EE3006 POWER QUALITY LTPC

300 3
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To learn the basic definitions in Power Quality.
 To study the power quality issues in Single Phase and Three Phase Systems.
 To understand the principles of Power System Harmonics.
 To know the way to use DSTATCOM for Harmonic Mitigation.
 To learn the concepts related with Series Compensation.

UNIT I INTRODUCTION (7+2 Skill) 9

Introduction – Characterization of Electric Power Quality: Transients, short duration and long duration
voltage variations, Voltage imbalance, waveform distortion, Voltage fluctuations, Power frequency
variation, Power acceptability curves – power quality problems: poor load power factor, Non-linear
and unbalanced loads, DC offset in loads, Notching in load voltage, Disturbance in supply voltage –
Power quality standards.

UNIT II ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE AND THREE PHASE SYSTEM (7+2 Skill) 9

Single phase linear and non-linear loads – single phase sinusoidal, non-sinusoidal source –
supplying linear and nonlinear loads – three phase balanced system – three phase unbalanced
system – three phase unbalanced and distorted source supplying non-linear loads – concept of
power factor – three phase- three wire – three phase - four wire system.

UNIT III MITIGATION OF POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS (7+2 Skill) 9

Introduction - Principle of Harmonic Filters – Series-Tuned Filters – Double Band-Pass Filters –

damped Filters – Detuned Filters – Active Filters – Power Converters – Harmonic Filter Design –
Tuned Filter – Second-Order Damped Filter – Impedance Plots for Filter Banks – Impedance Plots
for a Three-Branch 33 kV Filter.

UNIT IV LOAD COMPENSATION USING DSTATCOM (7+2 Skill) 9

Compensating single – phase loads – Ideal three phase shunt compensator structure – generating
reference currents using instantaneous PQ theory – Instantaneous symmetrical components theory –
Generating reference currents when the source is unbalanced –Realization and control of
DSTATCOM – DSTATCOM in Voltage control mode.

UNIT V SERIES COMPENSATION OF POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM (7+2 Skill) 9

Rectifier supported DVR – DC Capacitor supported DVR – DVR Structure – Voltage Restoration –
Series Active Filter – Unified Power Quality Conditioner.
TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
COURSE OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:
CO1 Use various definitions of power quality for power quality issues

CO2 Describe the concepts related with single phase / three phase, linear / nonlinear loads and
single phase / three phase sinusoidal, non-sinusoidal source
CO3 Solve problems related with mitigation of Power System Harmonics
CO4 Use DSTATCOM for load compensation
CO5 Demonstrate the role of DVR, SAFs UPQC in power distribution systems
TEXTBOOKS:

1. Arindam Ghosh and Gerad Ledwich “Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power
Devices”, Kluwer Academic Publishers, First Edition,2002
2. G.T.Heydt, “Electric Power Quality”, Stars in a Circle Publications, Second Edition, 2011.
3. George J. Wakileh, “Power System Harmonics – Fundamentals, Analysis and Filter Design”,
Springer – Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New York, 2019.

REFERENCES:

1. R.C.Duggan “Electric Power Systems Quality”, Tata MC Graw Hill Publishers, Third
Edition, 2012.
2. Arrillga “Power System Harmonics”, John Wiely and Sons, 2003 2 nd Edition.
3. Derek A.Paice “Power Electronic Converter Harmonics” IEEE Press, 1995, Wiley – IEE Press
1999, 18th Edition.

