Reading Assignment- Geomorphology

OSN GEOGRAFI 2024

Oleh: Aditya Pradana

Nama : Raihan Fadel Muhammad

Sekolah : SMA Pribadi Bandung

PETUNJUK PENGERJAAN
a. Unduh E-Book Physical Geography McKnight’s oleh Darrel Hess pada EduOS Zerone
b. Bacalah dan buatlah summary berkisar 15 halaman (dapat disertai gambar/figure) secara
terstruktur dan rapih untuk materi geomorfologi
c. Materi yang dirangkum adalah Chapter 16 (Fluvial Processes), Chapter 17 (Karst and
Hydrothermal Processes), Chapter 18 (The Topography of Arid Lands), Chapter 19
(Glacial Modification of Terrain), dan Chapter 20 (Coastal Processes and Terrain)
d. Buatlah rangkuman materi untuk Lima Chapter.
e. Rangkuman dapat dibuat pada file word ini (mulai Hal.2)
f. Waktu pembuatan rangkuman hingga 29 Oktober 2023 Pukul 22:00 WIB.
g. Tuliskan Chapter Pilihan yang dirangkum pada tabel dibawah ini.

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 Summary Physical Geography
McKnight’s by Darrel Hess

Chapter 16

STREAMS AND STREAM SYSTEMS

Streams are channeled flows of water, ranging from small creeks to large rivers. They play a
significant role in shaping the Earth's topography. Fluvial processes involve the movement of
water, both as unchanneled overland flow and as channeled streamflow. Valleys and interfluves
are two key topographic elements on continents. A valley is an area with a well-defined
drainage system, including the stream channel and valley walls. An interfluve, on the other
hand, refers to the higher land between valleys. Water moves down the interfluve as overland
flow until it reaches the lip of the interfluve, where streamflow begins. However, there are
exceptions, such as swamps and marshes, which can be found in valleys or on interfluves.

The drainage basin, also known as the watershed, is the area that contributes surface water
and groundwater to a stream. It includes the stream's valley, valley sides, and the surrounding
interfluves that drain into the valley. The drainage basin is separated from adjacent basins by a
drainage divide. Major rivers have larger drainage basins that encompass the basins of their
tributaries. Dams are often constructed to capture the runoff from a drainage basin for various
purposes, including hydropower generation.

Streams within a drainage basin can be organized into different orders based on their size and
the hierarchy of their tributaries. A first-order stream has no tributaries, and the joining of two
first-order streams forms a second-order stream. This pattern continues, with higher-order
streams formed by the confluence of lower-order streams. The concept of stream order reveals
important relationships within a watershed. For example, first-order streams and valleys are the
most numerous, while higher-order streams are less common. Average stream length and
watershed area tend to increase with stream order, while the average stream gradient
decreases.

FLUVIAL EROSION AND DEPOSITION

Fluvial erosion and deposition are external processes that involve the removal and
transportation of bedrock, regolith, and soil, followed by their deposition in a different location.
Erosion by overland flow occurs when rainwater causes the displacement of fine soil particles,
which move downhill due to gravity. As rain continues and the land lacks vegetation or sufficient
cover, the water forms a thin sheet that transports loosened material in a process called sheet
erosion. The sheet flow then forms numerous small channels known as rills, which coalesce into
larger channels called gullies. Eventually, the gullies become part of the drainage system and
transform into streamflow.
Streamflow, once channeled, has a greater capacity to erode and transport material due to
increased water volume and velocity. The hydraulic power of moving water excavates and
transports material from the channel's bottom and sides. Streamflow can also undercut channel
banks, leading to landslides that contribute loose material to the water. The abrasive nature of

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streamflow, combined with the rock fragments it carries, further erodes the stream bed as the
fragments collide and break off more pieces. Chemical weathering processes like solution
action and hydrolysis also contribute to stream channel erosion.
The effectiveness of streamflow erosion varies depending on factors such as flow speed,
turbulence, and the resistance of the bedrock. Flow speed is influenced by the slope angle,
channel shape, and volume of flow, while turbulence is affected by flow speed and the
roughness of the channel surface.
Water, whether in the form of overland flow or streamflow, can transport rock material
downslope. However, streams have a greater capacity to transport material compared to
overland flow. The stream load consists of dissolved minerals carried in solution, fine particles
of clay and silt suspended in the water, and larger rock fragments constituting the bedload. The
bedload can be moved by saltation (jumps or bounces) or traction (rolling or sliding) along the
streambed. Competence and capacity are used to describe a stream's ability to transport
material. Competence refers to the largest particle size a stream can move, which depends on
flow speed. Capacity refers to the volume of material a stream can transport over a given time
interval and can vary significantly during floods, when the stream's capacity expands.
Deposition occurs after erosion, as moving water carries its load of sediment downslope or
downvalley towards its final destination, such as the ocean, lake, or interior drainage basin.
When the flow speed or water volume decreases, deposition takes place. Stream deposits are
commonly found at the mouths of canyons, on floodplains, and along the inside bank of river
bends. Eventually, much of the stream's load is deposited into quieter water bodies like the
ocean or a lake. The general term for stream-deposited sediment is alluvium, which includes
various sizes of rock debris, with smaller particles making up the majority.

Streams can be classified as perennial or intermittent. Perennial streams flow year-round and
are common in humid regions, while intermittent streams carry water only part of the time, either
during the wet season or after rains. Ephemeral streams are intermittent streams that have
water only during and immediately after rainfall. Even in humid regions, many low-order streams
may be intermittent, while high-order streams tend to have permanent flow due to their larger
drainage areas.

