Integrated circuit

An integrated circuit or monolithic

integrated circuit (also referred to as an
IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of
electronic circuits on one small flat piece
(or "chip") of semiconductor material,
usually silicon. Large numbers of
miniaturized transistors and other
electronic components are integrated
together on the chip. This results in circuits
that are orders of magnitude smaller,
faster, and less expensive than those
constructed of discrete components,
allowing a large transistor count. The IC's
mass production capability, reliability, and
building-block approach to integrated
circuit design have ensured the rapid
adoption of standardized ICs in place of
designs using discrete transistors. ICs are
now used in virtually all electronic
equipment and have revolutionized the
world of electronics. Computers, mobile
phones and other home appliances are
now essential parts of the structure of
modern societies, made possible by the
small size and low cost of ICs such as
modern computer processors and
microcontrollers.

A microscope image of an integrated

circuit die used to control LCDs. The
pinouts are the black circles
surrounding the integrated circuit.

Very-large-scale integration was made

practical by technological advancements
in semiconductor device fabrication. Since
their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed,
and capacity of chips have progressed
enormously, driven by technical advances
that fit more and more transistors on chips
of the same size – a modern chip may
have many billions of transistors in an area
the size of a human fingernail. These
advances, roughly following Moore's law,
make the computer chips of today
possess millions of times the capacity and
thousands of times the speed of the
computer chips of the early 1970s.

ICs have three main advantages over

discrete circuits: size, cost and
performance. The size and cost is low
because the chips, with all their
components, are printed as a unit by
photolithography rather than being
constructed one transistor at a time.
Furthermore, packaged ICs use much less
material than discrete circuits.
Performance is high because the IC's
components switch quickly and consume
comparatively little power because of their
small size and proximity. The main
disadvantage of ICs is the high initial cost
of designing them and the enormous
capital cost of factory construction. This
high initial cost means ICs are only
commercially viable when high production
volumes are anticipated.

Terminology
An integrated circuit is defined as:[1]
 A circuit in which all or some of
the circuit elements are
inseparably associated and
electrically interconnected so
that it is considered to be
indivisible for the purposes of
construction and commerce.

In strict usage integrated circuit refers to

the single-piece circuit construction
originally known as a monolithic integrated
circuit, built on a single piece of silicon.[2][3]
In general usage, circuits not meeting this
strict definition are sometimes referred to
as ICs, which are constructed using many
different technologies, e.g. 3D IC, 2.5D IC,
MCM, thin-film transistors, thick-film
technologies, or hybrid integrated circuits.
The choice of terminology frequently
appears in discussions related to whether
Moore's Law is obsolete.

Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit.

The world's first IC. Made from
germanium with gold-wire
interconnects.

History
An early attempt at combining several
components in one device (like modern
ICs) was the Loewe 3NF vacuum tube
from the 1920s. Unlike ICs, it was
designed with the purpose of tax
avoidance, as in Germany, radio receivers
had a tax that was levied depending on
how many tube holders a radio receiver
had. It allowed radio receivers to have a
single tube holder.

Early concepts of an integrated circuit go

back to 1949, when German engineer
Werner Jacobi[4] (Siemens AG)[5] filed a
patent for an integrated-circuit-like
semiconductor amplifying device[6]
showing five transistors on a common
substrate in a three-stage amplifier
arrangement. Jacobi disclosed small and
cheap hearing aids as typical industrial
applications of his patent. An immediate
commercial use of his patent has not been
reported.

Another early proponent of the concept

was Geoffrey Dummer (1909–2002), a
radar scientist working for the Royal Radar
Establishment of the British Ministry of
Defence. Dummer presented the idea to
the public at the Symposium on Progress
in Quality Electronic Components in
Washington, D.C., on 7 May 1952.[7] He
gave many symposia publicly to propagate
his ideas and unsuccessfully attempted to
build such a circuit in 1956. Between 1953
and 1957, Sidney Darlington and Yasuo
Tarui (Electrotechnical Laboratory)
proposed similar chip designs where
several transistors could share a common
active area, but there was no electrical
isolation to separate them from each
other.[4]

The monolithic integrated circuit chip was

enabled by the inventions of the planar
process by Jean Hoerni and p–n junction
isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's
invention was built on Mohamed M.
Atalla's work on surface passivation, as
well as Fuller and Ditzenberger's work on
the diffusion of boron and phosphorus
impurities into silicon, Carl Frosch and
Lincoln Derick's work on surface
protection, and Chih-Tang Sah's work on
diffusion masking by the oxide.[8]

The first integrated circuits

Robert Noyce invented the first

monolithic integrated circuit in 1959.
The chip was made from silicon.

