processes

Article
Optimization of Pipeline Network Layout for Multiple Heat
Sources Distributed Energy Systems Considering
Reliability Evaluation †
Ziyuan Cui 1 , Hai Lin 1 , Yan Wu 2 , Yufei Wang 1, * and Xiao Feng 2

1 School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China;
[email protected] (Z.C.); [email protected] (H.L.)
2 School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China;
[email protected] (Y.W.); [email protected] (X.F.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]
† This paper is an extended version of our paper published in Chemical Engineering Transactions for the 23rd
Conference on Process Integration, Modelling and Optimisation for Energy Saving and Pollution Reduction
(PRES’20), Xi’an, Shaanxi, China, 17–21 August 2020.

Abstract: Due to the target of carbon neutrality, energy saving has become more important than ever.
At the same time, the widespread use of distributed energy systems and the regional utilization of
industrial waste heat leads to the existence of multiple heat sources in an area. Therefore, how to
design an economical and reliable pipeline network to meet energy-saving demand under multiple
heat source conditions becomes a problem. In this work, an optimization method is established



to determine the optimal pipeline network topology with minimum total annual cost. In this


optimization method, Star tree algorithm, Kruskal algorithm and GeoSteiner algorithm are combined
Citation: Cui, Z.; Lin, H.; Wu, Y.; with a linear programming model to establish a distributed energy pipeline network for multiple
Wang, Y.; Feng, X. Optimization of heat sources. The model incorporates Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree and Rectilinear Steiner
Pipeline Network Layout for Multiple Minimum Tree in the consideration of the topology optimization of Distributed Energy System
Heat Sources Distributed Energy pipeline networks. Four pipeline network topologies, STAR, Minimum Spanning Tree, Euclidean
Systems Considering Reliability
Steiner Minimum Tree and Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Tree, are evaluated in this paper from
Evaluation. Processes 2021, 9, 1308.
economic and reliability perspectives. A case extracted from a real industrial park where steam
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081308
is the medium is used to prove the validity of the model. The optimization results show that a
Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree pipeline network has a lower total annual cost than three other
Academic Editors: Pei Liu, Ming Liu
and Xiao Wu types of pipeline network and ranks second in reliability. Considering the comprehensive economy
and reliability, ESMT is the optimal pipeline network type of distributed energy system with steam
Received: 9 July 2021 as the medium.
Accepted: 26 July 2021
Published: 28 July 2021 Keywords: distributed energy system; pipeline network layout; reliability; GeoSteiner algorithm;
Kruskal algorithm; Star tree algorithm
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations. 1. Introduction
Based on the proposal of carbon neutrality target, optimization for energy-saving
and emission-reduction in energy system field attracts various academic research. As
a high efficiency and promising technology [1] for energy conservation, a distributed
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. energy system (DES) can use natural gas and renewable clean energy as primary energy
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. source, including biomass, solar energy and hydrogen, and achieve the step utilization
This article is an open access article of the energy. Therefore, it has become very popular recently compared with traditional
distributed under the terms and
centralized energy systems.
conditions of the Creative Commons
DES can be improved from several aspects and a number of progress have been
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
made. Firstly, DES can be improved by optimizing the process within the station. A
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
number of works focus on applying renewable energy in DES. For instance, Ren et al. [2]
4.0/).

Processes 2021, 9, 1308. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9081308 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2021, 9, 1308 2 of 19

combined solar thermochemical fuel production technology with cogeneration of cold, heat
and power to improve energy utilization efficiency. Multi-objective linear programming
was used to optimize the operation of DES. Wu et al. [3] established a multi-objective
optimization model considering cogeneration and renewable energy. The best combination
of relative technologies is determined to reduce total annual cost. Jing et al. [4] proposed a
comprehensive framework of multi-objective optimization and multi-criteria evaluation
for the optimization of DES. In addition, solar-assisted solid oxide fuel cell technology was
introduced into the system. Besides considering renewable energy, some other elements are
also considered to improve the performance of DES. For example, Yuan et al. [5] considered
thermal energy storage system and proposed a control strategy to improve the performance
of the DES. Wang et al. [6] used different waste heat recovery technologies to recover heat
with different temperatures for further improving the system efficiency. A MILP model
was used to optimize the system. In some other studies, more evaluation criterions are
used rather than single economic performance. For example, Buoro et al. [7] developed a
multi-objective MILP model to determine the optimal operation mode of DES with the goal
of minimizing the emissions and total cost of the system. Wang et al. [8] compared different
DES modeling methods under various uncertainties, and optimized the operation of the
system by combining Monte Carlo simulation and multi-objective optimization (economic
and environmental objectives).
Beyond the work of improving energy generation process, how to effectively transport
energy to consumers is also a hot spot of research interests. During transportation, it is
desirable to reduce heat loss with an acceptable investment, so Keçebaş et al. [9] opti-
mized the thickness of insulation layer of pipeline with the objective of optimal economy.
Salem et al. [10] employed heating degree-days method to optimize the insulation thick-
ness of pipelines. The diameter of pipeline is also a key element that has a significant impact
on pipeline investment and power consumption. Li et al. [11] determined the pipeline di-
ameter by considering the variation of cold and thermal loads based on fixed road topology
constraint using GA algorithm. Wang et al. [12] considered the siting and sizing of the sta-
tion considering pipeline network design using a cost-based function model. The topology
of pipeline network will also affect the performance of energy transportation process. Cur-
rently, tree pipeline network topology is frequently studied, for instance, Zeng et al. [13]
established an optimization method to determine the most economic pipeline network
based on substation loads. Improved GA is used to find the optimal pipeline diameter for
the tree pipeline network topology. Mehleri et al. [14] developed a MILP model to optimize
the heating pipeline network considering the storage tank capacity and the size of the tree
pipeline network topology. Khir et al. [15] proposed a MIP model to optimize the tree
pipeline network size and layout based on the investment and operating costs in a district
cooling system. Chan et al. [16] combined GA with local search techniques to optimize
tree pipeline network layout of district cooling systems. Carl et al. [17] established a linear
model to optimize the pipeline network layout considering the variation in the needs of
consumers in different periods. Studies on pipeline network topology can be found in
some other area except DES, for example, Sanaye et al. [18] adopted GA to optimize the
gas pipeline network layout with MST topology structure. Su et al. [19] considered the
structure of tree pipeline network and adopted NSGA-II algorithm to optimize the gas
pipeline network. Sokolov et al. [20] proposed a new dynamic programming methodology
to optimize the tree-shaped water network. Liu [21] considered the problem of pipeline
network layout on the road and proposed a pipeline network optimization method based
on Kruskal algorithm to optimize the direction of load access to the pipeline network.
However, most of the above-mentioned studies are only based on tree network topology
for optimization, with little consideration given to other topologies of the pipeline network.
Reliability is an important aspect in pipeline network design. Some studies have
been done in this subject, for instance, Rimkevicius et al. [22] proposed probabilistic
mathematical analysis, deterministic hydrothermal force analysis and deterministic proba-
bilistic structural integrity analysis to evaluate the reliability of pipeline network energy
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 3 of 19