Floods play a significant role in both erosion and deposition. They are capable of causing
substantial changes in the landscape. The amount of water flowing in a stream varies, and
floods can result in a significant increase in water volume and flow speed. During flood events,
streams exhibit enhanced competence and capacity, allowing for greater erosion and
deposition. The work of excavating valleys and forming floodplains is primarily accomplished
during flood flow.

Streamflow is measured using stream gages, which provide information about gage height and
flow velocity to calculate the stream's discharge. This data helps estimate when floods will occur
or reach different locations along a river. Flood recurrence intervals, such as the "100-year
flood," describe the probability of a flood of a specific size occurring in any given year. These
intervals are determined based on streamflow data, with longer records providing more accurate
probabilities. However, changing circumstances like urbanization and climate change can affect
these probabilities.

STREAM CHANNELS

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Stream channels play a crucial role in the movement of water and sediment. Unlike overland
flow, streamflow is confined to channels, giving it a three-dimensional nature. The flow in a
channel is influenced by factors such as friction, turbulence, and channel patterns.

Friction along the bottom and sides of the channel slows down the water, causing it to move
most slowly there, while the center of the stream tends to have faster flow. Turbulence occurs
when irregularities in direction and speed disrupt the downstream movement of water. It is
caused by factors like friction, internal shearing stresses, and surface irregularities. Turbulent
flow contributes to erosion and can create features like eddies, whirlpools, and rapids.

Stream channels exhibit various patterns, including straight, sinuous, meandering, and braided.
Straight channels are rare and often follow a winding path called the thalweg. Sinuous channels
are more common and have gentle, irregular curves. Meandering channels have a highly
intricate pattern with smooth curves, constantly shifting their location through erosion and
deposition. Braided channels consist of multiple interconnected channels separated by bars or
islands of sediment. They occur in flat channels with a heavy sediment load or in regions with
dry seasons and low stream discharge.

These channel patterns reflect the complex dynamics of streamflow and the interaction between
water, sediment, and the underlying geologic structure.

STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS

Stream development is influenced by the underlying geologic and topographic structure of the
land. Streams follow the path of least resistance as they flow downhill. The relationship between
the stream and the land structure can be observed in the location and behavior of the stream
over time.

Different types of streams can be identified based on their relationship with the land structure.
Consequent streams follow the initial slope of the land and are the first to develop in newly
uplifted areas. Subsequent streams develop along zones of structural weakness, such as fault
lines or joints. Antecedent streams maintain their course even when the land is uplifted, cutting
through ridges and mountains. Superimposed streams ignore the local structure and follow an
older, eroded landscape.

Stream drainage patterns, which are influenced by the underlying structure and slope of the
land, can provide insights into the geologic-topographic structure. The most common pattern is
the dendritic pattern, characterized by a branching and treelike network of streams. The trellis
pattern develops in regions with alternating bands of tilted hard and soft rocks, resulting in long,
parallel streams connected by short, right-angled segments. Radial patterns are found around
concentric uplifts like volcanoes, while centripetal patterns occur when streams converge in a
basin. Annular patterns form in ring-shaped domes or basins with alternating bands of tilted
hard and soft rock.

THE SHAPING AND RESHAPING OF VALLEYS

Valleys are shaped and modified by running water, primarily through streamflow. Understanding
how streams shape and reshape their valleys helps us understand the formation of fluvial
landforms. Downcutting is a common process in the upper reaches of a stream, where the
gradient is steep and the valley is narrow. It involves the hydraulic power, turbulent flow, and

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abrasive effect of the stream. Downcutting creates deep valleys with steep sides and a V-
shaped cross-section.
Streams excavate their valleys by eroding the channel bed, but there is a limit to how much
downcutting they can do. This limit is called the base level, which is an imaginary surface
extending underneath the continents from sea level. Sea level is the ultimate base level for most
streams, but there are also temporary base levels imposed by structural or drainage conditions.
For example, a tributary cannot cut deeper than its level of confluence with the higher-order
stream it joins, and a lake serves as the temporary base level for streams flowing into it.
A graded stream is one in which the amount of sediment entering a stretch of the stream is
equal to the amount leaving it. The longitudinal profile of a stream depends on various factors,
but the long-term tendency is toward a graded profile. Waterfalls and rapids, known as
knickpoints, often occur in valleys where downcutting is prominent. Knickpoints migrate
upstream over time as erosion occurs, eventually smoothing the channel gradient.
Valley widening occurs when a stream's gradient reduces, and lateral erosion begins as the
stream meanders from side to side. The water erodes the cut bank on the outside of curves and
deposits alluvium on the inside, creating a point bar. Mass wasting also contributes to widening
the valley walls. Valley lengthening can happen through headward erosion at the upper end of
the valley or delta formation at the lower end. Headward erosion occurs when overland flow
from an interfluve extends rills and gullies into the valley, gradually lengthening it at the expense
of the interfluve.
Stream capture, also known as stream piracy, occurs when one stream diverts the drainage
basin of another stream. It is a relatively uncommon natural event but has been observed in
various locations. Stream capture happens through headward erosion, where one stream
lengthens its valley and reduces the drainage divide between the two streams. Eventually, the
headwaters of the capturing stream extend into the valley of the captured stream, diverting its
flow. The capturing stream is called the captor stream, the lower part of the captured stream is
the beheaded stream, and the upper part is the captured stream. The point where the capture
occurs is called an elbow of capture.
An example of stream capture can be seen in the Niger River in West Africa, where the upper
reaches of the Niger River previously flowed northeast until it was beheaded by another river,
resulting in a significant change in course. Another example is the potential future capture of the
Chari River by the Benue River in central Africa.
Delta formation occurs when a river deposits sediment at its mouth as it enters a lake or ocean.
The slowing of water velocity in the quiet water allows sediment deposition, creating a landform
called a delta. Deltas can have a classic triangular shape or be modified due to imbalances
between sediment deposition and removal by ocean waves and currents. Deltas often consist of
a maze of distributaries, and continued deposition builds up the delta's surface. Human
activities and rising sea levels can affect the size and stability of deltas.
Deposition also plays a role in valley formation and shaping. Streams continuously rearrange
their sediment through aggradation, depositing alluvium in various locations within the valley,
including the stream bottom, sides, center, and overflow areas. During high-water periods,
sediment is transported downstream, while low-water periods and floods promote sediment
settling and channel filling. In some cases, alluvium accumulation can raise the streambed level.

