Teaching Listening Strategies in

the Inclusive Classroom

K R I S T I N E D. S WA I N ,
M A RY (M O R R I S ) F R I E H E ,
AND J E A N N E M. H A R R I N G T O N

Many students who are at risk and those

with disabilities struggle with listening.
Too often, teacher training programs and
basal reading series do not emphasize the
importance of listening for learning and
literacy. This article discusses the relation-
ship between listening and literacy and
offers listening activities that complement
an existing elementary reading curriculum.

magine that you are teaching a reading lesson on lis- 2001). Indeed, oral skills (spoken language) and their re-

I
tening to the sounds that letters make. The lesson is ceptive counterpart, listening, are essential for literacy
going well, and you are complimenting yourself on a development. Despite its importance, listening has been
great plan—active learning and all. The students labeled the forgotten language art for more than 50 years
seem to be catching on to the concepts when Jesse because it is rarely taught in elementary classrooms (Tomp-
raises her hand in response to your question. You call on kins, 2002). Not surprisingly, Funk and Funk (1989)
her; she hesitates and then responds, “What did you pointed out that many teachers consider listening to be
say?” Around this time, the student behind Jesse has an area that can be neither taught nor evaluated.
fallen out of his seat, so you know it isn’t likely that Max Many students in primary grades have difficulty bene-
was listening, but he appeared to be. fiting from a traditional teaching approach that is heavily
How do you address these concerns within the con- dependent on spoken language and listening (Foorman
text of an inclusive classroom? We present an overview of & Torgesen, 2001). Some students are developmentally
the relationship between listening and language arts and delayed or immature in this area due to a history of re-
of how listening strategies can successfully be incorpo- current ear infections (Feagans, Sanyal, Henderson, Col-
rated into an already full school day. lier, & Appelbaum, 1987) or lack of appropriate models for
An estimated 80% of what we know is acquired through listening and learning. Other students demonstrate sig-
listening (Hunsaker, 1990). Listening is the first of the lan- nificant listening challenges due to hearing loss, central
guage skills that most children develop and serves as the auditory processing problems, learning disabilities, atten-
foundation for subsequent language arts skills (Linebarger, tion deficits, behavior disorders, and specific language im-