system. Shan et al. [23] evaluated the dynamic reliability of heating pipeline network.
Alsharqawi et al. [24] used the network fault tree method to determine the work and fault
state of pipeline networks. Chen et al. [25] considered the probability distribution of
gas shortages under the normal scenario and proposed an integrated methodology to
assess the gas supply reliability of a gas pipeline network. Yu et al. [26] proposed an
integrated method considering hydraulic and pressure constrains to provide a new way to
assess the reliability of natural gas pipeline network. Zhu et al. [27] proposed an opera-
tion state determination model to assess an actual pipeline network based on failure and
repair processes.
At present, large amount of low degree waste heat is discharged in industries, and
such heat can be used in the region to save energy for lowering carbon emission. When
industry and DES are combined to provide energy, several heat sources are existed in
the region and such situation requires more consideration on how to effectively establish
the pipeline network topology, but this point has not been well studied. Moreover, it
is important to find the best pipe connection between heat source and heat users to cut
down the investment and energy consumption. Aim to solve such problem, the new
method is proposed in this work to optimize pipeline network under multiple heat sources
situation. The aim of the methodology is to find the optimal pipeline network considering
both economic and reliable factors. Moreover, different pipeline network topologies have
different performance in economic and reliability, but the research considered reliability in
multiple heat sources condition were rare. To study the above-mentioned problems, this
work firstly uses clustering algorithm to divide consumers into different heat sources. Then,
through coupling clustering algorithm combining Star tree algorithm, Kruskal algorithm,
GeoSteiner algorithm and Linear Programming (LP) model, different pipeline network
topology and flow rate of each branch pipeline are solved. This work takes the minimum
value of total annual cost (TAC) as the objective function, including construction cost,
pressure loss cost and heat loss cost of pipeline network. Additionally, then, the reliability of
pipeline network is assessed. Finally, both the economy and reliability aspects of different
types of pipeline network are evaluated to provide a reference for the optimization of
pipeline network layout of DES.

2. Methodology
2.1. Problem Statement
For the energy supply problem in a region with industries, it is necessary to connect
multiple heat sources with a number of consumers scattered in different parts of the region
to form an energy transportation pipeline network. How to construct a pipeline network
topology with the low cost and the high reliability should be considered.

2.1.1. Assumption
(1) The pipeline length is the distance between the two vertices that are connected.
(2) The steam in the pipeline network system is an incompressible fluid.
(3) The temperature of the fluid in each pipeline is constant.
(4) The flow rate of the fluid in each pipeline is constant.

2.1.2. Given
(1) The number of consumers and heat sources.
(2) The coordinates and heat demand of consumers.
(3) The coordinates and the heat supply of heat source.

2.1.3. Determine
(1) The pipeline network topology of multiple heat sources DES.
(2) Total annual cost and reliability of multiple heat sources DES.
As shown in Figure 1, this work first classifies the consumers into clusters and applies
the Star tree algorithm, Kruskal algorithm or GeoSteiner algorithm to obtain different
 2.1.3. Determine
(1) The pipeline network topology of multiple heat sources DES.
(2) Total annual cost and reliability of multiple heat sources DES.
As shown in Figure 1, this work first classifies the consumers into clusters and applies
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 4 of 19
the Star tree algorithm, Kruskal algorithm or GeoSteiner algorithm to obtain different
pipeline network topologies. LP model is then applied to find the optimal flow rate of
each branch
pipeline pipeline.
network After that,
topologies. parameters
LP model is thensuch as the
applied length
to find theand flowflow
optimal raterate
of branch
of each
pipelines are embedded in the pipeline network system, and the economic model
branch pipeline. After that, parameters such as the length and flow rate of branch pipelineswith
minimum TAC as the objective function is solved. Finally, reliability assessment
are embedded in the pipeline network system, and the economic model with minimum model is
solved.
TAC as the objective function is solved. Finally, reliability assessment model is solved.

Step 1: Obtain the tree topology Step 2: Obtain the length and flow Step 3: Solve each cost model and
rate of pipeline reliability assessment model

Consumer Tree Pipeline Reliability

Coordinates Topology Length Assessment Model
Linear
Programming Pipeline
TAC
Model Cost Model
Star tree/ Pipeline
Clustering Kruskal/ Flow Rate
Consumer Pressure Loss Heat Loss
Algorithm GeoSteiner
Heat Demand Cost Model Cost Model
Algorithm

Input Data Algorithm Solver Model Output Results

Schematicdiagram
Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure diagramofofproposed
proposedmethodology.
methodology.

Four different types of pipeline network topologies are STAR, Minimum Spanning
Four different types of pipeline network topologies are STAR, Minimum Spanning
Tree-MST, Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Tree-RSMT and Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree-
Tree-MST, Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Tree-RSMT and Euclidean Steiner Minimum
ESMT. Among them, STAR is solved by Star tree algorithm, MST is solved by Kruskal
Tree-ESMT. Among them, STAR is solved by Star tree algorithm, MST is solved by Krus-
algorithm, and RSMT and ESMT are solved by GeoSteiner algorithm.
kal algorithm, and RSMT and ESMT are solved by GeoSteiner algorithm.
Figure 2 presents the optimization schematic diagram of a DES pipeline network
Figure 2 presents the optimization schematic diagram of a DES pipeline network lay-
layout consisting of 3 heat sources and 14 consumers. The optimal design of the pipeline
out consisting of 3 heat sources and 14 consumers. The optimal design of the pipeline
network layout consists of four parts. Firstly, clustering algorithm (see Section 3.1 for
network
details) layout consists
is applied of fourall
to cluster parts. Firstly, clustering
consumers, which is able algorithm (seetoo
to avoid Section
many3.1 for de-
pipelines
tails)
with high flow rates to reduce investment costs, as shown in Figure 2a. Secondly,with
is applied to cluster all consumers, which is able to avoid too many pipelines each
high
heatflow
sourcerates to reduce investment
is connected to obtain a treecosts, as Sections
(see shown in3.2–3.4 Figurefor2a.details)
Secondly, each heat
to achieve the
source
energyis supply–demand
connected to obtain a treebetween
balance (see Sections
heat 3.2–3.4
source,for as details)
shown to in achieve the energy
Figure 2b. Thirdly,
supply–demand
the consumers withinbalance between
each clusterheat source, as shown
are connected to obtain in aFigure 2b.Sections
tree (see Thirdly,3.2–3.4
the con-
for
sumers within each cluster are connected to obtain a tree (see Sections
details). Figure 2c takes the ESMT pipeline network as an example, and Steiner Point can 3.2–3.4 for details).
Figure 2c takes
be obtained by the ESMT pipeline
GeoSteiner algorithm network as an
in Section 3.4.example,
Finally, theandcomplete
Steiner Point cannetwork
pipeline be ob-
tained
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
by GeoSteiner algorithm in Section 3.4. Finally,
5 of 20
the
layout of the multiple heat sources DES is obtained, as shown in Figure 2d.complete pipeline network lay-
out of the multiple heat sources DES is obtained, as shown in Figure 2d.

Figure 2. Schematic of optimization of multiple heat sources DES network system: (a) cluster con-
Figure 2. Schematic of optimization of multiple heat sources DES network system: (a) cluster
sumers; (b) generate heat source–heat source tree; (c) generate heat source–consumers tree; (d) ob-
tain the layout of multiple heat sources DES pipeline network.
consumers; (b) generate heat source–heat source tree; (c) generate heat source–consumers tree; (d)
obtain
2.2. the layout
Mathematical Model of multiple heat sources DES pipeline network.
2.2.1. Objective Function
The objective function in this paper is to minimize the total annual cost 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥ ⋅ a ),
including construction cost 𝐶 (￥ ⋅ a ), pressure loss cost 𝐶 (￥ ⋅ a )
and heat loss cost 𝐶 (￥ ⋅ a ), of the pipeline network, as shown Equation (1). It is
noted that steam is used as heat transfer medium in this work, as the studied DES provid-
ing steam to industry consumer. For the DES providing hot water, the method can be
easily adopted by changing properties from steam to hot water.
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 (1)
 Figure 2. Schematic of optimization of multiple heat sources DES network system: (a) cluster con-
2. Schematic of optimization
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 of multiple sumers;
Figure
heat (b) generate
2.sources
Schematic heat source–heat
DESofnetwork
optimization
system: source
of multiple
(a) cluster tree;
heat
con- (c) generate
sources heat source–consumers
DES network tree;
system: (a) cluster (d)
con-5 ofob-
19
s; (b)
of generate heat
optimization source–heat
of multiple heat source
sources tain
sumers;
tree;
DES the layout
(c)network
(b)
generate
generateofheat
heatmultiple
system: heat con-
sources
source–consumers
source–heat
(a) cluster source DES
tree; pipeline
tree;
(d) (c) network.
ob-generate heat source–consumers tree; (d) ob-
eheat
layout of multiple
source–heat heat tree;
source sources DES tain
pipeline
(c) generate the layout
heat network.
of multiple heat
source–consumers sources
tree; (d) ob-DES pipeline network.
ltiple heat sources DES pipeline network. 2.2. 2.2. Mathematical
Mathematical Model
Model
athematical Model 2.2. Mathematical
2.2.1. Objective ModelFunction
Model
Objective Function 2.2.1. Objective Function 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥ ·⋅ aa−1 ),,