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FLOODPLAINS
The passage discusses floodplains and their characteristics. Floodplains are low-lying, nearly
flat areas that are periodically flooded by a meandering stream flowing across a wide valley
floor. The floodplain is characterized by shifting stream meanders, which create a broad valley
floor covered with alluvium deposits left by floods. The outer edges of a floodplain are usually
bounded by slopes and bluffs. Cutoff meanders, where a stream cuts a new channel across the
neck of a meander loop, can form oxbow lakes that gradually fill with sediment and vegetation.
Natural levees are slightly higher areas along the stream channel's banks, formed by deposition
during flood events. Backswamps are the less well-drained and lower portions of the floodplain.
Tributary streams that cannot flow directly into the main channel due to natural levees may flow
parallel to the main stream in the backswamp zone and are called yazoo streams. The passage
also mentions human efforts to modify rivers for flood control, such as the construction of dams,
artificial levees, and overflow floodways. The example of the Mississippi River and its flood
control measures is provided. The passage concludes by discussing the challenges and
strategies associated with living on floodplains, including sensible land use practices, diversion
or bypass channels, and the restoration of floodplains by removing levees.

STREAM REJUVENATION

Stream rejuvenation refers to changes in the elevation of land relative to sea level, which can be
caused by tectonic uplift or drops in sea level. When land experiences uplift, streams in the area
are "rejuvenated" as their gradients increase, causing them to flow faster and have more energy for
downcutting. This downcutting leads to the formation of new valleys and the abandonment of old
floodplains, which become stream terraces. Stream terraces often occur in pairs on either side of
the newly incised stream channel.

In some cases, uplift and rejuvenation can result in the formation of entrenched meanders. This
occurs when a meandering stream is slowly uplifted, and it continues to carve a meandering path
while cutting downward. These entrenched meanders can become deep gorges, sometimes
reaching hundreds of meters in depth.

THEORIES OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT

The passage discusses different theories of landform development in geomorphology. The first
theory is Davis's Geomorphic Cycle, proposed by William Morris Davis in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. According to Davis, landforms go through stages of "youth," "maturity," and "old
age." Initially, a flat surface is dissected by streams, creating V-shaped valleys. Over time, the
streams reach equilibrium, developing smooth profiles and meandering patterns. Eventually,
erosion reduces the landscape to a flat, featureless plain called a peneplain. Davis's theory also
incorporates the concept of rejuvenation, where regional uplift interrupts the cycle and initiates a
new period of downcutting.

The second theory discussed is Penck's Theory of Crustal Change and Slope Development. Penck
argued that slopes maintain their steepness as they erode, contrary to Davis's idea of slopes
gradually becoming less steep. He emphasized the influence of uplift or crustal deformation on
slope form.

The third theory is equilibrium theory, which focuses on the balance between form and process in
landform development. It highlights the variations in crustal movement, rock resistance, and
geomorphic processes. Equilibrium theory suggests that slopes adjust to maintain a balance of

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energy, with harder rocks developing steeper slopes and higher relief, while softer rocks have
gentler slopes and lower relief. This theory has been particularly influential in fluvial
geomorphology.

However, each theory has its limitations and shortcomings. For example, Davis's model has been
questioned due to the lack of intact peneplains and the assumption of little erosion during uplift.
The sequential development and the biological analogy of landform stages have also been
criticized. Equilibrium theory is not applicable in tectonically stable or low-streamflow areas.

Despite the criticisms, these theories have contributed to the understanding of landform
development and have shaped the field of geomorphology, with Davis's Geomorphic Cycle being
particularly influential, especially in the United States.

Chapter 17

SOLUTION AND PRECIPITATION

Underground water contains chemical impurities that make it a good solvent for certain minerals. It
acts as a weak solution of carbonic acid due to dissolved carbon dioxide gas, which leads to the
dissolution of bedrock. Dissolution is a process where water chemically removes bedrock,
particularly effective on carbonate sedimentary rocks like limestone. The reactions involve the
formation of soluble compounds such as calcium bicarbonate, resulting in the removal of rock
mass and the creation of voids in the bedrock. This process is more prominent in humid climates
with abundant precipitation. In some cases, sulfuric acid may also play a role in the dissolution of
carbonate rocks. Bedrock structure, including joints and bedding planes, facilitates water
penetration and drainage, aiding in the dissolution process. Precipitation processes involve the
reformation of calcium carbonate from solution. Mineralized water can trickle in caves and induce
the precipitation of minerals due to reduced air pressure. Hot springs and geysers also deposit
minerals when the hot water reaches the surface and cools down, resulting in the formation of
various calcareous deposits. The solubility of carbon dioxide decreases as water temperature
increases, making cool water a more potent solvent for calcium carbonate than hot water.