SKILL DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES (Group Seminar/Mini Project/Assignment/Content

Preparation / Quiz/ Surprise Test / Solving GATE questions/ etc) 10
1. Harmonic analysis of single phase power converters (Semi converters and Full
Converters) with R and RL load via simulation
2. Harmonic analysis of three phase power converters (Semi converters and Full
Converters) with R and RL load via simulation
3. Harmonic analysis of single phase inverters with R and RL load via simulation
4. Harmonic analysis of three phase inverters with R and RL load via simulation
5. Mitigation of Harmonics using Tuned Filter

List of Open Source Software/ Learning website:

1. http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses.php
2. https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/2442.pdf
3. https://electricalacademia.com/electric-power
4. https://www.intechopen.com/books/6214
5. https://www.cde.com/resources/technical-papers/Mitigation-of-Harmonics.pdf
6. https://www.academia.edu/43237017/Use_Series_Compensation_in_Distribution_
Networks_33_KV

MAPPING OF COs WITH POs AND PSOs

COs POs PSOs

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
CO1 3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3
CO2 3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3
CO3 3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3
CO4 3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3
CO5 3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3
Avg 3 3 3 3 - - 3 3 - 3 - 3 3 3 3
 EE3006 – POWER QUALITY
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction – Characterization of Electric Power Quality: Transients, short
duration and long duration voltage variations, Voltage imbalance, waveform
distortion, Voltage fluctuations, Power frequency variation, Power
acceptability curves – power quality problems: poor load power factor, Non-
linear and unbalanced loads, DC offset in loads, Notching in load voltage,
Disturbance in supply voltage – Power quality standards.

1.1 Introduction
The term electric power quality broadly refers to maintaining a near
sinusoidal power distribution bus voltage at rated magnitude and frequency.
In addition, the energy supplied to a customer must be uninterrupted from the
reliability point of view.
It is to be noted that even though power quality (PQ) is mainly a
distribution system problem, power transmission systems may also have an
impact on the quality of power. This is because the modern transmission
systems have a low resistance to reactance ratio, resulting in low system
damping. Usually, a well-designed generating station is not a source of
trouble for supplying quality power. The generated system voltages are
almost perfectly sinusoidal.
- Power quality is any abnormal behavior on a power system arising in the
form of voltage or current, which affects the normal operation of
electrical or electronic equipment.
- Power quality is any deviation of the voltage or current waveform from
its normal sinusoidal wave shape.
- Power quality has been defined as the parameters of the voltage that
affect the customer’s supersensitive equipment.
1.2 Power Quality Terms and Definitions
The power quality standards vary between countries. However, it is
needless to say that poor quality power affects almost all consumers. It
is therefore important to list the terms and definitions that are used with
power quality. In particular, we shall consider the following
- Transients.
- Short duration voltage variations.
- Long duration voltage variations.
- Voltage imbalance.
- Waveform distortions.
- Voltage fluctuations.
- Power frequency variations.
Terms and Definitions:
Power Quality:
It is any deviation of the voltage or current waveform from its normal
sinusoidal wave shape.
Voltage quality:
Deviations of the voltage from a sinusoidal waveform.
Current quality:
Deviations of the current from a sinusoidal waveform.
Frequency Deviation:
An increase or decrease in the power frequency.
Impulsive transient:
A sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is unidirectional in polarity.
Oscillatory transients:
A sudden, non power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is bidirectional in polarity.
Long duration Variation:
A variation of the RMS value of the voltage from nominal voltage for
a time greater than 1 min.
Under voltage:
10% below the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1
min.
Over voltage:
10% above the nominal voltage for a period of time greater than 1
min.
Short Duration Variation:
A variation of the RMS value of the voltage from nominal voltage for
a time less than 1 min.
Sag:
A decrease in RMS value of voltage or current for durations of 0.5
cycles to 1 min.
Swell:
A Temporary increase in RMS value of voltage or current for
durations of 0.5 cycles to 1 min.
Voltage fluctuation:
A cyclical variation of the voltage that results in flicker of lightning.
Voltage imbalance:
Three phase voltages differ in amplitude.
DC Offset:
The presence of a DC voltage or current in an AC power system
Noises:
An unwanted electric signal in the power system.
Harmonic:
It is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a
frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental power frequency.
Distortion:
Any deviation from the normal sine wave for an AC quantity.
Total Harmonic Distortion:
The ratio of the root mean square of the harmonic content to the RMS
value of the fundamental quantity.
√∑