The objective function in this paper is to minimize the total annual cost TAC
nction 𝐶paper is(￥ ⋅−a1 ),, ), 𝐶 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥ ·⋅ a(￥ ⋅ aand)

𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥
C Pipeline to·⋅ aaminimize C Pressure a−1 ),
he objective function in this paper is to including construction incost pressure lossloss
costcost Loss



minimize
The objective the total
function
construction annualcostthis
cost the total
pressure annual cost
unction
ding in this paper
construction 𝐶 minimize
costis to (￥including
⋅the
a and
), pressure
heat
total
heat loss loss cost
annual
cost C Heat
cost
construction 𝐶 cost𝐶 𝐶·⋅ aa(￥),⋅, aof
loss 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥
Loss
cost − 1 (￥ ),
(￥
the⋅ of
apipeline
⋅the
a), pipeline
) network,
pressure network,
lossascost as𝐶shown
shown (￥ It⋅ ais(1).
Equation
Equation (1). ) It is
noted
ction
eat loss cost𝐶 𝐶
cost (￥(￥ ⋅ a ⋅ a), pressure
), of and noted
heat
the pipeline
that that
loss steam
cost
loss 𝐶
steam
cost
network, 𝐶 isasas
is used used (￥
shownas⋅transfer
(￥
heat aEquation
a )),transfer
⋅heat ofmedium
the medium
(1).pipeline
It isin this in this
network,
work,work,
as as the
asshown
the studied
Equation
studied DES DES
(1). provid-
It is
providing
𝐶that steam(￥is⋅ used
a ), as
of heat
the pipeline
transfernetwork,
noted ing
steam
medium steam
that as
into towork,
shown isindustry
industry
steam
this Equation
used theconsumer.
consumer.
as as (1).transfer
heat
studied ItFor For
is DES
the the providing
DES
medium
provid- DES in providing hotthe
hot water,
this work, as water,
the theDES
method
studied method
can
provid-becan
easilybe
usedtoasindustry
eam heat transfer medium
consumer. in the
For this easily
adopted
work,
ingDESsteam asadopted
by
tothe
providing by changing
changing
studied
industryhot DES
water, theproperties
properties
provid-
consumer. Forfrom
method the steamfrom
can
DES be steam
to
providing to hot
hot water. hotwater.
water, the method can be
stry consumer.
adopted For theproperties
by changing DES providing
from
easily hot
steam water,
adoptedto hotbythe
water.methodproperties
changing can be from steam to hot water.
min𝑚𝑖𝑛TAC 𝑇𝐴𝐶==C𝐶 Pipeline + 𝐶
+ C Pressure Loss + + 𝐶 Loss
C Heat (1)
(1)
changing properties from steam to hot water.
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 + 𝐶 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶(1) +𝐶 (1)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 (1) N Cluster N Cluster
j
(2)
C𝐶Pipeline == ∑ ∑ Ci,j𝐶 ,
Pipeline
(2)
𝐶 = 𝐶, 𝐶 = (2)
j =1 i =1𝐶 , (2)
𝐶 = 𝐶, (2)
Cluster
N Cluster Nj
C𝐶Pressure Loss == ∑ ∑ 𝐶,
Pressure Loss
Ci,j (3)
(3)
𝐶 = 𝐶, 𝐶 = (3)
j= 1 i =1𝐶 (3)
,
𝐶 = 𝐶, (3) Cluster
N Cluster Nj
C𝐶Heat Loss == ∑ ∑ Ci,jHeat
𝐶,
Loss
(4)
j= 1
(4) i = 1 (4)
𝐶 = 𝐶, 𝐶 = 𝐶,
𝐶 = 𝐶 , where N Cluster (4)
is the number of clusters of pipeline network system and NjCluster is the
number of branch pipelines in cluster j. For instance, in Figure 2, the number of clusters
of pipeline network system N Cluster = 3, and the number of branch pipelines within each
cluster is N1Cluster = 7, N2Cluster = 3, N3Cluster = 4.

2.2.2. Linear Programming Model

Besides the length of pipeline, the diameter of pipeline also has a great impact on the
total cost of pipeline network. To consider diameter of pipeline, flowrate in each branch of
pipeline network should be optimized.
After determining the connection of the pipeline network, the sum of the mass flow of
steam in all branch pipelines of the steam pipeline network W S can be obtained by solving
the LP model shown in Equation (5).
T T T
NV NV NV
∑ ∑ ∑
S Binary
min W = bx,y,z × wx,y,z (5)
z x y

The constraints of the LP model are shown in Equations (6)–(10).

T T
NV NV  
∑ ∑
Binary Binary
(−1) D bx,y,z × wx,y,z + (−1) D bx,y,z × wy,x,z − WzS = 0 (6)
x y

1, ( x, y) ∈ ET

Binary z , ∀ x, y, z ∈ VT
bx,y,z = (7)
0, otherwise

1, x < y
D= (8)
2, x ≥ y
wx,y,z ≥ 0 (9)
wy,x,z ≥ 0 (10)
T
where N V is the number of vertices in the pipeline network topology. The binary variables
Binary
bx,y,z are obtained from Equation (7) based on the result of the pipeline network topology.
 Processes 2021, 9, 1308 6 of 19

Binary
bx,y,z indicates whether there is an edge (x, y), which belongs to the connected tree, is
directly connected to vertex z. Equation (6) accounts
for the material balance for each vertex
in the pipeline network topology. wx,y,z kg · s−1 is the mass flow rate of steam in the edge
(x, y) connected to vertex z when the material balance is performed on the vertex z. D is
an exponent, which is determined by Equation (8). WzS kg · s−1 is the mass flow rate at

vertex z. If vertex z produces steam, WzS is negative, otherwise, WzS is positive. The flow in
each branch line has two directions from x5to y and from y to x. In Equation (7), for each
of 20
vertex z, there is a set of edges Ez connected to it, each set ET
T
z is a subset of the connected
T
tree, and the number of edge sets is N V , so that one of the two vertices corresponding to
each edge in ET T Binary
z must be z. If the edge (x, y) belongs to Ez , bx,y,z is equal to 1, otherwise,
it is equal to 0.
In Equation (6), edge (x, y) calculates the mass flow rate twice from x to y (wx,y,z ) and
from y to
Figure 2. Schematic of optimization ofxmultiple
(wy,x,z ).heatThesources
two mass DESflownetwork rates are independent
system: (a) cluster con- with each other due to the
sumers; (b) generate heat source–heat
constraints source tree;
(Equations
on of multiple heat sources DES network system: (a) cluster con- (c) generate
(9) and heat
(10)). source–consumers
After solving the tree; (d)
optimization, ob- one of wx,y,z and wy,x,z
tain the layout of multiple heat
–heat source tree; (c) generate heat source–consumerssources DES
must be 0, tree;
and the pipeline network.
other is a positive number. The aim of solving Equation (5) is to find the
(d) ob-
ources DES pipeline network. value of wx,y,z and wy,x,z and let one of them to be 0.
2.2. Mathematical Model
2.2.1. Objective Function 2.2.3. Pipeline Cost Model
Pipeline
Ci,j 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥ ·⋅ aa−1 ), and the unit price of the