CAVERNS AND RELATED FEATURES

Caverns are large open areas formed by the dissolution of limestone along joints and bedding
planes beneath the Earth's surface. They are often horizontally expansive and can be
connected to the surface through small or obscure openings. Caverns can be extensive, with
complex systems of galleries and passageways, irregular in shape, and containing rooms and
flowing streams. The formation of caverns involves the initial dissolution of carbonate bedrock
by percolating water, creating voids. This is followed by a decoration stage where speleothems,
such as stalactites, stalagmites, and columns, form on the ceilings, walls, and floors of the
caverns. Speleothems are deposited when water carrying dissolved compounds, mainly carbon
dioxide and calcite, leaves them behind. The most visually striking features are stalactites,
which hang from the ceiling, and stalagmites, which grow upward from the floor. In some cases,
delicate hollow tubes called soda straws can develop into stalactites over time.
KARST TOPOGRAPHY
Karst topography refers to a distinctive landform assemblage that develops in areas where the
bedrock is soluble, such as limestone. It is characterized by sinkholes, disrupted surface

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drainage, and underground drainage networks formed through solution action. Sinkholes are
rounded depressions that erode more rapidly than the surrounding area and can vary in size
from small to large features. Karst landscapes are common in regions with limestone bedrock
but can also occur in areas with other highly soluble rocks. Surface drainage is often limited in
karst areas, with most rainfall and runoff seeping into the groundwater through joints and
sinkholes. Tower karst features, with steep-sided hills and caves, can be found in certain
regions. Human activities, such as groundwater extraction, can accelerate sinkhole formation in
karst areas. In Florida, for example, the drop in the water table due to increased water usage
has led to an increase in sinkhole formation.
HYDROTHERMAL FEATURES
Hydrothermal features are areas where hot water emerges from the Earth's surface through
natural openings. This activity can take the form of hot springs or geysers. Hot springs occur
when underground water comes into contact with heated rocks or magma and rises to the
surface, often resulting in the deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate. Geysers are a
special type of hot spring that erupts intermittently, with the pressure building up underground
until it is relieved by an eruption of hot water and steam.
The eruption mechanism of geysers involves the accumulation of underground water in
subterranean reservoirs, which is heated by nearby rocks or magma. The high temperatures
cause the water to turn into steam, creating pressure that eventually leads to an eruption. A
significant supply of heat is necessary for geyser activity, and the heat emanating from geyser
areas can be much greater than non-geyser areas.
Geyser eruption patterns vary, with some geysers erupting continuously while others are
sporadically active. The interval between eruptions can range from a few hours or days to years
or even decades. The temperature of erupting water is usually near the boiling point, and the
height of the water column during eruptions can vary from a few centimeters to over 45 meters.
The most famous geyser is Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park, known for its regular and
relatively predictable eruptions. However, its eruption interval has become slightly more erratic
in recent decades. The mineral deposits resulting from geyser activity are generally less
significant compared to those associated with hot springs, often appearing as sheets of
precipitated minerals spread irregularly on the ground.
Hydrothermal features, including hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles, are found in various volcanic
areas around the world. Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, USA, is particularly known for its
abundance of hydrothermal phenomena, including geysers. The geologic setting of Yellowstone
involves a shallow magma chamber beneath the plateau, resulting from a hot spot formed by a
rising mantle plume. The presence of abundant water, unstable ground surfaces, and a heat
source from the magma chamber create ideal conditions for hydrothermal activity.

Yellowstone contains about 225 geysers, over 3000 hot springs, and 7000 other thermal features.
The park has five major geyser basins, such as the Norris, Gibbon, Upper, Midway, and Lower
basins, along with several minor basins. The Firehole River, fed by hot springs and geysers, drains
a significant portion of the hydrothermal features in the park. The geysers in Yellowstone exhibit a
wide range of behaviors, from continuous eruptions to sporadic ones, with some reaching heights
of 100 meters.

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In addition to geysers, Yellowstone is home to the Mammoth Hot Springs Terraces in the
northwestern part of the park. These terraces are formed by groundwater percolating through
limestone layers and interacting with heated magma, creating a carbonic acid solution. This
solution dissolves the limestone and deposits calcium carbonate as travertine, resulting in the
formation of unique terraces.

Chapter 18

A SPECIALIZED ENVIRONMENT

Desert environments have unique conditions that significantly influence the formation of
landforms. Unlike humid areas, deserts lack moisture, resulting in dominant mechanical
weathering processes such as salt wedging. This leads to slower weathering rates and the
production of angular rock particles. The thin or absent soil and regolith in deserts expose the
bedrock, contributing to the rugged terrain. Soil creep, a smoothing phenomenon in humid
climates, is limited in deserts due to the lack of soil and the lubricating effects of water, which
contributes to the angularity of desert slopes.

Impermeable surfaces, such as caprocks and hardpans, prevent water from seeping into the
ground, causing high runoff during rainfall. While deserts are not entirely covered in sand, some
deserts have a higher proportion of sand, which affects topographic development by allowing
water infiltration, facilitating movement during heavy rains, and being transported and
redeposited by wind, forming sand dunes.

Although rainfall is limited in deserts, intense convective thunderstorms can result in high and
rapid runoff, leading to frequent but localized floods. Ephemeral streams, which flow only during
and immediately after rain, erode and transport significant amounts of material, depositing them
on slopes or in valleys, resulting in common depositional features.

Contrary to popular belief, wind action does not play a major role in forming desert landforms,
despite high winds and the ease of shifting sand and dust particles. Desert areas often consist
of interior drainage basins without outlets to the ocean, causing rainfall to remain within the
basin or valley.

One prominent feature of deserts is the lack of continuous vegetation cover. Sparse shrubs or
grass provide minimal protection against raindrops and inadequate binding of surface material
with roots, further shaping the topography of dry lands.

