Take-off for cleaner skies starts

now with SAF

Sustainable aviation fuel is the most promising pathway to decarbonisation, but
which routes are the most commercially advanced?

Milica Folic
Topsoe

G
lobally, 137 countries have pledged to collective aim, both renewable jet and e-Jet fuels
achieve carbon neutrality by, for the most are expected to overtake fossil jet fuel.
part, 2050. Governments and states Change has been coming for some time.
worldwide are taking measures to lower GHG Indeed, since 2008, airlines have been exploring
emissions through subsidies and legislation, the potential of SAF. However, so far, uptake
including the transportation sector, which has been slow, and by 2019 SAF accounted for
accounts for 14% of the world’s GHG emissions. just 0.1% of all fuel consumed by the aviation
With aviation responsible for 8% of the industry. In terms of ambition and tangible
transport sector’s emissions, there is no way action, it has only been the last year or so since
the industry can fly under the radar. Change is we have started seeing real change.
coming, and that means sustainable aviation In 2022 airlines bought every drop of SAF
fuel (SAF) will be under the spotlight, with available worldwide, test flights are being
projected demand of around 15 Mt in 2030 run partially or fully powered by SAF, and
and 200 Mt in 2050. Eventually, and as is our regulations reducing barriers to entry are

Pathway ASTM Annex Year of Feedstock options Current

approval blending
limits

Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene A1 2009 Coal, natural gas, 50%

(FT-SPK) biomass (syngas)
Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic A2 2011 Vegetable oils and fats, 50%
Paraffinic Kerosene (HEFA-SPK) animal fat, recycled oils
Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic A3 2014 Biomass used for 10%
lsoparaffins (HFS-SlP) sugar production
Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene D7556 A4 2015 Coal, natural gas, 50%
with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A) biomass
Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK) A5 2016 Ethanol or isobutanol 50%
Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Synthesized Kerosene A6 2020 Triglyceride-based 50%
(CH-SK, or CHJ) feedstocks
Hydroprocessed Hydrocarbons, Esters and Fatty A7 2020 Triterpenes produced 10%
Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HHC-SPK by the Botryococcus
or HC-HEFA-SPK) braunii species of algae

Table 1

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Pathway ASTM Annex Year of Feedstock options Current
approval blending
limits
Co-processing of mono-, di-, and triglycerides, A1.2.2.1 2018 Mono-, di-, and triglycerides, free
free fatty acids, and fatty acid esters fatty acids, and fatty acid esters 5%
D1655 (feed)
Co-processing of hydrocarbons derived from A1 .2.2.2 2020 Fischer-Tropsch hydrocarbons
synthesis gas via Fischer-Tropsch process
using iron or cobalt catalyst

Table 2

anticipated to come into effect. All of which is of fossil and renewable feedstocks, means
great news for efforts to decarbonise aviation. you can use existing refining, transport, and
storage facilities. This, in turn, makes it possible
Routes to SAF certification to convert renewable feedstocks into drop-in,
Aircraft flying around the world will be fuelled ultra-low sulphur renewable jet or e-Jet fuel at
at different airports in different countries, economically competitive prices.
making international fuel specifications for SAF
a necessity. According to the International Civil Topsoe routes to SAF
Aviation Organisation (ICAO), there are currently At Topsoe, we have identified the main routes
59 airports worldwide distributing SAF. Europe we consider to be the most commercially
and the US are the main hubs, with ongoing advanced. Firstly, we have HydroFlex, which
deliveries also occurring in Malaysia, Japan, New offers full feedstock flexibility whatever raw
Zealand, and at China’s Tianjin Airport. material you choose to work with. Since no two
We already see current specifications ensuring refineries or feedstock supply chains are the
that today’s engines and aircraft do not have to same, we have tailored our approach to make
be redesigned to run on SAF, thus making the HydroFlex as dynamic as possible. This means
transition even more achievable. At present, more businesses will have the opportunity to
the focus is on SAF as a drop-in replacement use this type of SAF.
to conventional jet fuel. Moreover, with current This technology utilises Topsoe’s
ASTM standards excluding the use of pure SAF hydroprocessing expertise to enable the
in aircraft, a 50% blend is most common, with a processing of virgin oils, waste oils and
maximum 10% blend available in some cases. fats, solid biomass, and plastic waste/
There are currently seven approved technology tyres into HEFA-based SAF with minimal
pathways to producing drop-in SAF (see Table Carbon Intensity (CI) compared to traditional
1). Co-processing, as seen in Table 2, is another kerosene aviation fuel. Regardless of the type
option for decarbonising aviation and meeting or quality of renewable feedstock used, the
the criteria for the Standard Specification for outcome is consistently high-grade, clean fuel.
Aviation Turbine Fuels (D1655). Co-processing, HydroFlex also has a high number of operating
which involves the simultaneous processing references, offers versatile process design and