A precursor idea to the IC was to create

small ceramic substrates (so-called
micromodules),[9] each containing a single
miniaturized component. Components
could then be integrated and wired into a
bidimensional or tridimensional compact
grid. This idea, which seemed very
promising in 1957, was proposed to the US
Army by Jack Kilby[9] and led to the short-
lived Micromodule Program (similar to
1951's Project Tinkertoy).[9][10][11] However,
as the project was gaining momentum,
Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary
design: the IC.

Newly employed by Texas Instruments,

Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning
the integrated circuit in July 1958,
successfully demonstrating the first
working example of an integrated circuit
on 12 September 1958.[12] In his patent
application of 6 February 1959,[13] Kilby
described his new device as "a body of
semiconductor material … wherein all the
components of the electronic circuit are
completely integrated".[14] The first
customer for the new invention was the US
Air Force.[15] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel
Prize in physics for his part in the invention
of the integrated circuit.[16]

However, Kilby's invention was not a true

monolithic integrated circuit chip since it
had external gold-wire connections, which
would have made it difficult to mass-
produce.[17] Half a year after Kilby, Robert
Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented
the first true monolithic IC chip.[18][17] More
practical than Kilby's implementation,
Noyce's chip was made of silicon, whereas
Kilby's was made of germanium, and
Noyce's was fabricated using the planar
process, developed in early 1959 by his
colleague Jean Hoerni and included the
critical on-chip aluminum interconnecting
lines. Modern IC chips are based on
Noyce's monolithic IC,[18][17] rather than
Kilby's.

NASA's Apollo Program was the largest

single consumer of integrated circuits
between 1961 and 1965.[19]
TTL integrated circuits

Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was

developed by James L. Buie in the early
1960s at TRW Inc. TTL became the
dominant integrated circuit technology
during the 1970s to early 1980s.[20]

Dozens of TTL integrated circuits were a

standard method of construction for the
processors of minicomputers and
mainframe computers. Computers such as
IBM 360 mainframes, PDP-11
minicomputers and the desktop Datapoint
2200 were built from bipolar integrated
circuits,[21] either TTL or the even faster
emitter-coupled logic (ECL).

MOS integrated circuits

Nearly all modern IC chips are metal–

oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated
circuits, built from MOSFETs (metal–
oxide–silicon field-effect transistors).[22]
The MOSFET (also known as the MOS
transistor), which was invented by
Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at
Bell Labs in 1959,[23] made it possible to
build high-density integrated circuits.[24] In
contrast to bipolar transistors which
required a number of steps for the p–n
junction isolation of transistors on a chip,
MOSFETs required no such steps but
could be easily isolated from each
other.[25] Its advantage for integrated
circuits was pointed out by Dawon Kahng
in 1961.[26] The list of IEEE milestones
includes the first integrated circuit by Kilby
in 1958,[27] Hoerni's planar process and
Noyce's planar IC in 1959, and the MOSFET
by Atalla and Kahng in 1959.[28]

The earliest experimental MOS IC to be

fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by
Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA
in 1962.[29] General Microelectronics later
introduced the first commercial MOS
integrated circuit in 1964,[30] a 120-
transistor shift register developed by
Robert Norman.[29] By 1964, MOS chips
had reached higher transistor density and
lower manufacturing costs than bipolar
chips. MOS chips further increased in
complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's
law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI)
with hundreds of transistors on a single
MOS chip by the late 1960s.[31]

Following the development of the self-

aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET by
Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John
Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967,[32] the first
silicon-gate MOS IC technology with self-
aligned gates, the basis of all modern
CMOS integrated circuits, was developed
at Fairchild Semiconductor by Federico
Faggin in 1968.[33] The application of MOS
LSI chips to computing was the basis for
the first microprocessors, as engineers
began recognizing that a complete
computer processor could be contained
on a single MOS LSI chip. This led to the
inventions of the microprocessor and the
microcontroller by the early 1970s.[31]
During the early 1970s, MOS integrated
circuit technology enabled the very large-
scale integration (VLSI) of more than
10,000 transistors on a single chip.[34]
At first, MOS-based computers only made
sense when high density was required,
such as aerospace and pocket
calculators. Computers built entirely from
TTL, such as the 1970 Datapoint 2200,
were much faster and more powerful than
single-chip MOS microprocessors such as
the 1972 Intel 8008 until the early
1980s.[21]