RUNNING WATER IN WATERLESS REGIONS

The presence of running water is the most significant factor shaping landforms in desert
regions. Despite low rainfall, the erosional and depositional effects of running water are highly
effective due to the lack of vegetation and impermeable surfaces. In arid mountainous areas,
intermittent flow leads to an imbalance between erosion and deposition, resulting in the
accumulation of sediment in dry stream beds. Gentle slopes in deserts quickly become filled
with sediment during floods, causing stream channels to divide and silt and sand to be left
behind. Surface water is generally scarce in deserts, with most streams being ephemeral and
sustained by water from outside the desert. Exotic streams, such as the Nile River and the
Colorado River, receive water from wetter or higher areas and can traverse long distances
through the desert. Ephemeral streams are the predominant type of desert streams and

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experience intense erosion and deposition during brief periods of flow. Dry lake beds, known as
playas, are common in desert areas and form flat surfaces through periodic inundation and
subsequent evaporation. Saline lakes, often resulting from high evaporation rates and interior
drainage, are found in some desert regions, with many being remnants of larger bodies of water
from wetter climates, like Utah's Great Salt Lake.

Fluvial erosion in desert areas occurs during brief periods of rainfall, leading to rapid and
effective erosion of exposed bedrock. Thunderstorms can cause localized intense rainfall,
resulting in flash floods or debris flows that move significant amounts of material. These events
drive most of the changes in desert landscapes. Rocks resistant to weathering form cliffs and
sharp crests, while softer rocks erode more rapidly, creating gentler slopes. Inselbergs, steep-
sided mountains or hills, and pediments, gently inclined bedrock platforms, are common
landforms in deserts. Pediments can form through weathering and erosion or tectonic
processes. Depositional features are more notable than erosional ones in deserts, including
talus accumulations, alluvial deposits, and alluvial fans in piedmont zones. The accumulation of
alluvium is significant in flat desert areas due to limited streamflow. Climate change can
contribute to the expansion of deserts, a process known as desertification, which is a concern
for policymakers, particularly in developing countries.

THE WORK OF THE WIND

The wind in desert areas plays a significant role in shaping the landscape. It creates sand and
dust storms, constantly reshaping minor details of the terrain. However, its sculpting effect on
the overall landscape is limited, except for the formation of sand dunes. Aeolian processes,
related to wind action, are most prominent in deserts and sandy beaches where fine-grained
sedimentary material is exposed without vegetation or moisture.

Wind erosion can be categorized into deflation and abrasion. Deflation refers to the shifting of
loose particles through the air or along the ground. It typically affects dust and small sand
grains, and while it can create shallow depressions called blowouts, it doesn't form significant
landforms. Abrasion, on the other hand, involves the wind-driven impact of airborne sand and
dust particles on rock and soil surfaces, resulting in the pitting, etching, faceting, and polishing
of exposed rocks. This process sculpts existing landforms and creates ventifacts, which are
rocks shaped by wind abrasion.

Wind also transports rock materials, similar to how water carries sediments, but with less
efficiency. Fine particles are carried in suspension as dust, and strong winds can transport large
amounts of suspended dust over long distances. Larger particles, such as sand grains, are
moved by wind through saltation (bouncing) and traction (rolling or pushing) along the ground.
The majority of wind-driven material is shifted through saltation and traction, with sand grains
moving in a low, curved trajectory and larger particles being rolled or pushed along the ground.

A true sandstorm is a cloud of horizontally moving sand, extending only a short distance above
the ground surface. While sandstorms have little erosive impact on the terrain, they can be
abrasive and cause damage to human structures and vehicles.

When the wind subsides, the sand and dust it carries eventually settle and deposit. Finer
materials form a thin coating of silt over long distances, while coarser sand is deposited locally.
Sand deposition can result in the formation of sandplains, which are amorphous sheets of sand
spread across the landscape. The most notable aeolian deposits are sand dunes, which are
mounds or low hills formed by the accumulation of loose, windblown sand.

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Desert sand dunes are often composed of uniform quartz grains and can move, grow, or shrink.
Wind erodes the windward slope of the dune and deposits sand on the steeper leeward side,
forming a slip face. Dunes can migrate downwind if the wind consistently blows from one
direction. Anchored dunes, which are stabilized by vegetation, are another type of dunefield
arrangement.

There are four common types of dunes: barchans, crescent-shaped dunes that migrate
individually or in groups; transverse dunes, crescent-shaped dunes aligned in parallel waves
across the land; seifs, long, narrow dunes occurring in a parallel arrangement; and star dunes,
large pyramid-shaped dunes with arms radiating out in multiple directions.

In some areas, "fossil" sand dunes can be found in the form of sandstone deposits with cross-
bedding, resulting from wind-deposited sand sliding down the slip face of a dune.

Wind can also shape landscapes in non-desert areas. Coastal dunes form when winds blow
sand inland from ocean and lake coasts. Parabolic dunes, similar to barchan dunes but with the
"horns" pointing into the wind offshore, can develop on vegetated sandy areas. Loess is another
aeolian deposit, consisting of fine-grained silt that is wind-deposited. It lacks horizontal
stratification and forms vertical slopes with high durability.

Loess deposits are found in midlatitude regions and cover a significant portion of Earth's land
surface. They are particularly extensive in the United States, Russia, China, and Argentina.
Loess deposits are fertile and support productive agricultural soils.