Interruption:
The complete loss of voltage on one or more phase conductors for a
time greater than 1 min.
1.2.1 Transients
Transient over voltages in electrical transmission and distribution
networks result from the unavoidable effects of lightning strike and network
switching operations.
Response of an electrical network to a sudden change in network
conditions.
Oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or
system. It is a momentary event preceding the steady state (electronics)
during a sudden change of a circuit.
An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital (pulse)
signals in computer networks. Each pulse produces two transients, an
oscillation resulting from the sudden rise in voltage and another oscillation
from the sudden drop in voltage. This is generally considered an undesirable
effect as it introduces variations in the high and low voltages of a signal,
causing instability.
Types of transient:
Impulsive transient
Oscillatory transient
Impulse transient:
A sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is unidirectional in polarity.
The polarity of such a transient can be either positive or negative.
Impulsive transients have a very fast rise time and also a very fast decaying
time. These transients are mainly caused by lightning strikes.
Impulsive transients usually do not conduct far the point of their entry
into the power system. The distance to which an impulsive transient travels
along a feeder depends on the particular system configuration.

Oscillatory transient:
A sudden, non-power frequency change in the steady state condition
of voltage or current that is bidirectional in polarity.
An oscillatory transient is usually bipolar in nature. It has one or more
sinusoidal components that get multiplied by a decaying term.
Oscillatory transients are classified in accordance with their
frequency. An oscillatory transient with a primary frequency greater than 500
kHz is considered high frequency transients. A transient within the frequency
range of 5 kHz to 500 kHz is considered a medium frequency transient and
anything below 5 kHz is termed as a low frequency transient.

1.2.2 Short Duration Voltage Variations

Any variation in the supply voltage for duration not exceeding one
minute is called a short duration voltage variation.
Usually such variations are caused by faults, energization of large
loads that require large inrush currents and intermittent loose connection in
the power wiring.
Short duration variations are further classified as
Voltage sags
Voltage swells
Voltage Sag:
A voltage sag or voltage dip is a short duration reduction in RMS
voltage which can be caused by a short circuit, overload or starting of electric
motors.
 Voltage sag happens when the RMS voltage decreases between 10 and
90 percent of nominal voltage for one-half cycle to one minute.
Some references define the duration of sag for a period of 0.5 cycles
to a few seconds, and longer duration of low voltage would be called
“sustained sag".

There are several factors which cause voltage sag to happen:

- Since the electric motors draw more current when they are starting than
when they are running at their rated speed, starting an electric motor can
be a reason of voltage sag.
- When a line-to-ground fault occurs, there will be voltage sag until the
protective switch gear operates.
- Some accidents in power lines such as lightning or falling an object can
be a cause of line-to-ground fault and voltage sag as a result.
- Sudden load changes or excessive loads can cause voltage sag.
- Depending on the transformer connections, transformers energizing
could be another reason for happening voltage sags.
- Voltage sags can arrive from the utility but most are caused by in-
building equipment. In residential homes, we usually see voltage sags
when the refrigerator, air-conditioner or furnace fan starts up.
Voltage Swell:
Swell - an increase to between 1.1pu and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or
current at the power frequency durations from 0.5 to 1 minute
In the case of a voltage swell due to a single line-to-ground (SLG)
fault on the system, the result is a temporary voltage rise on the un faulted
phases, which last for the duration of the fault.
Voltage swells can also be caused by the deenergization of a very
large load.
It may cause breakdown of components on the power supplies of the
equipment, though the effect may be a gradual, accumulative effect. It can
cause control problems and hardware failure in the equipment, due to
overheating that could eventually result to shut down. Also, electronics and
other sensitive equipment are prone to damage due to voltage swell.
 Voltage Swell Magnitude Duration
Instantaneous 1.1 to 1.8 pu 0.5 to 30 cycles
Momentary 1.1 to 1.4 pu 30 cycles to 3 sec
Temporary 1.1 to 1.2 pu 2 sec to 1 min

1.2.3 Long Duration Voltage Variations

Any variation in the RMS value of the supply voltage at fundamental
frequency for periods exceeding 1 minute is called long duration voltage
variation.
These variations are generally caused by load variations on the system
and system switching operations.
Short duration variations are further classified as
Overvoltages
Undervoltages
Overvoltage:
An overvoltage is a 10% or more increase in RMS voltage for more
than 1 minute.
Increase in the RMS of voltage greater than 110 % at the power
frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.