Advances in IC technology, primarily

smaller features and larger chips, have
allowed the number of MOS transistors in
an integrated circuit to double every two
years, a trend known as Moore's law.
Moore originally stated it would double
every year, but he went on to change the
claim to every two years in 1975.[35] This
increased capacity has been used to
decrease cost and increase functionality.
In general, as the feature size shrinks,
almost every aspect of an IC's operation
improves. The cost per transistor and the
switching power consumption per
transistor goes down, while the memory
capacity and speed go up, through the
relationships defined by Dennard scaling
(MOSFET scaling).[36] Because speed,
capacity, and power consumption gains
are apparent to the end user, there is fierce
competition among the manufacturers to
use finer geometries. Over the years,
transistor sizes have decreased from tens
of microns in the early 1970s to 10
nanometers in 2017[37] with a
corresponding million-fold increase in
transistors per unit area. As of 2016,
typical chip areas range from a few square
millimeters to around 600 mm2, with up to
25 million transistors per mm2.[38]

The expected shrinking of feature sizes

and the needed progress in related areas
was forecast for many years by the
International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors (ITRS). The final ITRS was
issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by
the International Roadmap for Devices and
Systems.[39]

Initially, ICs were strictly electronic

devices. The success of ICs has led to the
integration of other technologies, in an
attempt to obtain the same advantages of
small size and low cost. These
technologies include mechanical devices,
optics, and sensors.

Charge-coupled devices, and the closely

related active-pixel sensors, are chips
that are sensitive to light. They have
largely replaced photographic film in
scientific, medical, and consumer
applications. Billions of these devices
are now produced each year for
applications such as cellphones, tablets,
and digital cameras. This sub-field of
ICs won the Nobel Prize in 2009.[40]
Very small mechanical devices driven by
electricity can be integrated onto chips,
a technology known as
microelectromechanical systems. These
devices were developed in the late
1980s[41] and are used in a variety of
commercial and military applications.
Examples include DLP projectors, inkjet
printers, and accelerometers and MEMS
gyroscopes used to deploy automobile
airbags.
Since the early 2000s, the integration of
optical functionality (optical computing)
into silicon chips has been actively
pursued in both academic research and
in industry resulting in the successful
commercialization of silicon based
integrated optical transceivers
combining optical devices (modulators,
detectors, routing) with CMOS based
electronics.[42] Photonic integrated
circuits that use light such as
Lightelligence’s PACE (Photonic
Arithmetic Computing Engine) also being
 developed, using the emerging field of
physics known as photonics.[43]
Integrated circuits are also being
developed for sensor applications in
medical implants or other bioelectronic
devices.[44] Special sealing techniques
have to be applied in such biogenic
environments to avoid corrosion or
biodegradation of the exposed
semiconductor materials.[45]

As of 2018, the vast majority of all

transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a
single layer on one side of a chip of silicon
in a flat two-dimensional planar process.
Researchers have produced prototypes of
several promising alternatives, such as:

various approaches to stacking several

layers of transistors to make a three-
dimensional integrated circuit (3DIC),
such as through-silicon via, "monolithic
3D",[46] stacked wire bonding,[47] and
other methodologies.
transistors built from other materials:
graphene transistors, molybdenite
transistors, carbon nanotube field-effect
transistor, gallium nitride transistor,
transistor-like nanowire electronic
devices, organic field-effect transistor,
etc.
 fabricating transistors over the entire
surface of a small sphere of
silicon.[48][49]
modifications to the substrate, typically
to make "flexible transistors" for a
flexible display or other flexible
electronics, possibly leading to a roll-
away computer.

As it becomes more difficult to

manufacture ever smaller transistors,
companies are using multi-chip modules,
three-dimensional integrated circuits,
package on package, High Bandwidth
Memory and through-silicon vias with die
stacking to increase performance and
reduce size, without having to reduce the
size of the transistors. Such techniques
are collectively known as advanced
packaging.[50] Advanced packaging is
mainly divided into 2.5D and 3D packaging.
2.5D describes approaches such as multi-
chip modules while 3D describes
approaches where dies are stacked in one
way or another, such as package on
package and high bandwidth memory. All
approaches involve 2 or more dies in a
single package.[51][52][53][54][55] Alternatively,
approaches such as 3D NAND stack
multiple layers on a single die.
Design

Virtual detail of an integrated circuit

through four layers of planarized
copper interconnect, down to the
polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and
substrate (green)

The cost of designing and developing a

complex integrated circuit is quite high,
normally in the multiple tens of millions of
dollars.[56][57] Therefore, it only makes
economic sense to produce integrated
circuit products with high production
volume, so the non-recurring engineering
(NRE) costs are spread across typically
millions of production units.
Modern semiconductor chips have billions
of components, and are far too complex to
be designed by hand. Software tools to
help the designer are essential. Electronic
design automation (EDA), also referred to
as electronic computer-aided design
(ECAD),[58] is a category of software tools
for designing electronic systems, including
integrated circuits. The tools work
together in a design flow that engineers
use to design, verify, and analyze entire
semiconductor chips. Some of the latest
EDA tools use artificial intelligence (AI) to
help engineers save time and improve chip
performance.
Types

A-to-D converter IC in a DIP

Integrated circuits can be broadly

classified into analog,[59] digital[60] and
mixed signal,[61] consisting of analog and
digital signaling on the same IC.