The objective function in this The paper is to minimize
construction cost [28] theoftotal annual cost
the pipeline
this paper is toincluding
minimizeconstruction
the total annual cost 𝐶 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥
cost
pipeline ai,j (￥·⋅ m ⋅aa−1),
),are
pressure
obtained lossby cost 𝐶
Equations (11) and (￥(12).⋅a )
𝐶 (￥ ⋅ aand), heat
pressure loss 𝐶cost 𝐶 (￥ ⋅ a ),(￥
loss cost of the
⋅ a pipeline
) network, as shown Equation (1). It is
year
￥ ⋅ a ), of thenoted thatnetwork,
pipeline steam is asused as heat
shown transfer
Equation medium
(1). It is in thisPipeline
work, as the studied I (1 +DESI ) N provid-
ing steam towork,
industry consumer. For provid-
the DES providing C =
i,j hot water, a L
i,j i,j the method year can be (11)
at transfer medium in this as the studied DES (1 + I ) N − 1
mer. For the DESeasily adopted by
providing hotchanging
water, the properties
method from can be steam to hot water.
0.48
roperties from steam to hot water. 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶

+ 𝐶 i,j + 1295 +D𝐶outer,pipeline
ai,j = 5.74Wt + 47.6 + 2065D (1) outer,pipeline (12)
i,j i,j
𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 (1)
inner,pipeline 2
 
inner,pipeline
Wti,j = 644.3 Di,j + 72.5Di,j (2) + 0.4611 (13)
𝐶 = 𝐶,
𝐶 = 𝐶, (2) outer,pipeline inner,pipeline
Di,j = 1.052Di,j + 0.005251 (14)
s
4Wi,j (3)
𝐶 = 𝐶 , Dinner,pipeline = (15)
i,j πρu
= 𝐶, (3)
where, N year (a) is the life cycle of the pipeline network system, I is the annual interest rate,
and Li,j (m) is the length of the branch pipeline. (4)

𝐶 = 𝐶,
The weight per (4) unit length of the pipeline Wt i,j kg · m−1 , the outer diameter
= 𝐶, outer,pipeline inner,pipeline
gure 2. Schematic of optimization of multiple Di,jheat sources (mDES) of the pipeline
network and(a)
system: thecluster
inner con-diameter Di,j (m) of the pipeline are
mers; (b) generate heat source–heat sourceobtained
tree; (c) generate heat source–consumers
from Equations (13)–(15), where Wi,j kg · s tree; (d) ob- − 1


is the mass flow rate of steam in
n the layout of multiple heat sources DES pipeline network.
the pipeline, ρ kg · m−3 is the density of the fluid, and u m · s−1 is the velocity of the

fluid in the pipeline.

2. Mathematical Model
2.1. Objective Function 2.2.4. Pressure Loss Cost Model
cost 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥
Pressure Loss ·⋅ aa−1 ), of the pipeline network, the shaft power


The objective function in this paper is to minimize
The pressurethe total
loss annual
cost Ci,j
cluding construction cost 𝐶 (￥ N ⋅ ai,j (W
), )pressure
to overcomeloss the 𝐶
costresistance (￥ steam
during ⋅ a ) transportation and the effective power
d heat loss cost 𝐶 (￥ ⋅ a ), of the
Nei,jpipeline
(W) of thenetwork, as shown
transportation Equation are
equipment (1).calculated
It is by Equations (16)–(19). To consider
the local resistance, it is assumed an average of four standard elbows (90◦ ) per 100 m, then
oted that steam is used as heat transfer medium in this work, as the studied DES provid-
g steam to industry consumer. For the Elbow
DES can
ζ i,j providing hot water,
be calculated the method
by Equation (20). can be
sily adopted by changing properties from steam to hot water.
a E TOperating Ni,j
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 Pressure Loss
Ci,j = (1) (16)
1000
Nei,j
𝐶 = 𝐶, Ni,j = (2) (17)
η

𝐶 = 𝐶, (3)
 Processes 2021, 9, 1308 7 of 19

5 of 20
f
Nei,j = gHi,j Wi,j (18)
 
f Li,j Elbow u2
Hi,j = σ inner,pipeline
+ ζ i,j + ζ i,j  (19)
Di,j 2g

Elbow
Li,j E
ζ i,j = ζ (20)
25 i,j
 h i
inner,pipeline inner,pipeline


 0, [i = 0] ∨ Si−1,j = Si,j

 !2

 inner,pipeline
 Si−1,j inner,pipeline inner,pipeline
1−


inner,pipeline , Si−1,j < Si,j
ζ i,j = Si,j (21)
n of multiple heat sources DES network system: (a) cluster con- 
 !2
inner,pipeline

eat source tree; (c) generate heat source–consumers tree; (d) ob- Si,j

 inner,pipeline inner,pipeline
0.5 1 − , Si−1,j > Si,j


rces DES pipeline network.
 inner,pipeline
Si−1,j



inner,pipeline π  inner,pipeline 2
Si,j = Di,j (22)
4
 
is paper is to minimize the total annual where cost 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥ aE a −
·⋅ kW ),1 · h−1 is the power cost, TOperating (h) is the number of annual operat-
(￥ ⋅ a ), pressure loss cost 𝐶 ing hours (￥ of the⋅ a device,
) and η is the efficiency of the conveying equipment. The head loss
a ), of the pipeline network, as shown Equation
f (1). It is
Schematic of optimization of multiple heat H i,j (m) DES
sources caused by the
network resistance
system: alongcon-
(a) cluster the pipeline is calculated by Equation (19), where
transfer medium in this work, as the studied DES provid-
) generate heat source–heat source tree; (c)ζgenerate
i,j is the local
heat resistance coefficient
source–consumers tree; when
(d) ob-the cross section suddenly increases or decreases,
r. For
yout the DESheat
of multiple providing hot water,
sources DES pipelinethe method can be
network. inner,pipeline
E m2 is the cross-sectional


perties from steam to hot water. ζ i,j is the local resistance coefficient at the elbow, Si,j
area of the branch pipeline, and σ is the pipeline friction coefficient.
ematical
=𝐶 Model
+𝐶 +𝐶 (1)
ective Function 2.2.5. Heat Loss Cost Model
Heat𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥
Loss ⋅ aa−1 ), can be calculated by Equation (23). Considering


objective function in this paper is to minimize Thetheheat
totallossannual
(2)
cost cost
Ci,j ·
=
construction cost 𝐶 𝐶 , (￥ ⋅ a ), the pressure loss thecostheat𝐶 loss Q kJ (￥ ⋅ a−1 ·) s−1
of the steam pipeline network is calculated
insulation, i,j ·m
loss cost 𝐶 (￥ ⋅ a ), of the pipeline
by Equationnetwork, as shown Equation (1). It is
(24).
t steam is used as heat transfer medium in this work, as the studied DES provid-aS Qi,j Li,j TOperating
of multiple heat sources DES network system: (a) cluster con- Heat Loss
mattosource
industry consumer.
= tree; (c) For source–consumers
𝐶 ,heat
generate
the DES providing hot water,
tree; (d) ob- (3) the method Ci,j can = be q
(23)
opted
ces DESbypipeline
changing properties from steam to hot water.
network.
επ ( T − T a )
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐴𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 Qi,j =  (1)
outer,insulation  (24)
1 Di,j 2
1000 λ ln inner,insulation + outer,insulation
= 𝐶, (4) Di,j εDi,j

𝐶 the total=annual cost (2)

a𝐶S , ·⋅ kg
   
s paper is to minimize where 𝑇𝐴𝐶(￥ a −),1 is the unit price of steam, q kJ · kg−1 is the latent heat of steam, T (◦ C)
(￥ ⋅ a ), pressure loss cost 𝐶 is the temperature (￥ ⋅ a )of the fluid medium in the pipeline, T a (◦ C) is the ambient temperature,
a ), of the pipeline network, as shownDEquation inner,insulation(1).(Itm)isand Di,j outer,insulation
(m) are the inner diameter and outer diameter of the
i,j
transfer medium𝐶in this work,=as the studied DES 𝐶, provid-   (3)
r. For the DES providing hot water, the insulation
methodlayer, can be λ W · m−1 · K−1 is the thermal conductivity of the insulation material
 
perties from steam to hot water. at the average temperature, ε W · m−2 · K−1 is the heat transfer coefficient between
=𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 the outer surface
(1)of the insulation layer and the surroundings. The inner diameter of
𝐶 = 𝐶 inner,insulation (4)
,
the insulation layer Di,j is taken as the outer diameter of the steam pipeline
outer,pipeline
Di,j . Due
(2) to the difference in fluid temperatures and pipeline diameters, the
= 𝐶,
thickness of the insulation layer is different. In this work, the thickness of insulation layer
is selected according to Table 1.

