFG DMAIE DMAABORT DMAREQ
DSTBYTE SRCBYTE
rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0) rw-(0)

DMASRCBYTE: DMAEN: DMAIE: DMAREQ

DMA source byte DMA Enable DMA Interrupt DMA Request
- 0: word - 0: Disabled Enable - 0: No DMA start
- 1: byte - 1: Enabled - 0: disabled - 1: Start DMA
- 1: enabled
DMADSTBYTE: DMALEVEL DMAIFG: DMAABORT:
DMA Destination - 0: rising edge trigger DMA Interrupt Flag DMA Abort
Byte - 1: high-level trigger - 0: no interrupt pending - 0: DMA not interrupted
- 0: word - 1: interrupt pending - 1: interrupted by NMI
- 1: byte

Figure 6.11: DMA channel x control register (DMAxCTL) [SLAU367O, 2017].

6.4.2 DMA EXAMPLE: BLOCK TRANSFER

In this example a 16-word block from memory locations 0x1C20-0x1C2F is transferred to lo-
cations 0x1C40h-0x1C4fh using DMA0 in a burst block using software DMAREQ as the
trigger.
 6.4. DIRECT MEMORY ACCESS (DMA) CONTROLLER 275
//********************************************************************
// --COPYRIGHT--,BSD_EX
// Copyright (c) 2015, Texas Instruments Incorporated
// All rights reserved.
//
// MSP430 CODE EXAMPLE DISCLAIMER
//
//********************************************************************
//MSP430FR5x9x Demo - DMA0, Repeated Block to-from RAM,
//use Software Trigger
//
//Description:
//- A 16 word block from 1C20-1C2Fh is transferred to 1C40h-1C4fh using
// DMA0 in a burst block using software DMAREQ trigger.
//- After each transfer, source, destination and DMA size are reset to
// initial software setting because DMA transfer mode 5 is used.
//- P1.0 is toggled during DMA transfer only for demonstration purposes.
//- RAM location 0x1C00 - 0x1C3F used - make sure no compiler conflict
//- MCLK = SMCLK = default DCO
//
//
// MSP430FR5994
// -----------------
// /|\| |
// | | |
// --|RST |
// | |
// | P1.0|-->LED
//
//William Goh, Texas Instruments Inc., October 2015
//Built with IAR Embedded Workbench V6.30 & Code Composer Studio V6.1
//********************************************************************

#include <msp430.h>

int main(void)
{
WDTCTL = WDTPW | WDTHOLD; //Stop WDT
//Configure GPIO for LED
276 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
P1OUT = 0;
P1DIR = BIT0;

//Disable the GPIO power-on default high-impedance mode to activate

//previously configured port settings

PM5CTL0 &= ~LOCKLPM5;

//Configure DMA channel 0

//Source block address
__data16_write_addr((unsigned short) &DMA0SA,(unsigned long) 0x1C20);
//Destination single address
__data16_write_addr((unsigned short) &DMA0DA,(unsigned long) 0x1C40);

DMA0SZ = 16; //Block size

DMA0CTL = DMADT_5 | DMASRCINCR_3 | DMADSTINCR_3; // Rpt, inc
DMA0CTL |= DMAEN; //Enable DMA0

while(1)
{
P1OUT |= 0x01; //P1.0 = 1, LED on
DMA0CTL |= DMAREQ; //Trigger block transfer
P1OUT &= ~0x01; //P1.0 = 0, LED off
}
}

//********************************************************************

6.5 MSP430FR5994: MEMORY PROTECTION UNIT AND

IP ENCAPSULATION SEGMENT
The MSP430FR5994 is equipped with a memory protection unit (MPU). The MPU provides
protection against accidental writes to portions of memory designated as read only. The MPU
allows configuration of the main memory into three separate segments. Segment sizes are set
by designating the begin and end address for each segment. Furthermore, access rights for each
memory segment can be independently set [SLAU367O, 2017].
The MSP430FR5994 also allows protection of intellectual property designated informa-
tion with the IP Encapsulation Segment. The protected segment is designated by setting the
start and stop segment addresses. Once configured, program code can be stored in the protected
 6.6. EXTERNAL MEMORY: BULK STORAGE WITH AN MMC/SD CARD 277
area and also accessed via function calls. Furthermore, data stored within the segment can only
be accessed via protected code within the segment [SLAU367O, 2017].

