METHODS OF

PHILOPHIZING
❑Knowledge- awareness, and
understanding of something or situation
acquired by experience
❑Claim- a statement which requires
examination. Sometimes doubtful
❑ Fact-a statement or proposition which is
observed and experienced to be to true or
truthful. It is proven and had pieces of
evidence
❑Truth- a fact that has been verified and in
accordance or correspond with reality.
Anu ang pag
kakaiba ng
totoo at
katotohan?
RELIATY are the things that
actually exists
• Fire is hot = FACT!

• Your experience on fire (Hot

or cold) =REALITY
• The totality of all
experiences about what is
fire. = TRUTH!
• The lyrics & notes are FACT!
• The sounds, rhythm, &your
reaction/attitude towards
the music is the REALITY
• How the music affects
you is TRUTH!
A. Phenomenology: On
Consciousness
 Edmund Husserl
 Founder of Phenomenology
 From the Greek word phainómenon – “appearance”
 focuses on careful inspection and description of phenomena or
appearances
 Scientific study of the essential structures (basic) of consciousness
 Consciousness as intentional
Steps in Phenomenological Method

1. Epoche or “Suspension”
 “brackets” all questions of truth or reality
 Simply describes the content of consciousness
 Suspension of prejudices and biases
2. Phenomenological Eidetic Reduction
 From the Greek word eidos - essence
 Essence of the experience
3. Phenomenological Transcendental Reduction
 reduce the phenomena to the very activity itself of one’s consciousness
B. Existentialism: On Freedom

 Soren Kierkegaard
 First existentialist
 Authentic self as chosen self
 Jean-Paul Sarte
 Emphasized the importance of free individual choice regardless of power of
influences
 Consciousness (being-for-itself) → Free to choose, but not free not to choose →
free to “negate” or reject
 Authenticity
 Being “true to oneself”
 Genuineness of thoughts and actions or “good of one’s soul”
 Inauthenticity
 Giving in to the demands of desire and the body
C. Postmodernism: On Cultures

 Philosophy of many cultures

 Humanity…
 should come at truth beyond the rational elements of human nature
(including spiritual)
 Should realize the limits of reason and objectivism
 Relational, holistic approach
 Relationship of existence
D. Analytic Tradition

 Language cannot objectively describe truth

 It is socially conditioned
 Therefore, truth itself is socially conditioned
 Philosophical problems rooted in language
E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in
Reasoning

 Logic – analysis and construction of arguments

 Critical Thinking – distinguishing facts from opinions

 Suspension of beliefs and judgments until all facts have been

gathered and considered

 Types of Reasoning
 Inductive – specific to general
 Deductive – general to specific
Validity and Soundness of an
Argument
 Validity comes from a logical conclusion based on logically
constructed premises
 Syllogism (example) of Inductive Reasoning

Keith is smart Major premise

Keith reads books Minor premise
Therefore, all people who read Conclusion
books are smart
Strength of an Argument

 An argument which has probable support has a strong argument.

F. Fallacies

 A defect in an argument other than its having false premises

Usually committed errors in
Reasoning
 Appeal to pity  Attacking the personal characteristics
and/or beliefs of the person
 Exploiting of feelings of pity or guilt
 Appeal to force
 Appeal to ignorance
 Force is given as justification for a
 Innocent until proven guilty conclusion
 Equivocation  Appeal to the people
 Logical chain of reasoning of a term or  Exploits people’s vanities, and anchoring
word several times, but giving the on popularity
particular word a different meaning
 False cause
 e.g. baseball pitcher vs pitcher of water
 Coincidental correlation
 Composition
 Hasty generalization
 True as a whole
 Broad conclusion without sufficient
 Division representation
 True to only some parts  Begging the question
 Against the Person  Implicit/explicit proposition
Philosophy: The Subject of
Questions
Three Major Characteristics
1. Questions have answers; but they may be disputed
2. Questions cannot be settled by science, common sense, or faith
3. Questions are of perennial intellectual interest
Process of Critical Thinking

 Defining, analyzing, and devising solutions

 Arriving at reasonable and informed conclusions
 Applying understanding and knowledge to new and different
problems
 Willingness to change one point of view
 Continually examining and re-examining ideas
 Willingness to say “I don’t know”
Attributes of a Critical Thinker

 Looks for evidence to support assumptions and beliefs

 Adjusts opinions
 Looks for proof
 Examines problems
 Rejects irrelevant and incorrect information
THEORIES OF
TRUTH
• Correspondence- anything the
corresponds(agreement/match) to
facts/reality are true
• Coherence
• anything the coheres(magkaugnay) to
facts/reality/set of knowledge are true
• Pragmatic
• Anything that is useful and has consequences
or predictive patterns to facts/reality are true
Premise 1: Premise 2: Conclusion:
Lighten visible Many confirm Kojic soap are
sun damage, its effectivity effective to
age spots, or lighten the skin
scars. etc.
3 PERSPECTIVE
OF TRUTHS
• Personal Truth- A beliefs is true if it
can be justified or proven through
one’s senses
• Objective Truth-A belief based from
facts
• Social Truth- Getting a consensus or
having people agree on common
belief
METHODS OF
PHILOPHIZING
Scientific Method
Is process of
determining truth
through
experimentation,
hypothesis testing
and empirical
evidences.
SOCRATIC Method DIALECTIC Method
Elenchus Dialektike
Didactic dialogue- Discourse between 2
critical examination or more people
in arriving truth not to holding different
convey new truth views
Known by Socrates Known by Hegel
 Ask question &
facilitate discussions
Socrates
“All I know is
nothing” Active agents in
knowing what is truth

“The more we know

the more we don’t
know”
 Dog is a four leg
animal.

Is this a dog?

Dog is a four leg animal, domestic

pet and typically braking
thesis antithesis

Synthesis

thesis antithesis

Synthesis

thesis antithesis

Synthesis