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pairments in the area of comprehension. Yet other stu- ting. Most of us take listening for granted because our
dents may be transitioning from learning English for listening skills tend to develop without much conscious
basic interpersonal and social communication needs to effort. Listening depends on good hearing acuity. But be-
classroom academic language learning, which places an yond acuity, it involves the ability to attend to directions,
additional processing load on listening ability (Cummins, connect the sounds that letters make, recognize the pat-
1976). For these students, the difficulty with listening and terns found in rhyming words, process the meaning of that
literacy skills may extend well beyond the primary years. information, store it in working and long-term memory,
Efforts to improve listening take a variety of ap- and act on it.
proaches that enhance success in the classroom. One ap- Longitudinal research has supported the importance
proach targets the physical aspects of listening and acoustic of listening skills for decoding and reading comprehen-
problems in classrooms (McSporran, 1997). In this situa- sion (de Jong & der Leij, 2002; Lehto & Anttila, 2003).
tion, teachers are given amplification devices to decrease In particular, phonemic awareness and spoken vocabulary
the interference from high levels of speech or sound have been found to be strongly related to later reading
noise in a room. Another approach for improving listen- performance (Catts, Fey, Zhang, & Tomblin, 2001; Catts
ing focuses on students’ strategies for listening (Aarnoutse, & Kamhi, 1999). Catts and his research associates have
van den Bos, & Brand-Gruwel, 1998). At the word level, identified five variables that appear to predict how well a
reading instruction is designed to explicitly improve kindergarten student will read in second grade. The abil-
word-recognition skills by highlighting a variety of visual ity to listen and repeat spoken sentences is one of those
and auditory stimuli that call the listener’s attention to variables, thus strengthening the importance of listening
critical details of the reading process. The underlying to literacy. Other researchers are making significant prog-
premise is that by targeting specific types of input, the ress in refining the nature of the relationship between
brain will function more optimally for reading. listening comprehension and the development of de-
Other programs have included training on comprehen- coding and reading comprehension skills into the upper-
sion strategies along with decoding strategies to deter- elementary and middle-school grades (Badian, 1999; de
mine the value of each for improving word recognition Jong & der Leij, 2002). The relative importance of lis-
(Berninger et al., 2003). Berninger and colleagues found tening to reading most likely varies throughout the K–12
that a combination of the two reading strategies pro- experience but remains an essential element for learning.
duced the most change in decoding skills. A body of work One theory of reading and reading instruction capi-
from The Netherlands (Aarnoutse et al., 1998) has high- talizes on the connection between listening and reading.
lighted the importance of direct instruction in text com- It is referred to as the simple view of reading (Gough &
prehension strategies alone for improving the reading Tunmer, 1986). Listening is at the core of this simple
skills of struggling readers who also exhibit poor listen- view of reading, as listening and phonological skills are
ing comprehension skills. In each of these research stud- highly correlated with early word decoding (de Jong &
ies, listening strategies have played a pivotal role in the der Leij, 2002). Initially, students unlock reading through
improvement of reading skills at the word and sentence the use of decoding skills. Phonological abilities enable a
levels. student to segment the sounds in a word, hold them in
Research into the relationship between various reading short-term memory while searching for pronunciation
and listening skills will continue to increase our knowl- rules needed to speak the word, and blend those sounds
edge base while providing guidance to curriculum devel- to form a real word. During this process, the student also
opers and teachers about the best way to improve student listens to his or her efforts to decode individual words
reading. However, until more conclusive results are avail- and independently makes self-corrections until a suitable
able and translated into functional resources, teachers word is found. Initially, students depend on teachers to
must digest what is known and translate it into today’s provide a model for this listening-to-learn process, in this
lesson. This article addresses the concerns that many case, for reading words. De Jong and der Leij (2002)
teachers are expressing about children who come to found that as a student moves through the elementary
school less prepared to listen and learn from instruction. grades, reliance on phonological skills for decoding re-
An overview of listening as a prerequisite to literacy is mains but may play a lesser role in the continuing devel-
discussed and followed by strategies that can be used in opment of specific decoding performance.
the classroom and at home. Reading aloud for comprehension depends on more
sophisticated listening skills because students not only de-
code but attach meaning to words and sentences, make in-
Listening: A Prerequisite to Literacy ferences, remember facts, and complete tasks based on the
reading. Badian (1999) found listening comprehension to
Teachers expect students to enter school with a solid foun- be highly correlated with reading comprehension in stu-
dation in listening, failing to appreciate the complexity of dents who exhibit reading problems (r = .78). Although her
listening to learn and read in a traditional classroom set- research was designed to compare the stability of two for-

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 mulas for identifying at-risk and problem readers, it still
Using Literature to Reinforce supports the importance of listening for reading compre-
Listening Strategies hension. In her research, Badian followed more than
The following lesson and several of the activities were used 1,000 elementary-age students for 8 years. She examined
during an enrichment class with first-grade students. how well the traditional IQ–reading discrepancy formula
and a modified listening–reading comprehension for-
Book
mula could predict which students would demonstrate
Van Laan, N. (1992). Possum Come a-Knockin’. New significant and pervasive reading problems over time. She
York: Knopf. This book was used to reinforce the concluded that by using a formula consisting of listening
listening strategies and concepts being taught in comprehension measures in conjunction with reading
the language arts curriculum.
comprehension, students with persistent reading prob-
lems were more accurately identified. Hence, the link be-
Preparing to Learn
tween listening and reading comprehension was strong.
• Review listening strategies by asking, “When do we Educators must have a comprehensive understanding
listen? How do we listen? Why do we listen? What of the nature of listening to learn how to support students,
does ‘Give me five’ mean? When do we need to especially those at risk for reading problems. Literacy
TALS?”
skills are heavily dependent on prior listening experi-
ences. These experiences partially determine a student’s
Learning to Listen
motivation for listening, what behaviors are deemed ap-
Purposeful listening: propriate to enhance listening, and the level of confi-
• As the story is read aloud, children are asked to lis- dence for or comfort with listening to learn.
ten for rhythm and rhyme. They also are invited to Teachers are good at detecting obvious problems with
“chime in” when they hear a repeated phrase.
listening:
• Ask children to listen for what the characters in the
story are doing. • poor eye contact;
• The classroom is divided into two groups of stu- • excessive hand, body, or foot movement; and
dents: one group listens for “ing” words in the • talking during a lesson.
story in which the “g” has been omitted (e.g.,:
knockin’, sittin’, howlin’), while the second group Such behaviors indicate problems with attention to task
joins in the chorus of “Possum come a-knockin’ at and may result from a mismatch between the teacher’s
the door, at the door; a possum come a-knockin’ at expectations for and the student’s experience with listen-
the door.” ing in a learning environment. It may be that the student
• Children actively listen for when “their part” is coming. is neither aware of nor skillful with behaviors that result
Active listening: in the body and brain supporting the listening-to-learn
• Children take turns choosing a favorite character in task. In some cases, the learner is not motivated to listen
the story and pantomime what he or she is doing because he or she does not realize the importance of the
as they hear their character’s name. task or lacks confidence in knowing how to apply skills
• Others in the group guess which character is being necessary for listening to learn.
pantomimed. Beyond attention, the listening task requires a student
• Groups of students are assigned a different phrase to integrate lesson content by selectively isolating spe-
to listen for during oral reading and chant along
cific types of information, processing and remembering
with the character when they hear it.
the linguistic elements of the information, applying that
Listening for and comprehending new vocabulary to the task at hand, and following through. Listening at
words: this level is dependent on environmental factors, learner-
• List some of the active verbs in the story. Talk about specific skills, and task complexity. Behaviors that indi-
what each word means. cate a student is struggling with listening at this level
• Review by asking the following questions: Which
include
character was a-knittin’? Which character was un-
tanglin’? Which one was a-twitchin’? • frequent requests for repetition of instructions,
• Ask questions that require students to go beyond • failure to request repetition,
the story, such as questions that ask what if, why, • inability to deal with distractions, or
and how do you know? • inappropriate follow-through.
Review Failure to request repetition or deal with distractions
• How did we use TALS? What did you say to your-
may be due to the previously described explanations for
self? Why was it important? What part of Give Me attention problems, such as poor motivation, lack of skill,
Five were you thinking about? discomfort with asking for repetitions, or lack of control
over distractions. In addition, poor follow-through could