6.6 EXTERNAL MEMORY: BULK STORAGE WITH AN

MMC/SD CARD
A MMC/SD card provides a handy method of providing a low power, non-volatile, and a small
form factor (32 mm x 24 mm x 1.4 mm) bulk memory storage for a microcontroller. The microSD
card has an even smaller form factor at 15 mm x 11 mm x 1 mm. The SD card is a smart peripheral
device. It contains an onboard controller to manage SD operations. The SD card is useful for data
logging applications in remote locations. If our goal was to measure wind resources at remote
locations as potential windfarm sites, a MSP430 based data logging system equipped with an
SD card could be used. Data could be logged over a long period of time and retrieved for later
analysis on a PC.

6.7 LABORATORY EXERCISE: SD CARD OPERATIONS

WITH THE MSP-EXP430FR5994
The MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad is equipped with an onboard microSD card (SD1). The
Out-of-Box demo, available in MSPWare via the Resource Explorer, provides SD card support
functions. The demo is preloaded to the MSP-EXP430FR5994 LaunchPad at the factory.
The Out-of-Box demo has three different modes of operation [SLAU678A, 2016]:
• Live Temperature Mode
• FRAM Log Mode
• SD Card Log Mode
The different modes of operation are selected via the Out-of-Box demo GUI. Instruc-
tions for downloading the GUI is provided in “MSP430FR5994 LaunchPad Development Kit
(MSP-EXP430FR5994)” [SLAU678A, 2016]. The GUI is loaded and executed from the host
PC.
Load the GUI software to the host PC. Follow the instructions provided in SLAU678A
[2016] to examine the different operational modes of the Out-of-Box demo. The focus of this
laboratory is the SD Card Log Mode.
The SD Card Mode interacts with the onboard RTC to provide an interrupt every 5 s.
At each interrupt the MSP430 transitions out of LPM 3, illuminates the onboard green LED,
obtains a time hack from the RTC, and performs ADC conversions to obtain the temperature
and the battery level voltage. The time stamp and ADC values are then logged to a text file
onboard the microSD card via the SPI. Commands and data are sent from the MSP430 to the
SD card via this serial communication link. When data collection is complete, the microSD
278 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
card is removed from the MSP-EXP430FR5994. Its contents may be examined with the host
PC.
To examine the supporting code in more detail, import the Out-of-Box demo software
source code into Code Composer Studio and examine its features. Construct a UML Activity
Diagram and structure chart for this program.
Currently, the Out-of-Box demo software is under the control of the GUI. The software
has been written in clearly defined compartments so pieces may be adapted for specific applica-
tions and also adapted to other microcontrollers in the MSP430 line.

6.8 LABORATORY EXERCISE: MSP-EXP430FR5994

LAUNCHPAD DMA TRANSFER
Procedure:

• In the section on DMA transfer, an example was provided to move 32 integers from a
given source address to a destination address using DMA channel 0. Develop a UML
activity diagram for this example.

• Execute the code on the MSP430 experimenter board.

• Verify proper code execution by observing memory source and destination addresses using
Code Composer Studio features.

• Write a new function that takes the contents of the source address and transfers its contents
to the destination address on the first transfer. On subsequent transfers the original value
is incremented and stored at subsequent destination addresses. Develop a UML activity
diagram for this example.

• Execute the code on the MSP430 experimenter board.

• Verify proper code execution by observing memory source and destination addresses using
Code Composer Studio features.

6.9 SUMMARY
In this chapter, with the help of the memory map, we presented the memory system of the
MSP430 microcontroller. We demonstrated how contents of a memory location are accessed
via read and write operations. We described the types of memories including RAM, ROM, and
FRAM memory. We then discussed the organization and operation of onboard flash memory
and the DMA system.
 6.10. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING 279
6.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
FRAM–New Generation of Non-Volatile Memory, Texas Instruments, 2010. www.ti.com/fram

MSP430FR2433 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR2433), (SLAU739), Texas In-

struments, 2017.

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLAB034AD), Texas Instruments, 2017.