Overvoltage results because either the system is too weak for the
desired voltage regulation or voltage controls are inadequate.
Switching off of a large load or the energization of a large capacitor
bank may result in an overvoltage.
Undervoltage:
An undervoltage is a 10% or more decrease in RMS voltage for more
than 1 minute.
Decrease in the RMS of voltage to less than 90 percent at the power
frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
An undervoltage is the result of an event, which is a reverse of the event
that causes overvoltage like Load switching ON, Capacitor bank switching
OFF and Overloaded circuits.

1.2.4 Voltage Imbalance

This is the condition in which the voltages of the three phases of the
supply are not equal in magnitude. Furthermore, they may not even be
equally displaced in time.
In a balanced sinusoidal supply system the three line-neutral voltages
are equal in magnitude and are phase displaced from each other by 120
degrees. Any differences that exist in the three voltage magnitudes and/or a
shift in the phase separation from 120 degrees is said to give rise to an
unbalanced supply

The primary cause of voltage unbalance is the single-phase loads in

three-phase circuits.
These are however restricted to within 5%. Severe imbalance (greater
than 5%) can result during single phasing conditions when the protection
circuit opens up one phase of a three-phase supply.
 The utility can be the source of unbalanced voltages due to
malfunctioning equipment, including blown capacitor fuses, open-delta
regulators, and open-delta transformers. Open-delta equipment can be more
susceptible to voltage unbalance than closed-delta since they only utilize two
phases to perform their transformations.
1.2.5 Waveform Distortions
This is the steady-state deviation in the voltage or current waveform
from an ideal sine wave.
These distortions are classified as
DC offset
Harmonics
Inter Harmonics
Notching
Noise
DC Offset:
The presence of a DC voltage or current in an AC power system is
termed dc offset.
This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance and half-wave
rectification. The offsets due to geomagnetic disturbances are especially
severe in higher latitudes. Poor grounding can also result in dc offsets.
Incandescent light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist of
diodes that reduce the RMS voltage supplied to the light bulb by half-wave
rectification.
The presence of a load drawing dc current results in a dc component of
the current in the secondary of a distribution transformer. This current will
cause a dc bias in the sinusoidal flux of the transformer core. This causes
additional heating and loss of transformer life. Direct current may also cause
the electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and other connectors
Harmonics:
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that
are integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed
to operate (termed the fundamental frequency usually 50 or 60 Hz).
Periodically distorted waveforms can be decomposed into a sum of the
fundamental frequency and the harmonics. Harmonic distortion originates in
the nonlinear characteristics of loads on the power system.
Power electronic loads like UPS, adjustable speed drives etc usually
cause harmonics in power system.
A measure of harmonic content in a signal is the total harmonic
distortion (THD). The percentage THD in a voltage is given by
√∑

where Vn denotes the magnitude of the nth harmonic voltage and Vl is the
magnitude of the fundamental voltage. A similar expression can also be
written for current harmonics.
Here the harmonic number implies the order of harmonics, i.e., 3rd
harmonic has a harmonic number of 3, 5th harmonic has a harmonic number
of 5 etc.

Inter Harmonics:
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate
(e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called inter harmonics.
The main sources of inter harmonic waveform distortion are static
frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction furnaces and arcing devices.
Power line carrier signals can also be considered as inter harmonics.
Inter harmonics can excite quite severe resonances on the power
system when the varying inter harmonic frequency becomes coincident with
natural frequencies of the system.
These affects power line carrier signaling and induce visual flicker in
fluorescent and other arc lighting as well as in computer display devices.