CHARACTERISTIC DESERT LANDSCAPE SURFACES

Desert landscapes exhibit various surface features, and this summary focuses on describing
three common types found in many deserts: erg, reg, and hamada. An erg refers to a large area
covered with loose sand, often arranged in dune formations by the wind. These sand
accumulations likely formed during periods of more humid climates and are found in the Sahara,
Arabian, and Australian deserts. Relict ergs, covered with vegetation, can also be found in non-
arid areas.
A reg, on the other hand, is a stony desert surface devoid of sand and dust. It primarily consists
of coarse gravel, pebbles, and boulders, tightly packed together like a pavement. Regs are often
referred to as desert pavement or desert armor, and their presence indicates a relatively
undisturbed surface. In Australia, they are called gibber plains.
The third type is called a hamada, which is a barren surface of consolidated material. It can be
composed of exposed bedrock or sedimentary material cemented together by salts. Hamadas
lack loose material due to wind erosion, and they are typically flat and found in plains areas.
Desert varnish is a notable feature associated with some deserts, particularly regs. It is a dark,
shiny coating consisting of iron and manganese oxides that develop on the surface of pebbles,
stones, and larger rock formations over time. Desert varnish can be used as a relative dating
tool for studying weathering processes.
There are also two representative desert landform assemblages found in North America: basin-
and-range terrain and mesa-and-scarp terrain. These examples illustrate the patterns of
landform development in arid regions and are commonly observed in the American Southwest.

11
BASIN-AND-RANGE LANDFORMS
Basin-and-range landforms are characteristic of the southwestern interior of the United States.
This region is marked by a lack of external drainage, with only a few rivers flowing through it.
The landscape consists of fault-block mountain ranges surrounding interior drainage basins.
The aridity of the region is primarily due to rain shadows caused by the Sierra Nevada range in
eastern California.
The basin-and-range terrain has three main features: ranges, piedmont zones, and basins. The
ranges are dominant and can be high or low, with steep and rocky slopes. They have been
shaped by weathering, mass wasting, and fluvial processes. The piedmont zone is a transition
area from the steep slopes of the ranges to the flat basins. It is characterized by fluvial
deposition and the formation of alluvial fans, which are fan-shaped landforms created by
streams slowing down and depositing sediment as they emerge from mountain gorges onto the
piedmont zone.
As the alluvial fans grow larger, they may overlap and form a continuous alluvial surface called
a bajada. The basins have a gentle slope and often contain a playa, which is a low point where
water collects. Drainage channels in the basins are sometimes clear-cut but often shallow and
ill-defined. Salt accumulations are common in the playa due to water-soluble minerals washed
out of the surrounding watershed. When water flows into the playa, it becomes a playa lake,
which is usually shallow and short-lived.
The basin floor is covered with fine-grained material such as silt and sand, which accumulates
due to weak stream transport. The floor gradually fills up with debris from the surrounding
ranges. Wind can cause the fine material to form small concentrations of sand dunes in some
areas of the basin.
Death Valley, located in east-central California near the Nevada border, is an exceptional
example of basin-and-range terrain. The valley is a down-dropped basin resulting from crustal
extension. It stretches about 225 kilometers long with a width ranging from 6 to 26 kilometers.
The eastern side of the basin has tilted down more than the western side, creating a basin
formed by land dropping between two parallel strike-slip faults.
The valley floor of Death Valley is below sea level, with approximately 1425 square kilometers
submerged below sea level. The surrounding area is characterized by lengthy fault-block
mountain ranges. The Panamint Range on the west side is the most prominent, while the
Amargosa Range on the east is slightly lower. These mountain ranges contribute to the aridity
of Death Valley by creating a rain shadow effect.
The topography surrounding Death Valley is marked by rugged and rocky desert mountains with
steep slopes and escarpments. The canyons in the ranges are deep, narrow, V-shaped gorges,
with some resembling wineglass shapes. Alluvial fans, composed of sediment deposited by
water flow, cover the piedmont zone at the foot of the mountains. The fans on the western side
of the valley, formed by debris from the Panamint Range, are more extensive compared to
those on the eastern side, influenced by faulting and tilting.
The floor of Death Valley is filled with thick layers of alluvium, primarily washed down from the
surrounding mountains. The valley floor is relatively flat and slopes gently toward Badwater, a
saltwater pond. Drainage channels appear sporadically, and there are salt pans and sand

12
accumulations throughout the valley. During the last ice age, Death Valley was occupied by a
large lake called Lake Manly, which eventually evaporated, leaving behind salt deposits.
Overall, Death Valley showcases the distinctive features of basin-and-range terrain, including
fault-block mountains, alluvial fans, tilted basin floors, and salt accumulations.
MESA-AND-SCARP TERRAIN

Mesa-and-scarp terrain is a prominent landform found in the Four Corners region of the
American Southwest, where Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico meet. It is characterized
by flat-topped surfaces known as mesas and steep cliffs called scarps. This terrain is typically
associated with horizontal layers of sedimentary rock, with more resistant layers like limestone
or sandstone forming the caprock of the mesa and creating the escarpment at the edge.

Mesa-and-scarp topography often has a stair-step pattern, with flat platforms (plateaus)
bounded by escarpments. The escarpment edge undergoes erosion through weathering, mass
wasting, and fluvial processes. The cliffs retreat as the less resistant layers beneath the caprock
are eroded, leading to the formation of talus at the base of the slope.

A mesa is a flat-topped hill with steep sides, usually capped by resistant material that maintains
the flat summit. Buttes are smaller features that rise above their surroundings, often formed
through the erosion of mesas. Pinnacles or pillars are even smaller remnants of resistant
caprock. The mesa, butte, and pinnacle formations are commonly found near retreating
escarpments.