Digital integrated circuits can contain

billions[38] of logic gates, flip-flops,
multiplexers, and other circuits in a few
square millimeters. The small size of these
circuits allows high speed, low power
dissipation, and reduced manufacturing
cost compared with board-level
integration. These digital ICs, typically
microprocessors, DSPs, and
microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to
process "one" and "zero" signals.

The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit

NMOS microcontroller that includes a
CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of
RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in
the same chip

Among the most advanced integrated

circuits are the microprocessors or "cores",
used in personal computers, cell-phones,
microwave ovens, etc. Several cores may
be integrated together in a single IC or
chip. Digital memory chips and
application-specific integrated circuits
(ASICs) are examples of other families of
integrated circuits.

In the 1980s, programmable logic devices

were developed. These devices contain
circuits whose logical function and
connectivity can be programmed by the
user, rather than being fixed by the
integrated circuit manufacturer. This
allows a chip to be programmed to do
various LSI-type functions such as logic
gates, adders and registers.
Programmability comes in various forms –
devices that can be programmed only
once, devices that can be erased and then
re-programmed using UV light, devices that
can be (re)programmed using flash
memory, and field-programmable gate
arrays (FPGAs) which can be programmed
at any time, including during operation.
Current FPGAs can (as of 2016) implement
the equivalent of millions of gates and
operate at frequencies up to 1 GHz.[62]

Analog ICs, such as sensors, power

management circuits, and operational
amplifiers (op-amps), process continuous
signals, and perform analog functions
such as amplification, active filtering,
demodulation, and mixing.

ICs can combine analog and digital circuits

on a chip to create functions such as
analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-
analog converters. Such mixed-signal
circuits offer smaller size and lower cost,
but must account for signal interference.
Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be
fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS
processes as microprocessors. But since
1998, radio chips have been developed
using RF CMOS processes. Examples
include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or
802.11 (Wi-Fi) chips created by Atheros
and other companies.[63]

Modern electronic component distributors

often further sub-categorize integrated
circuits:

Digital ICs are categorized as logic ICs

(such as microprocessors and
microcontrollers), memory chips (such
as MOS memory and floating-gate
memory), interface ICs (level shifters,
serializer/deserializer, etc.), power
management ICs, and programmable
devices.
Analog ICs are categorized as linear
integrated circuits and RF circuits (radio
frequency circuits).
Mixed-signal integrated circuits are
categorized as data acquisition ICs
(including A/D converters, D/A
converters, digital potentiometers),
clock/timing ICs, switched capacitor
(SC) circuits, and RF CMOS circuits.
Three-dimensional integrated circuits
(3D ICs) are categorized into through-
silicon via (TSV) ICs and Cu-Cu
connection ICs.
Manufacturing

Fabrication

Rendering of a small standard cell

with three metal layers (dielectric has
been removed). The sand-colored
structures are metal interconnect, with
the vertical pillars being contacts,
typically plugs of tungsten. The
reddish structures are polysilicon
gates, and the solid at the bottom is
the crystalline silicon bulk.
 Schematic structure of a CMOS chip,
as built in the early 2000s. The graphic
shows LDD-MISFET's on an SOI
substrate with five metallization layers
and solder bump for flip-chip
bonding. It also shows the section for
FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL (back-
end of line) and first parts of back-
end process.

The semiconductors of the periodic table

of the chemical elements were identified
as the most likely materials for a solid-
state vacuum tube. Starting with copper
oxide, proceeding to germanium, then
silicon, the materials were systematically
studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today,
monocrystalline silicon is the main
substrate used for ICs although some III-V
compounds of the periodic table such as
gallium arsenide are used for specialized
applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells
and the highest-speed integrated circuits.
It took decades to perfect methods of
creating crystals with minimal defects in
semiconducting materials' crystal
structure.

Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a

planar process which includes three key
process steps – photolithography,
deposition (such as chemical vapor
deposition), and etching. The main
process steps are supplemented by
doping and cleaning. More recent or high-
performance ICs may instead use multi-
gate FinFET or GAAFET transistors instead
of planar ones, starting at the 22 nm node
(Intel) or 16/14 nm nodes.[64]

Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in

most applications (or for special
applications, other semiconductors such
as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer
need not be entirely silicon.
Photolithography is used to mark different
areas of the substrate to be doped or to
have polysilicon, insulators or metal
(typically aluminium or copper) tracks
deposited on them. Dopants are impurities
intentionally introduced to a
semiconductor to modulate its electronic
properties. Doping is the process of
adding dopants to a semiconductor
material.