MSP430FR2433 Mixed-Signal Microcontroller, (SLASE59D), Texas Instruments, 2018.

MSP430FR4xx and MSP430FR2xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU445G), Texas Instruments,

2016.

MSP430FR58xx, MSP430FR59xx, and MSP430FR6xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU367O),

Texas Instruments, 2017. 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276, 277

MSP430FR5994 LaunchPad Development Kit (MSP-EXP430FR5994), (SLAU678A), Texas In-

struments, 2016. 277

MSP430FR599x, MSP430FR596x Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers, (SLASE54C), Texas Instru-

ments, 2018.

MultiMedia Card Product Manual, SanDisk Corporate Headquarters, Sunnyvale, CA, 2000.
www.sandisk.com 261

Texas Instruments MSP430 FRAM Quality and Reusability, (SLAA526A), Texas Instruments,
2014. 261

Texas Instruments MSP430 FRAM Technology-How to and Best Practices, (SLAA628), Texas In-
struments, 2014. 261

Texas Instruments MSP430x5xx/MSP430x6xx Family User’s Guide, (SLAU208Q), Texas Instru-

ments, 2018.

6.11 CHAPTER PROBLEMS

Fundamental

1. Convert CAFEh to binary.

2. Convert .1101_1111_0000_1001/2 to decimal and hexadecimal numbers.

3. Convert .11341/10 to binary and hexadecimal numbers.

280 6. MSP430 MEMORY SYSTEM
4. A memory system is equipped with a 12-bit address bus. Using the linear addressing
method, how many unique memory addresses are possible? What is the first and last mem-
ory addresses specified in binary? In hexadecimal?
5. A processor has a 16-bit data bus. What is the largest unsigned integer that may be carried
by the bus? Signed integer?
6. Describe the different memory components available with the MSP430 microcontroller.
Provide an application for each memory type.
7. Describe the purpose of the DMA system.

Advanced
1. Research the interface between the MSP430 and a MMC/SD card.
2. Sketch the memory map of the MSP430FR5994 microcontroller.

Challenging
1. Develop a MMC/SD card interface for the MSP430 microcontroller.
2. Write a function to clear a block of memory addresses in RAM memory. The start address
and the number of memory locations to clear are passed into the function as arguments.
3. Write a function to transfer a block of memory locations from one address to another
using DMA channel 2. The start address and the size of the memory block are passed into
the function as arguments.
 281

Authors’ Biographies
STEVEN F. BARRETT
Steven F. Barrett, Ph.D., P.E., received a B.S. in Electronic Engineering Technology from
the University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1979, an M.E.E.E. from the University of Idaho at
Moscow in 1986, and a Ph.D. from The University of Texas at Austin in 1993. He was formally
an active duty faculty member at the United States Air Force Academy, Colorado and is now
the Associate Dean of Academic Programs at the University of Wyoming. He is a member of
IEEE (senior) and Tau Beta Pi (chief faculty advisor). His research interests include digital and
analog image processing, computer–assisted laser surgery, and embedded controller systems. He
is a registered Professional Engineer in Wyoming and Colorado. He co-wrote with Dr. Daniel
Pack several textbooks on microcontrollers and embedded systems. In 2004, Barrett was named
“Wyoming Professor of the Year” by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
and in 2008 was the recipient of the National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) in
Higher Education, Engineering Education Excellence Award.