The mesa-and-scarp terrain also exhibits various minor erosional features like arches and
natural bridges. Arches form when narrow fins of sedimentary rock collapse, leaving an arch of
more resistant rock. Natural bridges occur when water flow transitions from eroding a resistant
type of rock to a less resistant type. Pedestals and pillars rise abruptly above their surroundings
and are continuously weathered at their narrow bases.

Badlands are another notable feature of arid and semiarid regions, characterized by intricately
rilled and barren terrain. They form in areas with poorly consolidated horizontal strata, often
composed of shale and clay. Intense erosion from occasional rainfall creates a maze of steep
slopes, ravines, gullies, and ridges, resulting in a barren landscape with little vegetation.

The sedimentary rocks and debris in mesa-and-scarp terrain often exhibit vivid colors, ranging
from red and brown to yellow and gray, primarily due to iron compounds.

Famous examples of mesa-and-scarp terrain include Bryce Canyon National Park in southern
Utah and Badlands National Park in western South Dakota.

Chapter 19

TYPES OF GLACIERS

Glaciers are complex environmental systems that go beyond being blocks of ice. They have
different types, including mountain glaciers and continental ice sheets. Mountain glaciers are
found in high-mountain areas and can cover large areas, submerging the underlying
topography. Valley glaciers are tongues of ice that travel down valleys, while piedmont glaciers

13
escape the valley walls when reaching flat areas. Alpine glaciers develop individually in the
mountains and can spill out of their basins to become valley glaciers or piedmont glaciers. On
the other hand, continental ice sheets form in nonmountainous areas and completely cover the
underlying terrain. Today, there are only two continental ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland.
These ice sheets accumulate ice to great depths in the interior but are thinner at the edges.
Outlet glaciers extend between hills to the sea, while in some places, the ice reaches the ocean
as an ice shelf. Icebergs are large floating ice masses that break off from ice shelves and outlet
glaciers and float away in the sea.

GLACIATIONS PAST AND PRESENT

The Earth has experienced significant fluctuations in glacial ice coverage over the past few
million years. Scientists have used various evidence to piece together the chronology of past
glaciations, although the record is incomplete and less clear the further back in time they look.
The Pleistocene epoch, characterized by global cooling, saw the accumulation and melting of
ice in many regions, with alternating glacial and interglacial periods. It is estimated that there
were at least 18 or 19 glacial episodes during this time. The start of the Pleistocene is currently
dated at 2.59 million years ago, but evidence suggests that glaciations may have begun even
earlier. The end of the Pleistocene and the Wisconsin glacial stage occurred approximately
11,000 years ago, marking the beginning of the Holocene epoch, which is either a postglacial
period or the latest interglacial period. At its maximum extent, ice covered about one-third of
Earth's land area, with the largest ice mass, the Laurentide ice, covering most of Canada and
parts of the northeastern United States. Other areas, such as western Canada, Alaska, and
certain regions in Wisconsin and Alaska, were not glaciated. Europe, Asia, and parts of the
Southern Hemisphere also experienced significant glaciation. The accumulation, movement,
and melting of glaciers had profound effects on topography and drainage. Additionally, there
were indirect effects of Pleistocene glaciations, including periglacial processes such as erosion,
deposition, frost weathering, and solifluction, which affected about 20 percent of Earth's land
area.

During episodes of glacial advance in the Pleistocene epoch, the buildup of ice on the
continents caused a decrease in available water for drainage into the oceans, resulting in a
worldwide drop in sea levels. As the glaciers retreated, sea levels rose again with the return of
meltwater to the oceans. At the peak of the Pleistocene glaciations, global sea levels were
approximately 130 meters (430 feet) lower than they are today. These fluctuations in ocean
water levels affected drainage patterns and topographic development on seashores and coastal
plains.

The weight of accumulated ice on the continents caused some portions of Earth's crust to sink,
in some cases by as much as 1200 meters (4000 feet). After the ice melted, the crust began
slowly rebounding in a process known as isostatic adjustment. This adjustment is still ongoing,
with some areas in Canada and northern Europe rising as much as 20 centimeters (8 inches)
per decade.

During the Pleistocene glaciations, there was a significant increase in moisture availability on
almost all continents due to meltwater runoff, increased precipitation, and decreased
evaporation. This resulted in the creation of many lakes in areas where there were none
previously. Although most of these lakes have since drained or decreased in size, their impact
on the landscape remains. Examples of Pleistocene lakes in the western part of the United
States include Lake Bonneville, which is now represented by the Great Salt Lake and the
Bonneville Salt Flats.

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Currently, the extent of ice coverage on continental surfaces is much more limited compared to
the Pleistocene glaciations. Approximately 10 percent of Earth's land surface is covered with
ice, with over 96 percent of that found in Antarctica and Greenland. The Antarctic ice sheet is
the most extensive, covering about 98 percent of its surface and representing almost 90 percent
of the world's land ice. The ice in Antarctica is over 4000 meters (13,000 feet) thick in some
places. Greenland also has a significant ice sheet, covering 1,740,000 square kilometers
(670,000 square miles).

Apart from the major ice caps in Antarctica and Greenland, the remaining glaciers today are
primarily found in high mountain regions. In the United States, the majority of glaciers are in the
Pacific Northwest, particularly in the North Cascade Mountains of Washington. Alaska has a
substantial area covered by glaciers, including the Bering Glacier, which is more than twice the
size of Rhode Island.

Contemporary glaciation is influenced by global climate change, with the retreat of Arctic sea ice
and the loss of mass in Greenland's ice sheets being notable examples. Glaciers are sensitive
indicators of environmental change, reflecting variations in temperature and precipitation.
Antarctica, in particular, has garnered significant scientific attention due to its role in providing
insights into Earth's past climate and the current climate shift. Studies have shown that
Antarctica has been warming at a faster rate than previously thought, leading to the breakup of
ice shelves and increased flow rates of outlet glaciers.

