MEASUREMENT AND ERROR

By. Syaefi Nurul Hikmah

1. Measurement
1.1 Definition
Measurement can be define as a process the amount, quantity and degree or capacity
physical parameter by comparison it with standard of reference system of units
employed.
All measures have a unit attached to them: inch, centimeter, dollar, liter, ohm, volt,
etc. In contrast, an indicator is an indirect measure or a predictor (such as a leading
Indicator) of performance.

Primary Variable Variable

Measured sensing conversion manipulating
medium element element element

Data
transmission
element
Data
Storage/
Me asured quantity Playback
Data
element
presentation
element

Data
observer

Figure 1.1 : Block Diagram Measurement Process

It involves connecting a measuring instrument into a system under consideration and

observing the resulting response on the instrument. The mesurement thus obtained is a
quantitative measure of the so-called true value. Since it is very difficult to define the
true value adequately, the expected value is used throughout the text.
For example, connecting a measuring instrument into the circuit under consideraton
always disturbs (changes) the circuit, causing the measurement to differ from the
expected value.
Elements of Measurement System.

i) Primary Sensing Element

This is the element that first receives energy from the measured medium and procedures
an output depending un some way on the measured quantity

(measured).

The putput is some physical variable e.g displacement or voltage. An instrument always
extract some energy from the measured medium. The measured quantity is always
 disturbed by the act of measurement, which makes a perfect theoritically impossible. Good
instruments are designed to minimize this loading effect.

ii) Variable Convertion Element

If may be necessary to convert the output signal of the primary sensing element to another
more suitable variable while preserving the information content of the original signal. This
element performs this function.

iii) Variable manipulation element

An instrument may require that a signal represented by some physical variable be
manipulated by some way.

By manipulation we mean specifically a change in numerical value according to some

definite rule but a preservation of the physical nature of the variable. This element
performs such a function.

iv) Data-Transmision Element

When functional elements of an instrument are actually physically seperated, it becomes
necessary to transmit the data from one to another. This element performs this function.
v) Data presentation element
If the information about the measured quantity is to be communicated to a human being
for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes, it must be put into a form recognizable by
one of the human senses. This element performs this ‘translation’ function.

vi) Data Storage/Playback Element

Some applications require a distinct data storage/playback which can easily recreate the
stored data upon command.

Note: A given instrument may involve the basic functions in any number, combination, or order. A
given physical componenet may serve several of the basic functions.
Quantity Symbol Unit Symbol
Length l meter m

Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
o
Temperature T kelvin K
Electric current I ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
Table 1: Base Units of Measurement
 Quantity Symbol Unit Unit Abbre.

Voltage (emf) V volt V

Charge Q coulomb C

Resistance R Ohm Ω

Capacitance C farad F

Inductance L henry H
Table 2 : Electrical Units

1.1.3 Terminology

i. Scale
Definition of device, or procedure used in arranging, measuring, or quantifying events,
objects, or phenomenon in any sequence. Scales may be broadly classified as

a) Category scale:
Sequence of numbers or words which only serve to identify certain entities or
observations and have no quantitative significance; for example, a numbered or named
list, or numbers on the uniforms of the members of a team. Also called nominal scale
or qualitative scale.

b) Interval scale:
Sequence of numbers in a fixed order representing amount, interval, or numeric
values; for example, a distance or temperature scale. Also called quantitative scale.

ii. Range
General definition : Universe of all realistic possibilities.

1.2 TYPE OF ERROR

Errors are generally categorized under the following three major types:

i. Gross error
This class of errors is generally the fault of the person using the instruments such as
incorrect reading of instruments, incorrect recording of experimental data or data
incorrect use of instruments.
 As long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will definitely commit. Although
complete eliminating of gross errors is probably impossible, one should try to avoid them.
The following actions may be necessary to reduce the effects of gross errors.

a) Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.

b) Two or more readings should be taken by different experimenters

ii. Systematic error

Systematical errors can be divided into four categories:

a) Instrumental Error
These errors arise due to main reasons:

i. Due to inherit shortcoming in the instruments (may be caused by the

construction, calibration or operation of mechanical structure in the
instruments).
ii. Due to misuse of the instruments. For example, these may be caused by
failure to adjust zero of the instruments.
iii. Due to loading effect of the instruments. These errors can be eliminated or
at least reduced by using the following methods:

a) The procedure of measurements must be carefully planned.

b) Correction factors should be applied after detection of these
errors.
c) Re-calibration the instrument carefully.
d) Use the instrument intelligently.

b) Observational Errors
i. Due to the types on instrument display, whether it is analog or digital.
ii. Due to parallax (eye should be directly in line with the measurement
point).

Note: These errors can be eliminated completely by using digital display instruments.

c) Environmental Errors
Due to conditions external to the measuring device such as the area, surrounding
the instrument. These conditions may be caused by the changes in pressure,
humidity, dust, vibration or external magnetic or electrostatic fields. These errors
can be eliminated or reduced by using corrective measure such as:

i. Keep the condition as constant as possible.

ii. Use instrument/equipment which is immune to these effects. iii.
Employ technique which eliminates these disturbances.
 d) Simplification Errors
Due to simplification of a formula: For example: A = B + C + D2.

If D is too small, then the formula is simplified to: A = B + C.

There will be a different result between the first and the second equation. In high accuracy
requirements, a formula should not be simplified to avoid these types of errors.

iii. Random error

In some experiments, the results shows variation from one to another, even after all
systematical and gross errors have been accounted for. The cases of these errors are not
recognized, therefore the elimination or reduction of these errors are not possible. When
these types of errors are occurred, the best result can be determined by statistical analysis.