= 𝐶, (3)

= 𝐶, (4)
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 8 of 19

Table 1. Table for selecting glass wool insulation layer thickness.

Pipeline Surface Temperature (◦ C)

DN (mm) ≤60 ≤150 ≤250 ≤300 ≤350
Insulation Layer Thickness (mm)
15 30 30 40 50 50
20 30 30 40 50 50
25 30 30 50 50 60
40 30 50 50 60 60
50 30 50 50 60 70
80 30 50 60 70 70
100 30 50 60 70 80
150 30 60 70 70 80
200 30 60 70 80 90
250 30 60 70 80 90
300 30 60 70 80 90
350 30 50 70 80 90
400 30 50 70 80 90
450 30 50 70 80 90
500 30 50 70 80 90
600 30 50 70 80 90
700 30 50 70 80 90
800 30 50 70 80 90
900 30 50 70 80 100
1000 30 50 70 80 100
1100 30 50 70 80 100
1200 30 50 70 80 100

2.2.6. Reliability Assessment Model

To calculate the reliability of the pipeline network system R Reliability , the connected
Probability
probability between the consumer α and the heat source Pα should be known first.
Connected probability is used to describe when some part of the pipeline does not work, the
probability that the consumer can still connect with the heat source. Reliability R Reliability
Probability
and connected probability Pα can be calculated by the Equations (25) and (26).
Probability
Pα is the product value of the probability of connectivity of each pipeline between
consumer α to the heat source.
VT
 
Probability
∑αN=1 Pα × QαHeat Demand
R Reliability = VT
(25)
∑αN=1 QαHeat Demand

  Lα,β
= ∏ pα,β
Probability Path 1000
Pα (26)
β
 
where QαHeat Demand is the heat demand of consumer α, pα,β Path km−1 is the probability of

connecting the βth pipeline in the path between consumer α and the heat source, and the
Path is not exactly the same for different consumers, and L (m) is the
size of the array pα,β α,β
length of the βth pipeline between consumer α and the heat source.

3. Algorithm
This method uses the concept of graph theory. In graph theory, each graph consists
of some preset points and the lines connecting them. Such a graph is used to describe
some certain relation between some things. The concept of graph theory is very suitable
to solve the problem raised in this work. The algorithms chose in this work are all well
accepted algorithms to solve such problems. This work aims to find the best connection
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 9 of 19

between heat sources and heat users. The computational complexity is the combination of
clustering, LP, and different graph theory algorithms.

3.1. Clustering Algorithm

The clustering algorithm is used in this paper to obtain a set of clusters
C = (C1 , C2 , · · · , CN Cluster ) by assigning different consumers to the heat source with the
shortest Euclidean distance. The specific process of the clustering algorithm is shown
in Algorithm 1.
Algorithm 1: Clustering Algorithm
Input: The coordinates of consumers [ x, y] = {( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), . . . , ( x N Consumer , y N Consumer )}, the
number of clusters N Cluster , and the coordinates of heat sources
[µ, λ] = {(µ1 , λ1 ), (µ2 , λ2 ), . . . , (µ N Consumer , λ N Consumer )}.
Output: A set of clusters C = (C1 , C2 , · · · , CN Cluster ).
n o
1: Let Cj = Heat source j , j = 1, 2, · · · , N Cluster
2: for all i = 1, 2, · · · , N Consumer do
q
3: dij = ( xi − µ j )2 + (yi − λ j )2 , j = 1, 2, · · · , N Cluster
4: ξ i = argmindij , j = 1, 2, · · · , N Cluster

5: Cξ i = Cξ i ∪ {( xi , yi )}

6: end for

7: return C = (C1 , C2 , · · · , CN Cluster )

3.2. Star Tree Algorithm

Star tree algorithm [29] is a graph theory algorithm that directly connects the consumer
to a selected center. The specific flow of the algorithm is shown in Algorithm 2.
Algorithm 2: Star tree algorithm
Input: A graph G = (V, E).
Output: A Star tree T = VT , ET .

1: Let ET = Φ

2: choose the heat source as the center of all consumers

3: for all i = 1, 2, · · · , N V do

4: generate eiT by connecting consumer i and the center straightly

ET = ET ∪ eiT

5:
6: end for
return T = VT , ET


7:

3.3. Kruskal Algorithm

Kruskal algorithm [30] is a classical algorithm for solving MST of weighted connected
graphs, which gradually transforms the connected components into an MST connecting
all vertices by finding the edges with minimum weights. The specific process of Kruskal
algorithm is shown in Algorithm 3.
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 10 of 19

Algorithm 3: Kruskal algorithm

Input: A connected graph G = (V, E, W). 
Output: A minimum spanning tree T = VT , ET , WT .

1: Let ET = Φ

2: Sort the edges such that W(e1 ) ≤ W(e2 ) ≤ · · · ≤ W(em )

3: for all i = 1, 2, · · · , N E do
ET = ET ∪ eiT

4:
5: if cycle is generated in T then

6: delete eiT from the ET

7: else

8: maintain the ET unchanged

9: end if
T
10: if N E = N V − 1 then
11: break
12: else
13: continue
14: end if
15: end for
 
16: return T = VT , ET , WT

3.4. GeoSteiner Algorithm

GeoSteiner algorithm is a fast and accurate algorithm for solving ESMT and RSMT. It
has been improved through the work of Zachariasen [31] and Warme [32]. The geometric
Steiner tree problem is known to be NP-hard for the Euclidean metric, and NP-complete
for the rectilinear metric.
For the problem of generating Steiner trees, GeoSteiner algorithm includes two phases:
First, a small but sufficient set of full Steiner trees (FSTs) is generated and then a Steiner
minimum tree (SMT) is constructed from this set. These phases are called FSTs generation
and FSTs concatenation. Before generating FSTs, a preprocessing phase is required to
reduce the complexity of the calculation process.
The input to the FSTs generation algorithm is the set of terminal points, and the output
is an embedded hypergraph. The embedding of each hyperedge (or FSTs) is the geometric
tree structure of the FSTs. FSTs generation in GeoSteiner is performed by enumerating
branch trees, and only the results after passing distance tests, long-leg segment tests, branch
tree tests and FSTs tests will be retained to the final concatenation phase.
The FSTs concatenation problem can be modelled as an instance
of the MST in hyper-
graph (MSTHG) problem [33]: given a hypergraph H = VH , EH , and a weight function
wH : EH
7→ R find a subset TH ⊆ EH such that TH is a spanning tree of H that minimizes
wH TH = ∑e∈EH wH (e). The MSTHG problem can be solved by integer programming, as
shown in Equations (27)–(31):

Minimize ∑ e ∈ E H wH ( e ) x e (27)