Syngas Fischer- Product

generation Tropsch Waxy upgrade
Topsoe’s Syngas conversion syncrude Topsoe’s
Syncor Sasol’s hydroprocessing
reforming LTFT and hydrogen
technology technology technologies

Figure 1 How G2L works

66
 H2

Renewable Electrolysis Syngas FT fuels

electricity

CO2 eRWGS e-Jet

FT synthesis Hydroprocessing e-Diesel
CO2
CO2 e-Naphtha
Atmosphere/
Carbon capture
point source

Figure 2 How the G2L e-Fuels solution works

hardware, and comes with a comprehensive feedstocks. There are many reasons for this, not
range of proprietary catalysts for renewable least because other segments and industries
fuel production. are pursuing the same feedstocks for different
Gasified waste could be an alternative purposes, like road transport, marine fuel, and
source of choice, in which a producer takes petrochemicals. For example, producing SAF
the synthetic- and gas-based route with G2L from waste oils is the most technically mature
Biofuels (Gas-to-Liquid). This commercially SAF conversion pathway. However, waste oils
proven technology utilises Topsoe’s are highly resource-constrained and are already
hydroprocessing technologies and Sasol’s LTFT largely consumed by the road sector. This could
(low temperature Fischer-Tropsch) technology become a seriously limiting factor in our journey
to produce Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic to decarbonising aviation.
Kerosene (FT-SPK) (see Figure 1). But what does this have to do with legislation?
Further, we have G2L e-Fuels, which allows The use of feedstocks, in particular first-
e-Fuels to be produced from green hydrogen generation renewable feedstocks, is highly
(stemming from renewable electricity and regulated in some parts of the world, like the EU,
electrolysis) and CO₂ via carbon capture. By with direct implications for the biofuel production
required to supply mandated volumes. The
International Council on Clean Transportation
With innovative technologies and (ICCT) estimates that there is a resource base to
cutting-edge knowledge enabling meet approximately 5.5% of the EU’s projected
the upgrading of advanced feed- 2030 jet fuel demand using advanced SAF – SAF
stocks, fuel production is at the that could be made from solid biomass waste,
centre of the global transition rotational crops, or recycled carbon. However, if
the EU adopts weaker incentives, they estimate
a maximum advanced SAF deployment of only
combining synthesis gas, Fischer-Tropsch and 1.9% of the projected 2030 EU jet fuel demand.
hydroprocessing technologies, the G2L e-Fuels Regardless, SAF capacity derived from first- and
solution efficiently produces FT-SPK/e-Jet and second-generation feedstocks will not be enough
green naphtha (see Figure 2). This technology to help the whole world fly sustainably.
results in an overall carbon efficiency of 95%+.
Inbound: advanced feedstocks
Feedstock availability can cause turbulence But a third generation of feedstocks is coming:
SAF can be produced from various renewable advanced solid waste feedstocks that can be
feedstocks, including vegetable oils, waste derived from solid biomass waste, rotational
oils and fats, solid biogenic waste, industrial crops, and recycled carbon.
flue gases, CO₂, renewable electricity, and Processes for working with solid waste
water. As the market for and production of feedstocks naturally differ from those applied
SAF increases, so will the need for suitable to first- and second-generation feedstocks –

68 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
the principal divergence being solid-to-liquid companies take SAF seriously as the key way
conversion. And while the technologies for this to reach their net-zero goals, annual production
conversion process are almost ready and the capacity could be anywhere between 2.6 and 7.6
knowledge is there, strict aviation regulations billion gallons (8-23 million tonnes) by 2026.
mean these processes still need approval.
Solid waste feedstocks are a much more Collaboration is key
abundant resource than previous generations We can see the effort being made by refineries,
and will remain so for years. It is estimated that OEMs, airlines, government bodies, and more
annual worldwide municipal solid waste, a source to propel us to decarbonise aviation. Co-
of biomass material, will reach approximately operation of this scale has never been witnessed
3.4 billion tonnes by 2050, in part due to rapid in aviation’s history. COP27 reinforced the
urbanisation and rising global populations. importance of collaboration on a global platform.
Although in its earlier stages of development, it is Such collaboration will be the final piece in
clear that maximising solid waste feedstock will our SAF puzzle, enabling us to push for more
be key to decarbonising aviation. Let us now look legislation, greater feedstock availability, and
to the future of feedstocks. commercialisation.
HydroFlex and G2L are trademarks of Topsoe. LTFT is a
Boundless opportunities
trademark of Sasol.
There is no doubt that the demand for SAF will
keep growing. It is predicted to reach 7 billion
gallons (21 million tonnes) by 2030, which is
Milica Folic
the equivalent to 5% of global jet fuel demand. [email protected]
With innovative technologies and cutting-edge
knowledge enabling the upgrading of advanced
feedstocks, fuel production is at the centre of the LINKS
global transition. Forward-thinking businesses More articles from the following categories:
will capture this by moving into new, advanced Marine, Aviation & Transportation Fuels
feedstocks while the opportunity is ripe. If

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