1.2.1 Error in Measurement

Error of Measurement can be define difference between the actual value of a

quantity and the value obtained by a measurement. Repeating the measurement
will improve (reduce) the random error (caused by the accuracy limit of the
measuring instrument) but not the systemic error (caused by incorrect calibration
of the measuring instrument).

i. Absolute error

Can be defined as the difference between the expected value of the

variable and the measured value of the variable.

where
e = absolute error
Yn = expected value
Xn = measured value

e = Y n - Xn (Equation 1.1)

c) Relative error (Percent of Error)

To express the error as a percentage,

From equation 1.1 where , so

 (Equation 1.2)
or

(Equation 1.3)

Example 1

The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 50V; however, measurement yields a
value of 49V. Calculate a) The absolute error
b) The percent of error

Solution

a) e = Yn – Xn

= 50V – 49V
= 1V

b)

"

1.2.2 Characteristic of Measurement

a) Accuracy
The degree of exactness of a measurement compared to the expected value, or the most
probable value, of the variable being measured.
Accuracy expressed as

Percent accuracy, a = 100% - percentage of error

= A X 100% (Equaition 1.4)

b) Precision
 A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements. Precision can be
expressed as:

# # $%&$$&&%&&&&%& (Equation 1.5)

where : Xn = the value of the nth measurement.

&&&& = the average of the set of n
measurements.

c) Relative
It is frequently more desirable to express measurement in terms of relative accuracy rather
than error.

' #( )

(Equation 1.6)

Example 2
Refer the question at Example 1. Calculate a)
The relative accuracy

b) The percent of accuracy

Solution

+ ,-
*
+
+

. /0

* 1

/0
Example 3
The following set of ten measuremet was recorded in the liboratary. Calculate the precision of the
fourth measurement.

Measurement Measurement Value

Number Xn (volts)

i. 98
ii. 102 iii.
101 iv. 97
v. 100
vi. 103
vii. 98
viii. 106
ix.

107
x.

99

Solution:
The average value for the set of measdurements is equal to the sum of the measurements divided
by 10, which 101.1. The precision of the fourth measurement is

&&&&
## &&&&

-2

,
 . /3

c) Resolution
The smallest change in a measured variable to which a instrument will respond.

d) Significant figure
When making measurement or calculation, we retain only significant figures. Significant
figures are the figures, including zeroes and estimated figures, that have been obtained
from measuring instruments known to be trustworthy. The position of the decimal point
does ot affect the number of significant figures. However, if it actually represents a digit
read with an instrument.

Significant Figure Rules

• Non-zero digits are always significant.
• All zeros between other significant digits are significant.
• The number of significant figures is determined starting with the leftmost nonzero
digit. The leftmost non-zero digit is sometimes called the most significant digit or the
most significant figure. For example, in the number 0.004205 the '4' is the most
significant figure. The lefthand '0's are not significant. The zero between the '2' and
the '5' is significant.
• The rightmost digit of a decimal number is the least significant digit or least
significant figure. Another way to look at the least significant figure is to consider it
to be the rightmost digit when the number is written in scientific notation. Least
significant figures are still significant! In the number 0.004205 (which may be written
as 4.205 x 10-3), the '5' is the least significant figure. In the number 43.120 (which
may be written as 4.3210 x 101), the '0' is the least significant figure.
• If no decimal point is present, the rightmost non-zero digit is the least significant
figure. In the number 5800, the least significant figure is '8'.

Uncertainty in Calculations
Measured quantities are often used in calculations. The precision of the calculation is
limited by the precision of the measurements on which it is based.

Addition and Subtraction

When measured quantities are used in addition or subtraction, the uncertainty is
determined by the absolute uncertainty in the least precise measurement (not by the
number of significant figures). Sometimes this is considered to be the number of digits
after the decimal point.

Example 4

Have 3 value of measurement : 32.01 m , 5.325 m, 12 m. State the sum of value should be report.

Solution
When added together, the sum will get 49.335 m, but the sum should be reported as '49' meters.
Multiplication and Division
When experimental quantities are mutiplied or divided, the number of significant figures in
the result is the same as that in the quantity with the smallest number of significant
figures. If, for example, a density calculation is made in which 25.624 grams is divided by 25
mL, the density should be reported as 1.0 g/mL, not as 1.0000 g/mL or 1.000 g/mL.

Exact Numbers
Sometimes numbers used in a calculation are exact rather than approximate. This is true
when using defined quantities, including many conversion factors, and when using pure
numbers. Pure or defined numbers do not affect the accuracy of a calculation. You may
think of them as having an infinite number of significant figures. Pure numbers are easy to
spot because they have no units. Defined values or conversion factors, like measured
values, may have units. Practice identifying them!

Example 5:
You want to calculate the average height of three plants and measure the following heights:
30.1 cm, 25.2 cm, 31.3 cm; with an average height of (30.1 + 25.2 + 31.3)/3 = 86.6/3 = 28.87 = 28.9
cm. There are three significant figures in the heights. Even though you are dividing the sum by a
single digit, the three significant figures should be retained in the calculation.

Example 6
Three students weigh an item using different scales. These are the values they report: a.
20.03 g
b. 20.0 g
c. 0.2003 kg
How many significant figures should be assumed in each measurement?

Solution
a. 4.
b. 3. The zero after the decimal point is significant because it indicates that the item was weighed
to the nearest 0.1 g.
c. 4. The zeros at the left are not significant. They are only present because the mass was written
in kilograms rather than in grams. The values '20.03 g' and '0.02003 kg' represent the same
quantities.

In addition to the solution presented above, be advised that the correct answers to have been
obtained very quickly by expressing the masses in scientific (exponential) notation:

20.03 g = 2.003 x 101 g (4 significant figures)

20.0 g = 2.00 x 101 g (3 significant figures)
0.2003 kg = 2.003 x 10-1 kg (4 significant figures