Subject to
∑ (|e| − 1)xe = VH − 1 (28)
e ∈ EH
 Minimize ∑ ∈ 𝑤 𝐇 (𝑒)𝑥 (27)
Subject to

Processes 2021, 9, 1308 (|𝑒| − 1)𝑥 = |𝐕 𝐇 | − 1 11 of(28)

19
∈𝐄 𝐇

𝑚𝑎𝑥(|𝑒
(|e ∩ ∩
S|𝑆| 0) xe𝑥≤≤|S|𝑆|
−−1,1,0) | −−1,1,
∀S ∀𝑆 ⊂H𝐕, 𝐇|S, |𝑆|
| ≥ ≥2 2
∑ max
𝐇
⊂V (29)
(29)
e∈E∈𝐄
H

𝐇
0 0≤≤xe𝑥≤≤1,1,
∀e ∀𝑒
∈ E∈H𝐄 (30)
(30)
𝐇
xe𝑥∈ ∈Z,ℤ,∀e ∀𝑒
∈ E∈H𝐄 (31)
(31)
𝐇
wherew𝑤
where H𝐇∈∈R |E𝐄H |
ℝ isisthe thecost
cost vector
vector forfor e ∈ 𝑒EH
all all ∈ ,𝐄x𝐇e ,is𝑥theissolution
the solution
vector,vector, ∈ R|E𝑥 |∈.
and x and
H

𝐄𝐇
ℝ constraint
The . The constraint demonstrated
demonstrated in Equation
in Equation (28) ensures
(28) ensures that thethat the spanning
spanning tree hastree
thehas the
right
right number
number and sizes andofsizes of hyperedges,
hyperedges, while thewhile
subtour the constraint
subtour constraint
demonstrated demonstrated
in Equation in
Equation
(29) ensures (29)
thatensures
the treethat
hasthe
notree has no cycles.
cycles.
For
ForthetheEuclidean
Euclideanmetric,
metric,thetheedges
edges atat
a Steiner
a Steiner pointpointin in
ESMTESMT must meet
must exactly
meet at an
exactly at
angle
an angle of ◦120°,
of 120 , andand
all other edges
all other mustmust
edges meetmeetat anatangle
an angle of◦ 120°
of 120 or more, otherwise
or more, the tree
otherwise the
can
treebecan
easily shortened.
be easily Additionally,
shortened. all edgesall
Additionally, areedges
straight areline segments
straight line directly
segments connected
directly
by terminals and/or Steiner points. Figure 3 shows a schematic
connected by terminals and/or Steiner points. Figure 3 shows a schematic topology con- topology consisting of
3sisting
terminals, where Terminal-1, Terminal-2, and Terminal-3 are the three
of 3 terminals, where Terminal-1, Terminal-2, and Terminal-3 are the three vertices vertices of the unit
square triangle.
of the unit square From Figure
triangle.
√ From3, it can be calculated
Figure 3, it can bethat the totalthat
calculated length
the of MST
total is 2 and
length the
of MST
total length
is 2 and the of ESMT
total is of3.ESMT
length In terms of total
is √3. length,
In terms ESMT
of total is shorter
length, ESMTthan MST. than MST.
is shorter

Terminal-3 Terminal-3

Steiner point

Terminal-1 Terminal-2
Terminal-1 Terminal-2
(a) MST (b) ESMT

Figure 3. A
Figure3. A schematic
schematic diagram
diagram of
ofthe
thetopology
topologyconsisted
consistedof
of33terminals.
terminals.

For
For the rectilinear metric
the rectilinear metric [33],
[33],all
allline
linesegments
segmentsmeetmeetat at a common
a common corner
corner point
point w=
w = (ux , v y ), which is obtained by intersecting the vertical line from point u
(ux, vy), which is obtained by intersecting the vertical line from point u and the horizontaland the hori-
zontal linepoint
line from fromv.point v. Additionally,
Additionally, the backbone,
the backbone, for topologies
for Hwang Hwang topologies
[34], (u, v)[34], (u, v) is
is consisted
consisted of line segments uw and vw. The points u, v, and w may be any combination of
of line segments uw and vw. The points u, v, and w may be any combination of terminals,
terminals, Steiner points, and corner points.
Steiner points, and corner points.
4. Case Study
4. Case Study
4.1. Data Acquisition
In this
4.1. Data case, the number of heat sources is 3. By clustering, consumers are assigned to
Acquisition
these heat sources. The whole optimization process is realized by C++ programming. This
In this case, the number of heat sources is 3. By clustering, consumers are assigned to
case is simplified through a real industrial park, all the energy consumers require steam
these heat sources. The whole optimization process is realized by C++ programming. This
rather than hot water. The input data of consumers and heat sources is shown in Table 2,
case is simplified through a real industrial park, all the energy consumers require steam
and if the heat demand is positive, then it is a consumer, on the contrary it is a heat source.
rather
The than hot
required water. The
parameters in input data of consumers
the mathematical model and heat sources
are shown is 3.
in Table shown in Table 2,

4.2. Optimal Results and Analysis

The results are summarized in Table 4. Figure 4 shows the topological schemes of
four types of pipeline network. The red line segment in Figure 4 represents the pipeline
between the heat sources, and the other line segments represent the pipeline between the
consumers and the heat sources. The thickness of the line segment in Figure 4 indicates the
diameter of the branch pipeline.
From the perspective of economy, the TAC of STAR is the highest while that of ESMT
pipeline network is the lowest, as shown in Table 4. The following analysis is carried out
according to the pipeline construction cost, pressure loss cost and heat loss cost in the
objective function.
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 12 of 19

In terms of pipeline construction cost, as a result of the existence of multiple heat

sources, as shown in Figure 4, a single heat source no longer covers all the consumers, so
the pipeline length is reduced, especially for those long, thick pipelines. This is beneficial
for reducing pipeline costs.

Table 2. The table of input data of consumers and heat sources.

Name Coordinate X (m) Coordinate Y (m) Heat Demand ( t·h−1 Steam)

Consumer-01 7097 9542 15.0
Consumer-02 8800 4024 6.0
Consumer-03 9602 5124 0.5
Consumer-04 12,013 7072 4.0
Consumer-05 13,392 11,430 3.0
Consumer-06 13,949 14,857 5.0
Consumer-07 3384 24,093 10.0
Consumer-08 25,483 0 25.0
Consumer-09 11,914 2235 3.0
Consumer-10 11,369 3893 4.0
Consumer-11 6561 6546 5.0
Consumer-12 12,437 10,805 12.0
Consumer-13 12,454 11,538 0.3
Consumer-14 16,227 13,461 10.0
Consumer-15 18,914 14,341 1.2
Consumer-16 7171 12,650 0.3
Consumer-17 13,255 20,390 4.0
Consumer-18 15,489 16,736 7.0
Consumer-19 17,153 17,937 1.0
Consumer-20 22,789 24,165 2.0
Consumer-21 24,416 24,203 1.2
Consumer-22 6206 20,012 10.0
Consumer-23 5818 10,120 4.0
Consumer-24 3465 24,915 10.0
Heat source-01 0 3144 −45.8
Heat source-02 12,200 21,944 −45.2
Heat source-03 19,200 7544 −52.5

Table 3. The table of mathematical model parameters.

Parameter Number Unit Parameter Number Unit

N year 10 a aS 0.1945 Ұ·kg−1
I 0.02 q 1999.9 kJ·kg−1
ρ 0.60 kg·m−3 Ta 3.5 ◦C

u 30.00 m ·s−1 λ 0.06 W ·m−1 ·K−1

aE 0.21 Ұ·kW·h−1 v 3.50 m ·s−1
TOperating 8760 h ε 11.63 W ·m−2 ·K−1
Path
η 0.8 pα,β 0.98 km−1
σ 0.015

Table 4. The table of results of optimization cases.