Notching:
Notching is a periodic voltage distortion due to the operation of power
electronic converters when current com mutates from one phase to other.
During this period there is a momentary short circuit between the two
phases that distorts voltages. The maximum voltage during notches depends
on the system impedance. The frequency components that are associated with
notches are usually very high.
During notching period, there is a momentary short circuit between
two phases, pulling the voltage as close to zero as permitted by system
impedances.
Noise:
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with broadband
spectral content lower than 200 kHz superimposed upon the power system
voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors or
signal lines.
Noise in power systems can be caused by power electronic devices,
control circuits, arcing equipment, loads with solid-state rectifiers, and
switching power supplies. Noise problems are often exacerbated by improper
grounding that fails to conduct noise away from the power system.
Basically, noise consists of any unwanted distortion of the power
signal that cannot be classified as harmonic distortion or transients.
Noise disturbs electronic devices such as microcomputer and
programmable controllers. The problem can be mitigated by using filters,
isolation transformers, and line conditioners.

1.2.6 Voltage fluctuations

Voltage fluctuations can be described as repetitive or random
variations of the voltage envelope due to sudden changes in the real and
reactive power drawn by a load.
The characteristics of voltage fluctuations depend on the load type and
size and the power system capacity.

Figure illustrates an example of a fluctuating voltage waveform. The

voltage waveform exhibits variations in magnitude due to the fluctuating
nature or intermittent operation of connected loads. The frequency of the
voltage envelope is often referred to as the flicker frequency.
Thus there are two important parameters to voltage fluctuations, the
frequency of fluctuation and the magnitude of fluctuation. Both of these
components are significant in the adverse effects of voltage fluctuations.
Voltage fluctuations are caused when loads draw currents having
significant sudden or periodic variations. The fluctuating current that is drawn
from the supply causes additional voltage drops in the power system leading
to fluctuations in the supply voltage.
Loads that exhibit continuous rapid variations are thus the most likely
cause of voltage fluctuations.
- Arc furnaces
- Arc welders
- Installations with frequent motor starts (air conditioner units, fans)
- Motor drives with cyclic operation (mine hoists, rolling mills)
- Equipment with excessive motor speed changes (wood chippers,
car shredders)
1.2.7 Power frequency variations
Power frequency variations are deviation from the fundamental
frequency from its specified nominal value.
The power system frequency is a function of the rotational speed of
the generators used to produce the electrical energy. At any instant, the
frequency depends on the balance between the load and the capacity of the
available generation.
A frequency variation occurs if a generator becomes un-synchronous
with the power system, causing an inconsistency that is manifested in the
form of a variation. The specified frequency variation should be within the
limits ±2.5% Hz at all times for grid network.
The size of the frequency shift and its duration depend on the load
characteristics and the response of the generation control system to load
changes.
The causes for power frequency variations are,
- Mismatch between power generation and demand
- Faults on the bulk power transmission system
- Large block of load being disconnected
- Large source of generation going off-line

1.3 Power Acceptability Curves

These curves quantify the acceptability of supply power as a function
of duration versus magnitude of bus voltage disturbances.
One of these curves was originally developed by Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA) to set limits to the
withstanding capabilities of computers in terms of the magnitude and duration
of the voltage disturbance.
 The CBEMA curve has however become a de facto standard for
measuring the performance of all types of equipment and power systems.

In the CBEMA curve there are two traces, one for overvoltage and the
other for undervoltage. These show the percent bus voltage deviation from
the rated voltage against time.
The region below the upper trace and above the lower trace is the
acceptable range. This region defines the tolerance level. For example an
overvoltage of very short duration can be tolerable if it is in the acceptable
region.
The CBEMA curve was originally designed in 1970 for mainframe
computers. But the curve has been used to quantify the voltage tolerance
limits of adjustable speed drives, fluorescent lighting, microprocessor based
controller etc.
The Information Technology Industry Council (lTIC) redesigned the
CBEMA curve in the latter half of the 1990s. The ITIC curve describes the
acceptable range in steps rather than smooth curves used in CBEMA.
1.4 Power Quality Problems
Of the terms and definitions of PQ that are listed in the previous
section, some of the major concerns of both customers and utility are,
- Poor load power factor
- Non-linear loads
- DC offset in loads
- Notching in load voltage
- Unbalanced loads
- Disturbance in supply voltage
1.4.1 Poor load power factor
Consider a distribution system in which a source is supplying an
inductive load through a feeder. The feeder has a resistance of R_ and an
reactance of X,. The feeder current is denoted by !_ and the load voltage is
denoted by Vl. The load power factor is lagging and the power factor angle is
denoted by Bi . The system phasor diagram is shown in Figure.