DANIEL J. PACK
Daniel J. Pack, Ph.D., P.E., is the Dean of the College of Engineering and Computer Science
at the University of Tennessee, Chattanooga (UTC). Prior to joining UTC, he was Professor
and Mary Lou Clarke Endowed Department Chair of the Electrical and Computer Engineer-
ing Department at the University of Texas, San Antonio (UTSA). Before his service at UTSA,
Dr. Pack was Professor (now Professor Emeritus) of Electrical and Computer Engineering at
the United States Air Force Academy (USAFA), CO, where he served as founding Director of
the Academy Center for Unmanned Aircraft Systems Research. He received a B.S. in Electri-
cal Engineering, an M.S. in Engineering Sciences, and a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from
Arizona State University, Harvard University, and Purdue University, respectively. He was a
visiting scholar at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology-Lincoln Laboratory. Dr. Pack has
co-authored seven textbooks on embedded systems (including 68HC12 Microcontroller: Theory
and Applications and Embedded Systems: Design and Applications with the 68HC12 and HCS12)
and published over 160 book chapters, technical journal/transactions, and conference papers on
unmanned systems, cooperative control, robotics, pattern recognition, and engineering educa-
tion. He is the recipient of a number of teaching and research awards including Carnegie U.S.
Professor of the Year Award, Frank J. Seiler Research Excellence Award, Tau Beta Pi Outstand-
ing Professor Award, Academy Educator Award, and Magoon Award. He is a member of Eta
282 AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES
Kappa Nu (Electrical Engineering Honorary), Tau Beta Pi (Engineering Honorary), IEEE,
and the American Society of Engineering Education. He is a registered Professional Engineer
in Colorado, serves as Associate Editor of IEEE Systems Journal, and is a member on a number
of executive advisory or editorial boards including the Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems,
International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, and SimCenter Enterprise. His research inter-
ests include unmanned aerial vehicles, intelligent control, automatic target recognition, robotics,
and engineering education. E-mail: [email protected]
 283