Topology Type of Pipeline Networks STAR MST RSMT ESMT

(×107
Total pipeline cost Ұ ·a−1 ) 2.706 (100%) 2.035 (75.2%) 2.152 (79.5%) 1.962 (72.5%)
Pressure loss cost (×107 Ұ·a−1 ) 0.668 (100%) 0.504 (75.4%) 0.533 (79.8%) 0.486 (72.8%)
Heat loss cost (×107 Ұ·a−1 ) 0.990 (100%) 0.623 (62.9%) 0.654 (66.0%) 0.605 (61.1%)
Total annual cost (×107 Ұ·a−1 ) 4.364 (100%) 3.162 (72.5%) 3.339 (76.5%) 3.053 (70.0%)
R Reliability 0.848 (100%) 0.815 (96.1%) 0.802 (94.6%) 0.822 (96.9%)
 Heat loss cost (×107 ￥·a−1) 0.990 (100%) 0.623 (62.9%) 0.654 (66.0%) 0.605 (61.1%)

Total annual cost (×107 ￥·a−1) 4.364 (100%) 3.162 (72.5%) 3.339 (76.5%) 3.053 (70.0%)
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 13 of 19
𝑅 0.848 (100%) 0.815 (96.1%) 0.802 (94.6%) 0.822 (96.9%)

(a) STAR. (b) MST.

(c) RSMT. (d) ESMT.

Figure
Figure4.4.Pipeline
Pipelinenetwork
networklayouts.
layouts.

On the
From thebasis of multiple
perspective heat sources,
of economy, the TACdifferent
of STAR pipeline network
is the highest whiletopologies affect
that of ESMT
pipeline network
pipeline costs through
is thepipeline
lowest, length,
as shown as shown
in Tablein 4.
Figure 5. For the STAR
The following pipeline
analysis network,
is carried out
since eachtoconsumer
according the pipelineneeds to be connected
construction to the heat
cost, pressure losssource in the
cost and region,
heat thereinisthe
loss cost no
shared pipeline,
objective function.leading to a significant increase in the pipeline length. As a result, this
typeInis terms
not applicable in large-scale
of pipeline constructionprojects. Thea MST
cost, as resultpipeline network takes
of the existence into account
of multiple heat
sources, as shown in Figure 4, a single heat source no longer covers all the consumers,and
the situation of shared pipelines to reduce the pipeline length. Compared with STAR so
MST,
the RSMT length
pipeline and ESMT pipelineespecially
is reduced, networksfor introduce Steiner
those long, thickpoints to optimize
pipelines. This isthe pipeline
beneficial
network
for reducingconnection
pipelinemode.
costs. When the limitation of the actual path is considered, the RSMT
pipeline
On thenetwork
basis can better adapt
of multiple heattosources,
the actual road layout
different through
pipeline rectangular
network connection,
topologies affect
as shown
pipeline in Figure
costs through4c. pipeline
However, this rectangular
length, as shown in connection
Figure 5. Forincreases the total
the STAR length
pipeline of
net-
the network to a certain extent. Compared with RSMT pipeline network,
work, since each consumer needs to be connected to the heat source in the region, there is ESMT pipeline
network
no sharedis not limited
pipeline, by the
leading to aactual path, increase
significant and the inlinear connection
the pipeline between
length. two points
As a result, this
makes its pipeline length the shortest.
In addition, in this model, pipeline construction cost is not only related to pipeline
length, but also related to pipeline diameter. Since the diameter of pipeline is directly
related to flow rate, the total flow rate of the pipeline network is defined as the sum of the
flow rate of each piecewise pipeline. The total flow rate can reflect the overall diameter of
the pipeline network and to further reflect the economy of the pipeline network. Figure 6
also demonstrates the relationship between TAC and the total flow rate.
 tween two points makes its pipeline length the shortest.
line network connection mode. When the limitation of the actual path is considered, the
RSMT pipeline network can better adapt to the actual road layout through rectangular
connection, as shown in Figure 4c. However, this rectangular connection increases the
total length of the network to a certain extent. Compared with RSMT pipeline network,
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 14 ofbe-
ESMT pipeline network is not limited by the actual path, and the linear connection 19
tween two points makes its pipeline length the shortest.

Figure 5. The relationship between the pipeline length and each cost of the four topologies.

In addition, in this model, pipeline construction cost is not only related to pipeline
length, but also related to pipeline diameter. Since the diameter of pipeline is directly re-
lated to flow rate, the total flow rate of the pipeline network is defined as the sum of the
flow rate of each piecewise pipeline. The total flow rate can reflect the overall diameter of
Figure 5. The
The relationship
the pipeline
Figure 5. relationship
network and between thepipeline
to further
between the pipeline length
reflect length
the andeach
economy
and eachofcost of
theof
cost thefour
fourtopologies.
pipeline
the topologies.Figure 6
network.
also demonstrates the relationship between TAC and the total flow rate.
In addition, in this model, pipeline construction cost is not only related to pipeline
length, but also related to pipeline diameter. Since the diameter of pipeline is directly re-
lated to flow rate, the total flow rate of the pipeline network is defined as the sum of the
flow rate of each piecewise pipeline. The total flow rate can reflect the overall diameter of
the pipeline network and to further reflect the economy of the pipeline network. Figure 6
also demonstrates the relationship between TAC and the total flow rate.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. The
Therelationship between
relationship the flow
between rate, the
the flow rate,total
thepipeline cost andcost
total pipeline TACand
of the
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ogies.
four topologies.

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signifi-
cantlypressure
more reduced, indicating
loss and heatthatloss.pipeline length
On the other is a more
hand, sensitive
for ESMT factorthe
pipelines, compared
pressure withloss
and heat loss are significantly reduced due to shorter pipeline.
From the perspective of reliability, the reliability of Star is the highest, while that
of RSMT is the lowest, as shown in Table 4. In this model, the reliability of the pipeline
network is related to the connection mode between the consumers and the heat sources as
well as the length of the main pipeline. The existence of multiple heat sources can shorten
the long-distance transportation and reduce the number of shared pipelines, so that the
system reliability can be improved.
In this case, the STAR pipeline network is more reliable than the other three structures
because it does not contain shared pipelines. This means that the consumers are inde-
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 15 of 19

pendent from each other. In the process of energy transportation, the damage of a single
pipeline will not cause a large-scale failure of the pipeline network system. In order to meet
the actual road layout, some consumers are connected by vertical/horizontal pipelines in
RSMT structure, leading to a longer pipeline compared to MST, so that the reliability of
RSMT is lower than that of MST. Compared to RSMT and MST, ESMT is the shortest, so
that the reliability is higher, making ESMT superior to the other two in terms of reliability.
It can be found from the results that the STAR pipeline network has the best reliability,
but at the same time it is the most expensive one. MST pipeline network, as a common
pipeline network topology, has better economy compared with the STAR structure. Com-
pared with MST, the economy and reliability of RSMT becomes worse, but it may fit the
actual road layout better. The performance of ESMT pipeline network is the best one in
economic aspect and the second best one in reliability.

4.3. Analysis of Small-Scale DES

From the analysis above, it can be found that the distance is a key factor in the problem.
The case used in last section is a large-scale problem. To identify the performance of the
four types in small scale problem, this section will discuss DES that are scaled down in
equal proportions, where the heat sources are more geographically concentrated with
the consumers.
By comparing the data of Tables 4 and 5, it can be seen that in terms of the economics of
DES, the TAC of STAR compared with that of ESMT changed from 142.9% in the large-scale
case to 137.5% in the small-scale case, and the gap narrowed by 5.4%; when the pipeline
network topologies are MST and RSMT, none of the gap changes by more than 1% in this
ratio, and the TAC of ESMT is still the smallest. In terms of the reliability of DES, STAR
has the highest reliability and ESMT has the second highest reliability, they are also in
accordance with large-scale case.