In this diagram the load current is resolved into a real

part l,p = I 1-I cosBi and a reactive part f,q = I I/ I sin 81• Of
these two components, the work done depends only on
the real power.

Now suppose the load power factor is poor, i.e., the load has a large
XIR ratio. Then the power factor angle Bi will be large. This implies that the
reactive component of the current is large and hence the magnitude of the
load current !, is also large. This will not only cause a significant drop in the
feeder voltage but there will also be a large amount of If, I 2R loss. This loss is
associated with high heat dissipation in the feeder. Excessive heat may reduce
the life span of the feeder.
To correct the large feeder drop, let us assume that as a remedial
action we connect a capacitor in parallel with the load. This capacitor draws a
current le that is in phase opposition to l,q· The resulting current drawn by the
capacitor-load combination is denoted by I',. This is shown in Figure.

It can be seen that even though

the real component of the current
remains the same, the magnitude of the
current drawn from the source has
reduced considerably. This is because the
reactive component of the current drawn
has reduced considerably and, as a
conseuence, the power factor angle has
decreased.
1.4.2 Non-linear loads
A Non Linear Load [NLL] is a load with current consuming
characteristics that do not follow the same fundamental shape as the applied
voltage waveform.
When there are nonlinear loads, the current does not look like the
voltage on a waveform. Harmonics come from the loads so the nonlinear
load creates current distortion, which then causes voltage distortion.
Power electronic loads are non linear loads which are the major
source of harmonic generation in power systems.
Consider an example where a new main frame computer system has
been installed in a office building. At the same time, to protect the
computer, a very large uninterrupted power supply (UPS) has also been
installed.
The UPS employs power electronic switches and as a result it can
cause interference to the loads that are connected in parallel with the UPS.
Assuming that all the loads of the office building are placed on the
same bus, the UPS can cause screens of many smaller computers to flicker
or roll and can even cause these computers to freeze. It can also cause other
electronic circuits to malfunction.

Consider the three-bus radial distribution system shown in Figure

in which three separate loads are being supplied by a single source. Load-1
is connected to Bus-2 while the other two loads are connected to Bus-3.
Two feeders join the three buses.
Now suppose out of these three loads, Load-2 is drawing harmonic
current. This will cause a harmonic current to flow through both the
feeders. Due to the presence of the feeder impedances this harmonic
current will cause a harmonic voltage drop at Buses 2 and 3.
Bus-1 is connected to a source and hence its bus voltage will not
have any harmonic component. We shall call any such bus a stiff bus.
Since both Bus-2 and Bus-3 voltages are distorted, the currents
drawn by Load-I and Load-3 will also get distorted as a consequence even
if they are linear loads. This is undesirable and might even be
unacceptable.
 The presence of a nonlinear load can cause distortions in voltages
and currents of a distribution network. If the current drawn by the
nonlinear loads is higher compared to those drawn by the linear loads,
then the distortion in the bus voltages at various parts of the network will
be significant. As a result distortion in the linear load currents will also be
high making the THO of these quantities unacceptable.