Integrated circuits are composed of

many overlapping layers, each defined
by photolithography, and normally
shown in different colors. Some layers
mark where various dopants are
diffused into the substrate (called
diffusion layers), some define where
additional ions are implanted (implant
layers), some define the conductors
(doped polysilicon or metal layers), and
some define the connections between
the conducting layers (via or contact
layers). All components are constructed
from a specific combination of these
layers.
In a self-aligned CMOS process, a
transistor is formed wherever the gate
layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a
diffusion layer (this is called "the self-
aligned gate").[65]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1)
Capacitive structures, in form very much
like the parallel conducting plates of a
traditional electrical capacitor, are
formed according to the area of the
 "plates", with insulating material
between the plates. Capacitors of a
wide range of sizes are common on ICs.
Meandering stripes of varying lengths
are sometimes used to form on-chip
resistors, though most logic circuits do
not need any resistors. The ratio of the
length of the resistive structure to its
width, combined with its sheet resistivity,
determines the resistance.
More rarely, inductive structures can be
built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated
by gyrators.

Since a CMOS device only draws current

on the transition between logic states,
CMOS devices consume much less current
than bipolar junction transistor devices.

A random-access memory is the most

regular type of integrated circuit; the
highest density devices are thus
memories; but even a microprocessor will
have memory on the chip. (See the regular
array structure at the bottom of the first
image.) Although the structures are
intricate – with widths which have been
shrinking for decades – the layers remain
much thinner than the device widths. The
layers of material are fabricated much like
a photographic process, although light
waves in the visible spectrum cannot be
used to "expose" a layer of material, as
they would be too large for the features.
Thus photons of higher frequencies
(typically ultraviolet) are used to create the
patterns for each layer. Because each
feature is so small, electron microscopes
are essential tools for a process engineer
who might be debugging a fabrication
process.

Each device is tested before packaging

using automated test equipment (ATE), in
a process known as wafer testing, or
wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into
rectangular blocks, each of which is called
a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or
die) is then connected into a package
using aluminium (or gold) bond wires
which are thermosonically bonded[66] to
pads, usually found around the edge of the
die. Thermosonic bonding was first
introduced by A. Coucoulas which
provided a reliable means of forming these
vital electrical connections to the outside
world. After packaging, the devices go
through final testing on the same or similar
ATE used during wafer probing. Industrial
CT scanning can also be used. Test cost
can account for over 25% of the cost of
fabrication on lower-cost products, but
can be negligible on low-yielding, larger, or
higher-cost devices.
As of 2022, a fabrication facility
(commonly known as a semiconductor
fab) can cost over US$12 billion to
construct.[67] The cost of a fabrication
facility rises over time because of
increased complexity of new products; this
is known as Rock's law. Such a facility
features:

The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter

(wider than a common dinner plate).
As of 2022, 5 nm transistors.
Copper interconnects where copper
wiring replaces aluminum for
interconnects.
 Low-κ dielectric insulators.
Silicon on insulator (SOI).
Strained silicon in a process used by
IBM known as Strained silicon directly
on insulator (SSDOI).
Multigate devices such as tri-gate
transistors.

ICs can be manufactured either in-house

by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs)
or using the foundry model. IDMs are
vertically integrated companies (like Intel
and Samsung) that design, manufacture
and sell their own ICs, and may offer
design and/or manufacturing (foundry)
services to other companies (the latter
often to fabless companies). In the
foundry model, fabless companies (like
Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and
outsource all manufacturing to pure play
foundries such as TSMC. These foundries
may offer IC design services.

Packaging

A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in

1977, part of a four-chip calculator
set designed in 1970[68]

The earliest integrated circuits were

packaged in ceramic flat packs, which
continued to be used by the military for
their reliability and small size for many
years. Commercial circuit packaging
quickly moved to the dual in-line package
(DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic,
which is commonly cresol-formaldehyde-
novolac. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI
circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP
packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA)
and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages.
Surface mount packaging appeared in the
early 1980s and became popular in the
late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with
leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead,
as exemplified by the small-outline
integrated circuit (SOIC) package – a
carrier which occupies an area about 30–
50% less than an equivalent DIP and is
typically 70% thinner. This package has
"gull wing" leads protruding from the two
long sides and a lead spacing of
0.050 inches.