Table 5. The table of results of small-scale DES case.

Topology Type of Pipeline Networks STAR MST RSMT ESMT

Total pipeline length(×104 m) 4.603 2.421 2.433 2.345
Total pipeline cost (×106 Ұ·a−1 ) 5.412 4.069 4.304 3.925
Pressure loss cost (×106 Ұ·a−1 ) 1.313 1.002 1.062 0.967
Heat loss cost (×106 Ұ·a−1 ) 1.313 1.002 1.062 0.967
Total annual cost (×106 Ұ·a−1 ) 6.725 5.072 5.366 4.892
R Reliability 0.967 0.959 0.956 0.961

From the analysis, it can be concluded that the scale of the region does not have a
great impact on the relative performance of the four structures.

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the layout of the DES pipeline network is optimized for a multiple
heat sources scenario to save energy during the energy transportation process. In this
work, a topology optimization model for the pipeline network of DES containing multiple
heat sources is developed by coupling clustering algorithm, Star tree algorithm, Kruskal
algorithm, GeoSteiner algorithm and LP model. In the context of multiple heat sources,
this paper investigates the effects of four different topologies (STAR, MST, ESMT, RSMT)
on the pipeline network system in terms of both economy and reliability. The following
conclusions are obtained based on the case studies.
1. Compared with the single heat source scenario, the multiple heat sources system will
reduce the long-distance and high-flow pipelines in the system, so that both economy
and reliability of the pipeline network system is improved.
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 16 of 19

2. Compared with the traditional pipeline network obtained using MST, an ESMT
pipeline network can reduce the total annual cost by 3% and increase reliability
by 1%.
3. When considering the actual path constraints, the RSMT pipeline network can be
better adapted to the road layout.
4. The geographically scale of the problem does not have a great impact on the relative
performance of the four structures.
5. By using the proposed method, both economic and reliability can be improved for the
DES system.
In the work, the model developed can optimize the pipeline network layout under
multiple heat sources conditions. However, the study in this paper has not taken into
account the uncertainty of customer demand changes, which limits the optimization results
to some extent. In the future, this work will be extended to consider reliability and economic
under uncertainty factors. In addition, to make the optimization results more practical, in
future, more practical factors should be concerned, e.g., the layout of existing road.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.W. (Yufei Wang) and Y.W. (Yan Wu); methodology, Y.W.
(Yan Wu); software, Z.C. and H.L.; validation, Z.C. and H.L.; formal analysis, Z.C.; investigation,
Z.C. and H.L.; resources, X.F.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.C. and H.L.; writing—review
and editing, Y.W. (Yufei Wang); supervision, Y.W. (Yufei Wang) and X.F.; funding acquisition, Y.W.
(Yufei Wang). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
(No. 22022816 and 22078358) are gratefully acknowledged.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Abbreviations
DES Distributed Energy System
ESMT Euclidean Steiner Minimum Tree
FSTs Full Steiner trees
GA Genetic algorithm
LP Linear programming
MILP Mixed Integer Linear Programming
MIP Mixed Integer Programming
MST Minimum Spanning Tree
MSTHG The MST in hypergraph
NSGA-II Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II
RSMT Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Tree
SMT Steiner Minimum Tree
STAR Star tree
TAC Total annual cost, Ұ·a−1
Indices and Sets
C The set of clusters, denoted by index j
D An index, which is used to control the positive and negative of w x,y,z by (−1) D
e An index, referring to the edge in EH
E The set of edges in a graph
EH The set of edges in the hypergraph
ET The set of edges in the connected tree, denoted by indices i,β
The set of edges in the connected tree which are connected directly to the
ET
z
vertex z.
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 17 of 19

The graph of empty set in Star tree algorithm, or the weighted connected graph
G
without direction in Kruskal algorithm
H A hypergraph
V The set of all vertices in a graph, denoted by indices x, y, z
VH The set of vertices in the hypergraph, denoted by indices x, y, z VH ⊆ V
VT The set of vertices in MST, denoted by indices x, y, z, α, VT ⊆ V
W The set of weights of edges in a graph, denoted by indices x, y, z
The set of weights of edges in the connected tree, denoted by indices
WT
x, y, z, WT ⊆ W
Variables
aE The electricity cost, Ұ·kW·h−1
ai,j The unit price of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, Ұ·m−1
aS The unit price of steam, Ұ·kg−1
Binary Binary variables indicating whether the edge (x, y) in the connected tree is
bx,y,z
connected directly to the vertex z.
C Heat Loss The heat loss cost of pipeline, Ұ·a−1
Heat Loss
Ci,j The heat loss cost of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, Ұ·a−1
C Pipeline The construction cost of pipeline, Ұ·a−1
Pipeline
Ci,j The construction cost of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, Ұ·a−1
C Pressure Loss The pressure loss cost of pipeline, Ұ·a−1
Pressure Loss
Ci,j The pressure loss cost of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, Ұ·a−1
di,j The Euclidean distance between vertex i and vertex j
inner,insulation
Di,j The inner diameter of the insulation layer of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m
inner,pipline
Di,j The inner diameter of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m
outer,insulation
Di,j The outer diameter of the insulation layer of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m
outer,pipline
Di,j The outer diameter of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m
eiH The ith edge in the hypergraph
eiT The ith edge in the connected tree
g Gravitational acceleration
f
Hi,j The head loss of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m
I The annual interest rate
Li,j The length of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m
The length of the βth pipeline between consumer α and the heat source in the
Lα,β
area where this consumer is located, m
N Cluster The number of clusters of the pipeline network system
NjCluster The number of branch pipelines in cluster j
N Consumer The number of consumers of the pipeline network system
T
NV The number of vertices in the connected tree
T
NE The number of vertices in the connected tree
N year The life cycle of the pipeline network system, a
Ni,j The shaft power of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, W
Nei,j The effective power of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, W
Path The probability of connecting the βth pipeline in the path connected between
pα,β
the consumer α and the heat source in its area
Probability The connected probability between the consumer α and the heat source of the
Pα
area where this consumer is located
q The latent heat of steam, kJ·kg−1
QαHeat Demand The heat demand of consumer α
Qi,j The heat loss of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, kJ·m−1 ·s−1
R Reliability The reliability of the pipeline network system
inner,pipeline
Si,j The head loss of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, m2
T The outer surface temperature of the pipeline, ◦ C
Ta The ambient temperature, ◦ C
TOperating The number of annual operating hours of the device, h
Processes 2021, 9, 1308 18 of 19

u The flow rate of the steam, m·s−1

The sum of the steam mass flow rate in all branch pipelines in the entire
WS
pipeline network
Wi,j The mass flow rate of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, kg·s−1
WzS The mass flow rate of steam at vertex z, kg·s−1
wH A weight function of the edges in a hypergraph
wH ( e )
The weight of edge e in a spanning tree in the hypergraph
w H TH The sum of weights of the edges in a spanning tree in the hypergraph
The mass flow rate within the branch pipeline connecting vertices x and y
w x,y,z and wy,x,z
when using vertex z as a reference for material accountancy, kg·s−1
Wti,j The weight per unit length of the ith pipeline of the cluster j, kg·m−1
xe The solution vector in the hypergraph
Greek letters
Heat transfer coefficient between the outer surface of the insulation and the
ε
atmosphere, W·m−2 ·K−1
E
ζ i,j The local resistance coefficient at the standard elbows (90◦ )
Elbow
ζ i,j The local resistance coefficient of the ith pipeline of the cluster j
ζ i,j The resistance coefficient of the ith pipeline of the cluster j
η The efficiency of the conveying equipment
The thermal conductivity of insulating material products at average
λ
temperature, W·m−1 ·K−1
ξi The index used to determine which heat source consumer i is assigned to
ρ The density of the steam, kg·m−3
σ The friction coefficient of the pipeline
Φ The empty set

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