1.4.3 DC offset in loads

Consider the distribution system shown in Figure given in
previous topic. Let us assume that phase-a of Load-2 contains a half-
bridge rectifier that draws de current from the source. The other two
phases are unconnected.
It can be seen that since the Load-2 current is DC, the source
current also has a DC offset. The voltages both at Bus-2 and Bus-3 also
have DC offsets. However, the voltage offset at Bus-2 is smaller
compared to that of Bus-3. Further, the harmonic distortion at this bus is
insignificant compared to that of Bus-3.
There are two main implications of the presence of a DC current
in an electricity supply system. Usually a supply system is equipped with
a transformer that changes the voltage levels in accordance with the need
of the consumers.
A de current can offset the flux excursions in a distribution
transformer. The positive flux excursion becomes heavily saturated while
the negative excursion is well within the linear range. As a result the
magnetic core of the transformer gets heavily saturated resulting in
excessive heating.
The other aspect of the DC current is the earth path. The return
path for a DC current can often involve current through the earth. This
will sometimes involve the DC current passing through buried structures
such as pipes or reinforced steel. The DC current greatly enhances
corrosion of metallic structures as it carries the metallic ions in the
direction of the current flow.

1.4.4 Notching in load voltage

With rectifier loads there are commutation periods where the line
to line voltage falls to zero. This effect is due to the finite inductance in
the supply. Thus this causes a finite time for the current to fall to zero in
one phase and transfer to another.
The presence of a large phase controlled rectifier will cause
notches in the phase voltage.
 One case where these notches caused problems was in a concert
hall. A new lift with a phase control was installed on the output of the
same transformer supplying the microphone and stage lights. A simple
dimmer circuit controlled the stage lights.
This circuit measured the time from the zero crossing to
determine the firing angle. When the lift was used, the firing angle for
the lift controller changed and the notch moved along the waveform.
When the notch neared the zero crossing of the phase voltage, there was
a step change in the dimming level.
The solution to this problem is often to provide the high power
loads from a separate transformer. In this case there was additional
inductance added at the lift motor such that the depth of notch seen by
the dimmers was significantly reduced.
1.4.5 Unbalanced loads
In a three-phase supply there is an expectation that the voltages
in each phase will be equal in magnitude and are 120 degree phase
shifted from each other.
Now suppose Load-2 of the given distribution system is not
balanced. The drawing of unbalanced current through supply impedance
will mean that the supply voltage of the other two loads will also be
unbalanced.
It can be seen that both these set of voltages are unbalanced due
to the presence of the unbalanced loads. The degree of unbalance
depends on the relative magnitude of the unbalanced currents drawn vis-
a-vis that of the balanced currents drawn. The larger the unbalanced
current, the larger is the unbalance.
The voltage imbalance can be decomposed into a positive
sequence voltage set, a negative sequence and a zero sequence voltage
set.
Unbalanced loads in a three-phase system produce currents that
give rise to negative phase sequence (NPS) voltages. The magnitude of
the NPS voltage at a point of common coupling is usually limited by
utilities because of the increased heating caused in three phase motors
and generators. The permissible levels vary between countries but
usually lies within the range of 1 % to 2%.
The NPS voltage is defined in terms of the fundamental phase to
neutral voltage phasors Va, Vb and Vc as

0
where a = e' 120 . In balanced systems this phasor summation would
form a closed triangle and give VNPS = 0.
1.4.6 Disturbance in supply voltage

There can be various forms of disturbances in supply voltage such

as interruption, distortion, overvoltage/undervoltage, Sag/Swell, flicker
etc. These can have an adverse impact on the customers.
For example, even a small duration voltage interruption can cause
relay tripping, thereby completely stopping a process line.
Many hours of production can be wasted through a few seconds
of interruption. Even a short duration outage can cause defects in
semiconductor processing.
A sustained overvoltage can cause domestic lights to burn out faster and
can put stress on capacitors. Voltage spikes or transient overvoltage can
cause permanent damage on capacitors thereby burning power supply or
other semiconductor components of computers, TVs, VCRs and
household appliances.
Sustained undervoltage can cause motors to stall. Similarly a few
cycle voltage sag can force motors to stop thereby ruining a process.
Voltage flicker can be very annoying to the human eyes as it causes
incandescent lamps to flicker. The impact of voltage disturbance on
sensitive equipment is measured through the CBEMA curve.
In an interconnected distribution system, voltage disturbance can
occur due to fault or badly behaved loads. For example in the distribution
system