In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack

(PQFP) and thin small-outline package
(TSOP) packages became the most
common for high pin count devices, though
PGA packages are still used for high-end
microprocessors.

Ball grid array (BGA) packages have

existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid
Array packages, which allow for a much
higher pin count than other package types,
were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA
package, the die is mounted upside-down
(flipped) and connects to the package
balls via a package substrate that is
similar to a printed-circuit board rather
than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an
array of input-output signals (called Area-
I/O) to be distributed over the entire die
rather than being confined to the die
periphery. BGA devices have the advantage
of not needing a dedicated socket but are
much harder to replace in case of device
failure.
Intel transitioned away from PGA to land
grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in
2004, with the last PGA socket released in
2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018,
AMD uses PGA packages on mainstream
desktop processors,[69] BGA packages on
mobile processors,[70] and high-end
desktop and server microprocessors use
LGA packages.[71]

Electrical signals leaving the die must pass

through the material electrically
connecting the die to the package, through
the conductive traces (paths) in the
package, through the leads connecting the
package to the conductive traces on the
printed circuit board. The materials and
structures used in the path these electrical
signals must travel have very different
electrical properties, compared to those
that travel to different parts of the same
die. As a result, they require special design
techniques to ensure the signals are not
corrupted, and much more electric power
than signals confined to the die itself.

When multiple dies are put in one package,

the result is a system in package,
abbreviated SiP. A multi-chip module
(MCM), is created by combining multiple
dies on a small substrate often made of
ceramic. The distinction between a large
MCM and a small printed circuit board is
sometimes fuzzy.

Packaged integrated circuits are usually

large enough to include identifying
information. Four common sections are
the manufacturer's name or logo, the part
number, a part production batch number
and serial number, and a four-digit date-
code to identify when the chip was
manufactured. Extremely small surface-
mount technology parts often bear only a
number used in a manufacturer's lookup
table to find the integrated circuit's
characteristics.
The manufacturing date is commonly
represented as a two-digit year followed
by a two-digit week code, such that a part
bearing the code 8341 was manufactured
in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in
October 1983.

Intellectual property
The possibility of copying by
photographing each layer of an integrated
circuit and preparing photomasks for its
production on the basis of the
photographs obtained is a reason for the
introduction of legislation for the
protection of layout designs. The US
Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of
1984 established intellectual property
protection for photomasks used to
produce integrated circuits.[72]

A diplomatic conference held at

Washington, D.C., in 1989 adopted a Treaty
on Intellectual Property in Respect of
Integrated Circuits,[73] also called the
Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty. The
treaty is currently not in force, but was
partially integrated into the TRIPS
agreement.[74]

There are several United States patents

connected to the integrated circuit, which
include patents by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743
(https://patents.google.com/patent/US31
38743) , US3,261,081 (https://patents.goo
gle.com/patent/US3261081) ,
US3,434,015 (https://patents.google.com/
patent/US3434015) and by R.F. Stewart
US3,138,747 (https://patents.google.com/
patent/US3138747) .

National laws protecting IC layout designs

have been adopted in a number of
countries, including Japan,[75] the EC,[76]
the UK, Australia, and Korea. The UK
enacted the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, c. 48, § 213, after it
initially took the position that its copyright
law fully protected chip topographies. See
British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong
Patents Co.

Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK

copyright approach as perceived by the US
chip industry are summarized in further
chip rights developments.[77]

Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of

1989 as a sui generis form of chip
protection.[78] Korea passed the Act
Concerning the Layout-Design of
Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in
1992.[79]
Generations
In the early days of simple integrated
circuits, the technology's large scale
limited each chip to only a few transistors,
and the low degree of integration meant
the design process was relatively simple.
Manufacturing yields were also quite low
by today's standards. As metal–oxide–
semiconductor (MOS) technology
progressed, millions and then billions of
MOS transistors could be placed on one
chip,[80] and good designs required
thorough planning, giving rise to the field of
electronic design automation, or EDA.
Some SSI and MSI chips, like discrete
transistors, are still mass-produced, both
to maintain old equipment and build new
devices that require only a few gates. The
7400 series of TTL chips, for example, has
become a de facto standard and remains
in production.