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stem from problems with vocabulary, memory, sequencing, explained, and modeled. Follow-up activities to reinforce
and interpretation of nonverbal cues. applying the strategy are presented within the context of
Couple the listening problems described above with the curriculum. For example, role-playing Give Me Five
the expectation that a student will simultaneously under- with a peer partner and working with a puppet would help
stand new material and merge that with his or her exist- demonstrate what each part of Give Me Five looks like.
ing knowledge, and a daunting task emerges. Challenges This allows students to practice the strategy with guid-
to listening are further exacerbated by ance from the teacher. Using a Give Me Five handheld
sign and having a poster in the classroom are further re-
• the rapid talking rates of teachers,
minders for students to apply this strategy throughout
• noise distraction common in classrooms, and
the day. Mnemonic devices reinforce the value placed on
• language or dialect differences.
application of the strategy. To further promote indepen-
It is no wonder that many students have trouble transi- dent strategy use, students may benefit from having a
tioning from the listening at home to the listening in the Give Me Five cue card taped to their desks. This type of
learning environment. graphic organizer is useful for students with disabilities,
The following first-grade teacher script may illustrate who often need more concrete tools for learning. Teach-
how complex listening to learn is. This is only one in a ers can quickly make Give Me Five part of the daily rou-
series of teacher instructions about the lesson being pre- tine. By beginning a lesson with the simple cue, “Give Me
sented. “Remember last time you learned what sound this Five,” students are immediately prompted to engage the
letter makes? We’re not going to learn a new phonogram listening strategy.
today. We’ll just review the ones we know so far. So are
you with me? You have been doing a nice job so far. So
sit up straight, hands to ourselves, eyes on me. Okay,
ready? I guess most of us are following directions. OK,
here we go.” This is a typical set of directions in many
classrooms. The task complexity is much more apparent
when the set of directions is typed out and an apprecia-
tion for the listening-to-learn process is understood.

Listening Strategies:
Literacy Curriculum Infusion
Activities can be designed to address the skills necessary
for listening and learning. Strategies designed to train the
body and brain in attention and information processing
are appropriate starting points. They are strategies that
can complement the existing reading curriculum, themes,
vocabulary, and stories (see sidebar). Students are more
likely to show more improvement when the listening
strategies are integrated into other parts of the curricu-
lum throughout the school day. Added benefit also may
be realized if parents receive information on the impor-
tance of listening strategies, along with supplemental
practice activities for home.
Next, we discuss strategies that foster and reinforce
listening skills at the attention and integration stages of
learning. They are designed to improve both the speech-
to-sound noise aspect of the learning environment and
the listening skills necessary to improve reading perfor-
mance.
Figure 1. Give Me Five strategy used to increase listening
Give Me Five skills. From Language Strategies for Children, by Vicki Prouty
and Michele Fagan, 1997, Eau Claire, Wisconsin: Thinking
The Give Me Five strategy (see Figure 1) focuses on five Publications (1-800-225-4769; www.ThinkingPublications.com).
body parts to improve attending behaviors (Prouty & Copyright 1997 by Thinking Publications. Reprinted with
Fagan, 1997). Initially, the strategy is explicitly introduced, permission.