1.5 Power quality standards

With the arrival of the computer age and the increasing trend
towards miniaturization of electrical and electronic devices, power
quality problems have taken on increasing concern.
The designers of computers and microprocessor controllers are
not welled in power quality issues.
By the same time, power system designers and operators have
limited knowledge of the operation of sensitive electronics. This
environment has led to a need for power quality standards and
guidelines.
• IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer
• IEC: International Electro technical Commission
• CENELEC: European Committee for Electro technical
Standardization
• ANSI: American National Standards Institute
• NER: National Electricity Regulator
• SEMI: Semiconductor Equipment and Material International
• UIE: International Union for Electricity Applications.
 a) IEEE Standards
 IEEE power quality standards: Institute Of Electrical and
Electronics Engineer.
 IEEE power quality standards: International Electro
Technical Commission.
 IEEE power quality standards: Semiconductor Equipment
and Material International.
 IEEE power quality standards: The International Union for
Electricity Applications
 IEEE Std 519-1992: IEEE Recommended practices and requirements
for Harmonic control in Electric power systems.
 IEEE Std 1159-1995: IEEE Recommended practices for monitoring
electrical power
 IEEE std 141-1993, IEEE Recommended practice for electric power
distribution for industrial plants.
 IEEE std 1159-1995, IEEE recommended practice for Monitoring
electrical power quality.
b) IEC Standards
 Definitions and methodology 61000-1-X
 Environment 61000-2-X
 Limits 61000-3-X
 Tests and measurements 61000-4-X
 Installation and mitigation 61000-5-X
 Generic immunity and emissions 61000-6-X

• SEMI Power Quality Standards:

(Semiconductor Equipment and Material International)
1. SEMI F47-0200, specification for semiconductor
processing equipment voltage sag immunity
2. SEMI F42-0600, test method for semiconductor
processing equipment voltage sag immunity.
• UIE Power Quality Standards:
(The International Union for Electricity Applications)
• UIE-DWG, guide to quality of electrical supply for industrial installation,
1. Part 1: general introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
2. Part 2: voltage dips and short interruptions
3. Part 3: voltage distortion
4. Part 4: voltage unbalance
5. Part 5: flicker
 Problems Category Categorization Causes Effects
Transients Impulsive Peak, Rise Time Lightning Strikes, Power system
and Duration Transformer resonance
energization,
Capacitor
Peak Magnitude Switching Line,
and frequency Capacitor or Load System
Oscillatory components Switching resonance

Short Duration Sag Magnitude, Motor Starting, Protection

Voltage Duration Single line to malfunction, Loss
Variation ground faults of production
Protection
Swell Magnitude, Capacitor malfunction, stress
Duration switching, on computers and
large load home appliances
switching, Loss of production,
faults malfunction of fire
alarms
Long Duration Under Voltage Magnitude, Switching on Increased
Voltage Duration loads, Capacitor losses, heating
Variation de-energization
Over Voltage Magnitude, Switching off Damage to
Duration loads, Capacitor household
energization appliances
Voltage DC Offset Symmetrical Single-phase Heating of
Imbalance Components volts, load, Single- motors,
Waveform Amperes Phasing, Saturation in
Distortion Geomagnetic transformers
disturbance,
Rectification
Harmonics THD, Harmonic ASDs, Increased losses,
Spectrum Nonlinear Loads poor power
factor
Inter THD, Harmonic ASDs, Acoustic noise
Harmonics Spectrum Nonlinear Loads in power
equipment
Notching THD, Harmonic Power electronic Damage to
Spectrum converters capacitive
components
Noise THD, Harmonic Arc furnaces, Capacitor
Spectrum arc lamps, overloading,
power disturbances to
converters appliances
Voltage Flicker Frequency of Arc furnaces, Human health,
Occurrence, arc lamps irritation,
Modulation headache,
Frequency migraine
Voltage Intermittent Load Changes Protection
Fluctuations malfunction,
light intensity
changes
Power Faults, disturbances in Damage to
Frequency isolated customer-owned generator and
Variations systems and islanding turbine shafts
operations