Transistor Logic gates

Acronym Name Year [81]
count number [82]

SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 t o 10 1 t o 12

medium-scale
MSI 1968 10 t o 500 13 t o 99
integration

LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 t o 20 000 100 t o 9999

very large-scale
VLSI 1980 20 000 t o 1 000 000 10 000 t o 99 999
integration

ultra-large-scale
ULSI 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more
integration

Small-scale integration (SSI)

The first integrated circuits contained only

a few transistors. Early digital circuits
containing tens of transistors provided a
few logic gates, and early linear ICs such
as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips
TAA320 had as few as two transistors.
The number of transistors in an integrated
circuit has increased dramatically since
then. The term "large scale integration"
(LSI) was first used by IBM scientist Rolf
Landauer when describing the theoretical
concept;[83] that term gave rise to the
terms "small-scale integration" (SSI),
"medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-
large-scale integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-
large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early
integrated circuits were SSI.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace
projects, and aerospace projects helped
inspire development of the technology.
Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo
program needed lightweight digital
computers for their inertial guidance
systems. Although the Apollo Guidance
Computer led and motivated integrated-
circuit technology,[84] it was the Minuteman
missile that forced it into mass-
production. The Minuteman missile
program and various other United States
Navy programs accounted for the total $4
million integrated circuit market in 1962,
and by 1968, U.S. Government spending on
space and defense still accounted for 37%
of the $312 million total production.

The demand by the U.S. Government

supported the nascent integrated circuit
market until costs fell enough to allow IC
firms to penetrate the industrial market
and eventually the consumer market. The
average price per integrated circuit
dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to $2.33 in
1968.[85] Integrated circuits began to
appear in consumer products by the turn
of the 1970s decade. A typical application
was FM inter-carrier sound processing in
television receivers.
The first application MOS chips were
small-scale integration (SSI) chips.[86]
Following Mohamed M. Atalla's proposal
of the MOS integrated circuit chip in
1960,[87] the earliest experimental MOS
chip to be fabricated was a 16-transistor
chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven
Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[29] The first
practical application of MOS SSI chips was
for NASA satellites.[86]

Medium-scale integration (MSI)

The next step in the development of

integrated circuits introduced devices
which contained hundreds of transistors
on each chip, called "medium-scale
integration" (MSI).

MOSFET scaling technology made it

possible to build high-density chips.[24] By
1964, MOS chips had reached higher
transistor density and lower manufacturing
costs than bipolar chips.[31]

In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a

single-chip 16-bit shift register he
designed, with a then-incredible 120 MOS
transistors on a single chip.[86][88] The
same year, General Microelectronics
introduced the first commercial MOS
integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120 p-
channel MOS transistors.[30] It was a 20-bit
shift register, developed by Robert
Norman[29] and Frank Wanlass.[89] MOS
chips further increased in complexity at a
rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to
chips with hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip
by the late 1960s.[31]

Large-scale integration (LSI)

Further development, driven by the same

MOSFET scaling technology and economic
factors, led to "large-scale integration"
(LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of
thousands of transistors per chip.[90]
The masks used to process and
manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and
VLSI devices (such as the
microprocessors of the early 1970s) were
mostly created by hand, often using
Rubylith-tape or similar.[91] For large or
complex ICs (such as memories or
processors), this was often done by
specially hired professionals in charge of
circuit layout, placed under the supervision
of a team of engineers, who would also,
along with the circuit designers, inspect
and verify the correctness and
completeness of each mask.
Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs,
calculator chips, and the first
microprocessors, that began to be
manufactured in moderate quantities in the
early 1970s, had under 4,000 transistors.
True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000
transistors, began to be produced around
1974, for computer main memories and
second-generation microprocessors.
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)

Upper interconnect layers on an Intel

80486DX2 microprocessor die

"Very-large-scale integration" (VLSI) is a

development started with hundreds of
thousands of transistors in the early
1980s, and, as of 2016, transistor counts
continue to grow beyond ten billion
transistors per chip.

Multiple developments were required to

achieve this increased density.
Manufacturers moved to smaller MOSFET
design rules and cleaner fabrication
facilities. The path of process
improvements was summarized by the
International Technology Roadmap for
Semiconductors (ITRS), which has since
been succeeded by the International
Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS).
Electronic design tools improved, making it
practical to finish designs in a reasonable
time. The more energy-efficient CMOS
replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a
prohibitive increase in power consumption.
The complexity and density of modern
VLSI devices made it no longer feasible to
check the masks or do the original design
by hand. Instead, engineers use EDA tools
to perform most functional verification
work.[92]

In 1986, one-megabit random-access

memory (RAM) chips were introduced,
containing more than one million
transistors. Microprocessor chips passed
the million-transistor mark in 1989, and the
billion-transistor mark in 2005.[93] The
trend continues largely unabated, with
chips introduced in 2007 containing tens
of billions of memory transistors.[94]
ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC

To reflect further growth of the complexity,

the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-
scale integration" was proposed for chips
of more than 1 million transistors.[95]

Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means

of building very large integrated circuits
that uses an entire silicon wafer to
produce a single "super-chip". Through a
combination of large size and reduced
packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically
reduced costs for some systems, notably
massively parallel supercomputers. The
name is taken from the term Very-Large-
Scale Integration, the current state of the
art when WSI was being developed.[96][97]

A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an

integrated circuit in which all the
components needed for a computer or
other system are included on a single chip.
The design of such a device can be
complex and costly, and whilst
performance benefits can be had from
integrating all needed components on one
die, the cost of licensing and developing a
one-die machine still outweigh having
separate devices. With appropriate
licensing, these drawbacks are offset by
lower manufacturing and assembly costs
and by a greatly reduced power budget:
because signals among the components
are kept on-die, much less power is
required (see Packaging).[98] Further, signal
sources and destinations are physically
closer on die, reducing the length of wiring
and therefore latency, transmission power
costs and waste heat from
communication between modules on the
same chip. This has led to an exploration
of so-called Network-on-Chip (NoC)
devices, which apply system-on-chip
design methodologies to digital
communication networks as opposed to
traditional bus architectures.
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-
IC) has two or more layers of active
electronic components that are integrated
both vertically and horizontally into a
single circuit. Communication between
layers uses on-die signaling, so power
consumption is much lower than in
equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use
of short vertical wires can substantially
reduce overall wire length for faster
operation.[99]

Silicon labeling and graffiti

To allow identification during production,
most silicon chips will have a serial
number in one corner. It is also common to
add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since
ICs were created, some chip designers
have used the silicon surface area for
surreptitious, non-functional images or
words. These are sometimes referred to
as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or
silicon doodling.

ICs and IC families

The 555 timer IC
The Operational amplifier
7400-series integrated circuits
4000-series integrated circuits, the
CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series
(see also: 74HC00 series)
Intel 4004, generally regarded as the first
commercially available microprocessor,
which led to the famous 8080 CPU and
then the IBM PC's 8088, 80286, 486 etc.
The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog
Z80 microprocessors, used in many
home computers of the early 1980s
The Motorola 6800 series of computer-
related chips, leading to the 68000 and
88000 series (used in some Apple
computers and in the 1980s
Commodore Amiga series)
The LM-series of analog integrated
circuits
See also
Electronics portal
Physics portal
Technology portal
Telecommunication
portal
Engineering portal
History of science
portal
Companies portal
Computer
programming
portal
Telephones portal

Czochralski method
Central processing unit
Chipset
CHIPS and Science Act
Integrated injection logic
Ion implantation
Microelectronics
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
Multi-threshold CMOS
Silicon–germanium
Sound chip
SPICE
Chip carrier
Dark silicon
Integrated passive devices
 High-temperature operating life
Thermal simulations for integrated
circuits
Heat generation in integrated circuits

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Further reading
Veendrick, H.J.M. (2017). Nanometer
CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs.
Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-47595-0.
OCLC 990149326 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/990149326) .
Baker, R.J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design,
Layout, and Simulation (3rd ed.). Wiley-
IEEE. ISBN 978-0-470-88132-3.
OCLC 699889340 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/699889340) .
Marsh, Stephen P. (2006). Practical
MMIC design. Artech House. ISBN 978-
1-59693-036-0. OCLC 1261968369 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/126196836
9) .
Camenzind, Hans (2005). Designing
Analog Chips (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20170612055924/http://www.design
inganalogchips.com/_count/designinga
nalogchips.pdf) (PDF). Virtual
Bookworm. ISBN 978-1-58939-718-7.
OCLC 926613209 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/926613209) . Archived from
the original (http://www.designinganalog
chips.com/_count/designinganalogchip
s.pdf) (PDF) on 12 June 2017. "Hans
Camenzind invented the 555 timer"
Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh,
Resve (2003). Analysis and Design of
Digital Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 978-0-07-228365-5.
OCLC 840380650 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/840380650) .
Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic,
B. (2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (http
 s://archive.org/details/agilesoftwaredev
00robe) (2nd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-
0-13-090996-1. OCLC 893541089 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/oclc/89354108
9) .
Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1991).
Introduction to VLSI systems (https://arc
hive.org/details/introductiontovl00mea
d) . Addison Wesley Publishing
Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7.
OCLC 634332043 (https://www.worldca
t.org/oclc/634332043) .

External links
Media related to Integrated circuits at
Wikimedia Commons
 The first monolithic integrated circuits (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/2012031915
0151/http://homepages.nildram.co.uk/~
wylie/ICs/monolith.htm)
A large chart listing ICs by generic
number (http://rtellason.com/ic-generic.
html) including access to most of the
datasheets for the parts.
The History of the Integrated Circuit (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20170702192
457/http://www.nobelprize.org/educatio
nal/physics/integrated_circuit/history/)

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