Lab#1 - Tensile Test Handout

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TENSION TEST

1. OBJECT
The purpose of this experiment is to understand the uniaxial tensile testing and provide knowledge of
the application of the tensile test machine.

2. INTRODUCTION
Tensile testing is one of the simplest and most widely used mechanical tests. By measuring the force
required to elongate a specimen to breaking point, material properties can be determined that will
allow designers and quality managers to predict how materials and products will behave in
application.

3. THEORY
Tensile tests are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used in selecting
materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are included in material
specifications to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are measured during development of new
materials and processes, so that different materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile
properties often are used to predict the behavior of a material under forms of loading other than
uniaxial tension.
The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of interest may be measured in
terms of either the stress necessary to cause appreciable plastic deformation or the maximum stress
that the material can withstand. These measures of strength are used, with appropriate caution (in the
form of safety factors), in engineering design. Also of interest is the material’s ductility, which is a
measure of how much it can be deformed before it fractures. Rarely is ductility incorporated directly
in design; rather, it is included in material specifications to ensure quality and toughness. Low
ductility in a tensile test often is accompanied by low resistance to fracture under other forms of
loading. Elastic properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure
these properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by ultrasonic
techniques.

Engineering Stress is the ratio of applied force P and and cross section or force per area.

𝞼 is engineering stress
P is the external axial tensile load
𝐴0 is the original cross-sectional area
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There are three types of stresses seen in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. Types of the stresses

Engineering Strain is defined as extension per unit length.

Ɛ is the engineering strain


𝐿0 is the original length of the specimen
𝐿𝑓 is the final length of the specimen
An example of the engineering stress-strain curve for a typical engineering alloy is shown in Figure
2. From it some very important properties can be determined. The elastic modulus, the yield strength,
the ultimate tensile strength, and the fracture strain are all clearly exhibited in an accurately
constructed stress strain curve.
Figure 2. Stress-strain curve
True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the instantaneous
crosssectional area (Fig. 3).

T = P/Ai
True strain is the rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length (Fig.3). T

= ln (li/lo)

Figure 3. True Stress-strain curve

True stress-engineering stress relation: σT


= σ(ε + 1) True strain-engineering strain
relation: εT = ln (ε + 1)

Elastic region: The part of the stress-strain curve up to the yielding point. Elastic deformation is
recoverable. In the elastic region stress and strain are related to each other linearly. E is Modulus of
Elasticity or Young Modulus which is specific for each type of material.
Hooke’s Law: 𝜎 = 𝐸Ɛ

Plastic region: The part of the stress-strain diagram after the yielding point. At the yielding point,
the plastic deformation starts. Plastic deformation is permanent. At the maximum point of the stress-
strain diagram (𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆), necking starts.

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Ultimate Tensile Strength, 𝞼𝑼𝑻𝑺 is the maximum strength that material can withstand.

Yield Strength, 𝞼𝒀 is the stress level at which plastic deformation initiates. The beginning of first
plastic deformation is called yielding. 0,2% off-set method is a commonly used method to determine
the yield stength. 𝜎𝑌 (0.2%) is found by drawing a parallel line to the elastic region and the point at
which this line intersects with the stress-strain curve is set as the yielding point (Fig 4).

Figure 4. Stress-strain curve

Fracture Strength, 𝞼𝑭: After necking, plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases
accordingly until fracture.

Toughness: The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy in the process before
fracture is termed toughness. The emphasis of this definition should be placed on the ability to absorb
energy before fracture. Toughness of the different materials is seen in the Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. Toughness of the materials
Ductility is a measure of how much something deforms plastically before fracture, but just because
a material is ductile does not make it tough. The key to toughness is a good combination of strength
and ductility. A material with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a
material with low strength and high ductility. Ductility can be described with the percent elongation
or percent reduction in area.

(percent elongation)

(percent reduction in area)

Resilience: By considering the area under the stress-strain curve in the elastic region, this area
represents the stored elastic energy or resilience.

4. EXPERIMENTS TO BE PERFORMED

The test unit will be introduced in the laboratory before the experiment by the relevant assistant.
Tensile Specimens: Consider the typical tensile specimen shown in Fig. 6. It has enlarged ends or
shoulders for gripping. The important part of the specimen is the gage section. The cross-sectional
area of the gage section is reduced relative to that of the remainder of the specimen so that deformation
and failure will be localized in this region. The gage length is the region over which measurements
are made and is centered within the reduced section. The distances between the ends of the gage
section and the shoulders should be great enough so that the larger ends do not constrain deformation
within the gage section, and the gage length should be great relative to its diameter.
Otherwise, the stress state will be more complex than simple tension.

Figure 6. Test specimen

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Test machine: The most common testing machines are universal testers, which test materials in
tension, compression, or bending. Their primary function is to create the stress-strain curve. Testing
machines are either electromechanical or hydraulic. The principal difference is the method by which
the load is applied. Electromechanical machines are based on a variable-speed electric motor; a gear
reduction system; and one, two, or four screws that move the crosshead up or down. This motion
loads the specimen in tension or compression. Crosshead speeds can be changed by changing the
speed of the motor (Fig.7)

Figure 7. Tension test equipment


Procedure:

Sample Preparation:
The samples have already been prepared for you.

Tensile Testing:
1) Measure the specimen.
2) The specimen is placed inside the grips of the testing machine.
3) While the specimen is pulled in tension, the data acquisition software collects the load and
extension data from the testing machine.
4) The specimen is pulled to failure.
5) The final dimensions of the specimen are measured.

Experimental steps: Specimen is machined in the desired orientation and according to the standards.
Aluminum, steel or composite materials can be used as the specimen material mostly. Magnitude of
the load is chosen with respect to the tensile strength of the material. Specimen is fit to the test
machine. Maximum load is recorded during testing. After fracture of the material, final gage length
and diameter is measured. Diameter should be measured from the neck.
The necessary data for calculations will be recorded to the Table 1 given below.
Table 1. Data which is entered into the system
Measurement No: Steel
Force, P [N]
Specimen dimension, 𝑑0 [mm]
Length, 𝑙0 [mm]
Test speed, mm/dk

4.1 Results

Calculate the values given in Table 2.

Table 2. Results obtained from test data


Details Steel
*Maximum force, 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 [N]
*Final length, 𝑙𝑓 [mm]
*Final Diameter, 𝑑𝑓 [mm]
Final Cross sectional area, 𝐴𝑓 [𝑚𝑚2]
Young Modulus, E [GPa]
*Yield Strength, 𝜎𝑌, [MPa]
*Ultimate tensile strength, 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 [MPa]
*Fracture stress, 𝜎𝐹 [MPa]
% elongation
% area of reduction
(* it will be read during and after test)
The engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain curve plot is already given.
In addition answer the following questions,
1. Please explain the difference between a stress-strain curves in brittle, and ductile materials.

References
ANKARA YILDIRIM BEYAZIT ÜNİVERSİTESİ
ASM International, Tensile Testing, second edition.
www. mathalino.com / Engineering math review
www.nde-ed.org/ Nde research center www.azo.com/
Azo materials
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