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 TALS

Once the body parts are assisting with attention to the task,
TALS (see Figure 2) is introduced. In this strategy the
acronym TALS is used to focus on the metacognitive as- TALS
pect of getting the brain ready to listen by describing the
brain’s role as it analyzes and processes the most impor- Think
tant elements of the lesson that a student hears.
Ask Why
• Think
• Ask why
Listen for What
• Listen for what Say to Self
• Say to self
This strategy incorporates metacognitive awareness of
preparing for the material to come and provides external
motivation for the task. It facilitates critical thinking neces-
sary for sifting through all that is heard to locate the most
important information. TALS and other similar strate-
gies explicitly direct students to become more active lis-
teners and learners. An example of a classroom activity
with TALS involved the discussion of a story map that
Figure 2. TALS strategy used to reinforce the metacognitive
was being introduced to reinforce the basic story compo-
aspects of listening.
nents. Prior to introducing the story map, students re-
viewed the TALS strategy. The teacher incorporated the
strategy while going through the lesson. The following is ferent because the throat vibrates for the noisy /b/ but
an example of what this would sound like: “Think about not for the quiet /p/. Visual cues in the form of illustra-
the story parts, Ask why a story map is important, Listen tions of the sensory aspects of sounds also facilitate the
for the different parts of a story map, and Say to yourself ability to associate the printed symbols with the sounds
the parts of the story.” (see Figure 3). For /p/ and /b/, the air pops out. The
For many students, learning Give Me Five and TALS LiPS program attachment of a name, such as "Lip Pop-
strategies may be the first time they have been given di- pers," that reflects the auditory, motor, and sensory char-
rect instruction on how to listen for learning. It also may acteristics for the sound pair is a cognitive peg for the
be the first time they have been asked to think about their sounds. It facilitates remembering the pair of sounds and
roles as active participants in the learning process. their alphabet symbols and makes an abstract concept fit
with the student's experience base.
Phonemic Awareness In summary, the three sets of strategies outlined here
facilitate the teaching of listening skills and reinforce the
In conjunction with the two listening strategies just de- value of listening for literacy. The first two strategies
scribed, listening can be reinforced with reading strategies focus on preparing the body and brain for learning. The
that are designed to stimulate phonemic awareness and third strategy addresses the importance of listening to
its application for independent self-correcting behavior sounds as a way to begin reading and spelling.
in reading and spelling. A multisensory strategy for ana-
lyzing sounds and integrating correspondence to letters
is useful because it integrates hearing, feeling, and seeing Implications for Teachers
sound/letter relationships (Lindamood & Lindamood,
1998). Using The Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Program To be effective, teaching listening strategies requires con-
for Reading, Spelling, and Speech (LiPS; Lindamood & Lin- centrated time at the beginning of a school year or when
damood, 1998), students go through a series of steps that the strategies are first introduced. Later on, much of the
focus on phonemic awareness. In Step 1, students dis- instruction can be incorporated into the existing curricu-
cover they can identify and label eight pairs of "brother" lum, allowing for expanded instruction in listening to read.
sounds. The sounds are "brothers" because the mouth What if teachers had to repeat directions one less
looks and feels the same while producing the sounds. time during each subject throughout the day because
Step 2 requires students to further compare how distinc- early in the year students developed a strong foundation
tive the two sounds are. For example, the sounds in the in listening? How many minutes would that provide to
/p b/ pair feel and look similar because the lips pop open other areas of learning? How many more minutes would
as air comes out, but the sounds also feel and sound dif- be spent on other areas of literacy instruction? How could