Index

absolute addressing mode, 121 Boone, Gary, 3

AC device control, 199 bottom-up approach, 491
AC interfacing, 199 branch instructions, 117
ADC, 8
ADC conversion, 357 C bit, 97
ADC programming, 373 Code Composer Studio, 12
ADC, SA converter, 377 code re-use, 493
ADC, SAR converter, 366 comments, 56
ADC12_B, 376 COMP E, 387
ADC12_B programming, 383 comparator, 387
addressing modes, 119 counting events, 306
AES accelerator, 11 CRC check, 84
AES256 Accelerator Module, 474 CRC checksum, 464
ALU, 3 CRC generator, 10
analog sensor, 155 CRC polynomial, 464
annunciator, 198 CRC32 module, 465
arithmetic instructions, 114 current sink, 142
arithmetic operations, 66 current source, 140
ASCII, 398
assembly process, 109 DAC converter, 364
assembly vs. C, 125 data integrity, 464
data test instructions, 117
background research, 488 data transfer instructions, 111
Bardeen, Brattain, and Schockley, 2 DC fan, 199
bare metal, 60 DC motor, 176
battery operation, 249 decoder, 208
Baud rate, 398 design, 490
bilge pump, 199 design process, 488
binary number system, 259 DF robot, 528
bit instructions, 115 digital sensor, 153
bit twiddling, 70 Direct Memory Access (DMA), 11, 264
284 INDEX
directives, 101 function prototypes, 58
DMA addressing modes, 269 functions, 57
DMA controller, 266
General Interrupt Enable (GIE) bit, 97
DMA register set, 271
general purpose registers, 95
DMA transfer modes, 270
Grove starter kit, 205, 226
documentation, 493
gyroscope, 159
dot matrix display, 172
duty cycle, 283 H-bridge, 181
hardware multiplier, 8
Educational Booster Pack MkII, 203, 226 Harvard architecture, 260
EEPROM, 4 HC CMOS, 142
elapsed time, 304
electrical specifications, 140 I2 C module, 441
electromagnetic interference (EMI), 462 I/O port, 8, 59
electrostatic discharge (ESD), 462 ideal op amp, 164
Embedded Emulator Module (EEM), 84 immediate addressing mode, 121
embedded system, 488 include files, 57
EMI noise suppression, 462 indexed addressing mode, 119
indirect autoincrement addressing mode, 121
EMI reduction strategies, 462
indirect register addressing mode, 121
encoding, 362
inertial measurement unit, 159
Energia, 12, 22
inertial measurement unit (IMU), 159
Energia Development Environment, 22
input capture, 305, 312
enhanced Universal Serial Communication
input devices, 145
Interface (eUSCI), 9, 395
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), 110
ENIAC, 2
integrated circuit, 2
eUSCI A module, 9
interrupt handler, 63
eUSCI B module, 9
interrupt priority, 344
eUSCI_A module, 395
interrupt processing, 337
eUSCI_B module, 395 interrupt service routine (ISR), 336, 344
interrupt system, 336
fireworks, 219
interrupt theory, 335
flow control instructions, 117
interrupt vectors, 263
free running counter, 308
interrupts, 336
frequency, 282
interval timer, 290
frequency measurement, 306
IR sensor, 157
full duplex, 398
IR sensors, 40
function body, 59
IrDA protocol, 9, 396
function call, 58
function call instructions, 118 joystick, 155, 506, 511
 INDEX 285
keypad, 147 noise, 462
Kilby, Jack, 2 non-maskable interrupts, 337
non-volatile memory, 261
label field, 100 NRZ format, 398
laser light show, 178 Nyquist rate, 359
LCD, serial, 175
LED biasing, 168 octal buffer, 206
LED cube, 205, 208 op amp, 164
LED cube, construction, 208 op code, 119
light emitting diode (LED), 168 operating modes, 98
linear feedback shift register (LFSR), 465 operating parameters, 139
liquid crystal display (LCD), 172 operational amplifier, 164
logic instructions, 115 operators, 66
logical operations, 68 optical isolation, 197
loop, 71 orthogonal instruction set, 123
loop(), 23 output compare, 307, 317
low power modes, 98 output device, 165
low-power modes, 8 output timer, 303
overflow, 95
main program, 65
maskable interrupts, 337 parity, 398
Mauchly and Eckert, 2 period, 282
MAX3232, 398 photodiode, 162
maze, 40 pointers, 265
memory address bus, 256 Power Management Module (PMM), 10
memory concepts, 256 PowerSwitch Tail II, 200
memory data bus, 258 pre-design, 490
memory map, 262 preliminary testing, 493
program constants, 63
microcontroller, 1, 3
program constructs, 70
Mini round robot, 40
program counter (PC), 95
mini round robot, 40
programming, 124
MMC/SD, 277
programming in C, 53
MMC/SD card, 261
programming module, 90
MOSFET, 180
project description, 488
motor operating parameters, 180
prototyping, 492
motor, vibrating, 199
pulse width modulation (PWM), 284
mountain maze, 528, 540
multiplication module (MPY32), 114 quantization, 359
N bit, 97 RAM, 4, 260
286 INDEX
real-time clock (RTC), 11, 295 solenoid, 185
register addressing mode, 119 sonalert, 198
resets, 333 speech chip, SP)-512, 406
resolution, 361 SPI, 411
Rijndael algorithm, 474 SPI features, 411
RISC architecture, 7 SPI hardware, 412
robot IR sensors, 40 SPI operation, 411
robot platform, 40 SPI registers, 414
robot steering, 40 SRAM memory, 10
robot, autonomous, 528 stack, 95
robot, submersible, 502 stack pointer (SP), 95
ROM, 4, 261 status bits, 97
rotate instructions, 113 status register R2, 95
ROV, 502 stepper motor, 176, 185
ROV buoyancy, 506 strip LED, 32
ROV control housing, 524 switch, 75
ROV structure, 504 switch debouncing, 147
RS-232, 398 switch interface, 145
RTC C, 297 switches, 145
symbolic addressing mode, 121
sampling, 358
SeaPerch, 502, 511 test plan, 493
SeaPerch control system, 511 time base, 302
SeaPerch ROV, 502 timer, 84
sensor, level, 159 timer applications, 305
sensor, ultrasonic, 159 timers, 307
sensors, 153 timing parameters, 282
serial communications, 395 TMS 1000, 3
serial peripheral interface, 411 top-down approach, 491
servo motor, 176 top-down design, bottom-up
servos, Futaba, 178 implementation, 491
setup(), 23 transducer interface, 162
shift instructions, 111 transistor, 2
signal conditioning, 162 tri-state LED indicator, 172
signal generation, 307
simplex communication, 397 UART, 399
sketch, 24 UART character format, 402
sketchbook, 23 UART features, 399
software programming, 100 UART interrupts, 403
 INDEX 287
UART module, 400 variable size, 64
UART registers, 404 variables, 63
ultra-low power consumption, 8 volatile memory, 260
UML, 44, 491 von Neumann architecture, 260
UML activity diagram, 124, 491
Watchdog timer, 288
Unified Modeling Language (UML), 490
weather station, 494
UNIVAC I, 2 while, 72

vacuum tube, 2 Z bit, 97