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improved listening skills affect academics and classroom concrete mnemonic device, such as Give Me Five,
routines? The outcome of effective listening strategy in- TALS, or LiPS. These listening strategies are con-
struction should be more time to focus on literacy circles, crete and meaningful for students.
directed reading instruction, reading comprehension, sus- 4. Explicitly teach strategies. In the beginning,
tained silent reading, and other valuable components of teach the strategies explicitly through teacher and
language arts. student role-play and modeling (National Research
For teachers, however, the question still remains, Council, 1998). Later, embed the strategies into the
“How do I make time to teach one more thing? My day existing curriculum.
is already full.” Just as teachers take time to teach class- 5. Post the strategies in the classroom. A poster or
room management rules, expectations for listening also a cue card provides a simple reminder and is an
can become part of the classroom routine. The following easy way to direct students to think about and in-
are additional tips, taken from best practices, when using dependently apply the strategy.
a strategy approach ( Jalongo, 1991; National Research 6. Reinforce strategies through practice. Stu-
Council, 1998). dents will learn to attach meaning to a strategy if
prompts for how to handle distractions, how and
1. Analyze the amount of listening time required in when to make requests for repetitions, and when to
your classroom ( Jalongo, 1991). This can be done go on are directly modeled with guided practice.
through videotaping typical classroom activities and Incorporate the strategies into your language arts
analyzing the video based on how much time you curriculum, and use them throughout the school
spend talking and the students spend listening. day so they become embedded in the school rou-
2. Identify barriers to listening in your classroom. tine.
Identifying the barriers will assist your selection of 7. Review strategies. After any school break, take
which strategies to teach. For example, if barriers time to briefly review the listening strategies and
such as noise distractions are inhibiting listening and emphasize their importance for learning.
learning, specific strategies can be selected to address 8. Inform parents. Use a newsletter or other mater-
each area. Or, if needed, amplification devices are ial to inform parents of the strategies being used.
available to reduce the student speech-to-sound When their child mentions TALS or Give Me Five,
noise levels. parents will understand the strategies and will be
3. Select 1 to 2 listening strategies. To be effective, equipped to reinforce the strategies at home.
these strategies need to include a reminder or a 9. Include listening strategy instruction on stu-
dents’ Individualized Education Programs
(IEPs). Including listening strategies as a part of a
child’s IEP, when appropriate, should help all edu-
cators and parents reinforce strategies across differ-
ent settings. It brings attention to the importance
of all aspects of literacy.
10. Modify strategies as necessary. Individualize
strategies as needed for your classroom and individ-
ual students. You may encounter groups of students
who are particularly weak in one aspect of listening.
This may necessitate additional time or additional
resources and activities to build a solid listening
foundation for learning.

Summary
Strategy instruction for listening to learn can be incorpo-
rated with minimal effort. The payoff will be worth the
time invested. Small additions to an existing curriculum
may be all that is needed, along with infusing the strate-
Figure 3. Lip Popper visual cue. From The Lindamood
gies throughout the day. In this way, listening strategies
Phoneme Sequencing Program for Reading, Spelling, and become part of the daily listening-to-learn routine. This
Speech, by Patricia Lindamood and Phyllis Lindamood, 1998, provides a positive focus on listening as teachers take
Austin, TX: PRO-ED. Copyright 1998 by Patricia Lindamood more pleasure in saying, “I like how you used your lis-
and Phyllis Lindamood. Reprinted with permission. tening strategies” instead of “Were you listening to me?”

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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Funk, H. D., & Funk, G. D. (1989). Guidelines for developing listen-
ing skills. The Reading Teacher, 42, 660–663.
Kristine D. Swain, PhD, is an assistant professor at the University of Gough, P., & Tunmer, W. (1986). Decoding, reading and reading dis-
Nebraska at Omaha. Her research interests include literacy intervention ability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10.
research and curriculum-based measurement. Mary (Morris) Friehe, Hunsaker, R. A. (1990). Understanding and developing the skills of oral
PhD, is an associate professor at the University of Nebraska at Omaha. communication: Speaking and listening (2nd ed.). Englewood, CO: Mor-
Her current interests include school-age language, the language–literacy ton Press.
relationship, and cultural-linguistic diversity in special populations. Jalongo, M. R. (1991). Strategies for developing children’s listening skills
Jeanne M. Harrington, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Uni- (Phi Delta Kappa Fastback Series No. 314). Bloomington, IN: Phi
versity of Nebraska at Omaha. Her research interests include literacy Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
studies and professional dispositions. Address: Kristine D. Swain, Univer- Lehto, J., & Anttila, M. (2003). Listening comprehension in primary
sity of Nebraska at Omaha, 115 Kayser Hall, Omaha, NE 68182-0054; level grades two, four, and six [Electronic version]. Scandinavian
e-mail: [email protected] Journal of Educational Research, 47(2), 133–144.
Lindamood, P., & Lindamood, P. (1998). The Lindamood phoneme se-
quencing program for reading, spelling, and speech. Austin, TX: PRO-
ED.
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