GLACIER FORMATION AND MOVEMENT

Glaciers form and move under specific conditions of temperature and moisture. They begin to
develop when snow accumulates over several years, and the weight of new snow compresses
the old snow into ice. This ice mass starts to move due to gravity, forming a glacier. The
persistence of a glacier depends on the balance between snow accumulation and ice wastage
through melting and sublimation.

The process of snow turning into ice involves compression and coalescence, gradually
increasing its density. The glacier can be divided into two zones: the accumulation zone, where
new ice from snowfall exceeds melting, and the ablation zone, where ice loss is greater than
accumulation. These zones are separated by an equilibrium line where accumulation and
ablation are equal.

Glacier movement differs from the flow of liquid. Under pressure, ice deforms instead of
breaking, aided by partial melting and the presence of meltwater at the bottom, creating a
slippery surface for sliding. There are two types of glacier movement: plastic flow, where the
mass of ice oozes outward due to its weight, and basal slip, where the entire mass slides over a
lubricating film of water at the glacier's bottom.

Glacial movement is generally slow, with rates measured in centimeters per day. The flow can
be irregular, with pulsations and surges. Different parts of a glacier move at different speeds,
with surface ice moving faster than deeper ice. Glacier flow should be distinguished from glacier
advance, as flowing ice doesn't necessarily mean the outer edge of the glacier is advancing.
The outer margin may advance or retreat depending on the balance between accumulation and
ablation.

THE EFFECTS OF GLACIERS

15
Glaciers have significant effects on the landscape through erosion, transportation, and deposition
of rock. Glacial erosion occurs as the ice moves across the land, scraping against bedrock and
causing plucking and abrasion. Plucking happens when meltwater refreezes around rocky
protrusions, loosening and dragging rock particles along. Abrasion occurs as rock debris carried by
the moving ice wears down the bedrock. Subglacial meltwater streams also contribute to erosion
by creating smooth grooves and channels in the bedrock.

Glaciers are capable of transporting large blocks of rock as well as smaller particles. Most of the
material is carried along the base of the glacier, while some is transported on top of the ice through
rockfall and other forms of mass wasting. Meltwater streams flowing on, in, and under the ice play
a crucial role in transporting rock debris, especially smaller particles and glacial flour. These
streams can shift debris from the ice surface to the interior or bottom of the glacier. The flow rate of
a glacier varies depending on factors such as ice accumulation, slope gradient, and seasonal
variations.

Deposition is another important process influenced by glaciers. They pick up rock material from
one area and transport it to distant regions. This can result in significant changes to the landscape,
such as the removal of soil and bedrock from central Canada and the deposition of fertile soil in the
midwestern United States. The material deposited by glaciers is called drift, and it includes a
mixture of fragmented rock known as till. Direct deposition by glacial ice occurs when the ice melts
and deposits debris without meltwater redeposition. Glacial erratics, which are outsized boulders
different from the local bedrock, can also be left behind. Meltwater streams play a role in secondary
deposition by carrying and redepositing debris beyond the outer margin of the ice.

CONTINENTAL ICE SHEETS

Continental ice sheets, apart from oceans and continents, are the largest features on Earth's
surface. During the Pleistocene period, these ice sheets, except for Antarctica, formed in subpolar
and midlatitude regions and spread outward in all directions. The ice sheets originated from
multiple centers of ice accumulation and flowed outward, overriding existing topography. Over time,
the ice sheets merged into massive sheets on each continent, reshaping the land surface and
rearranging the drainage patterns.

The erosion caused by ice sheets resulted in a gently undulating surface, with deepened valley
bottoms being the most prominent feature. The direction of ice movement influenced the depth of
troughs, especially in areas with softer bedrock. The Finger Lakes District in central New York is an
example of parallel stream valleys deepened by glaciation, forming long, narrow lakes. Even in
cases where the preglacial valleys were not parallel to the ice flow, glacial erosion created
numerous shallow excavations that turned into lakes after the ice melted.

When ice sheets moved over bedrock hills, they sheared off and rounded the hills, creating a
characteristic shape called a roche moutonnée. The stoss side, facing the direction from which the
ice came, is smoothly rounded, while the lee side, facing away from the ice movement, is shaped
by plucking, resulting in a steeper slope.

The postglacial landscape shaped by ice sheets is characterized by low relief but not complete
flatness. It consists of ice-scoured rocky knobs, scooped-out depressions, bare rock, and lakes.
The previous drainage system was disrupted by ice erosion, leading to erratic and underdeveloped
stream patterns. Glacial deposition further modified this landscape by adding depositional debris.

16
Ice sheets deposit till, a mixture of unsorted debris, heterogeneously and extensively. Sometimes
the till forms a shallow veneer over the existing terrain without altering its shape, while in other
cases, it can bury the preglacial landscape under several hundred meters of till. The deposition
process creates an irregularly undulating surface known as a till plain.
Glacial sediments create distinct landforms known as moraines. Moraines are composed of till and
exhibit irregular rolling topography above the surrounding terrain. They can be elongated ridges or
more irregular in shape. Terminal moraines mark the furthest extent of glacial advance, while
recessional moraines form as the glacier retreats temporarily and stabilize at certain positions.
Ground moraines result from the deposition of till underneath the glacier. Kettles are depressions
formed when blocks of ice left by a retreating glacier are surrounded or covered by glacial drift,
resulting in irregular depressions that may fill with water and form lakes.

Drumlins are low, elongated hills composed of unsorted till, aligned parallel to the direction of ice
movement. They are the result of ice readvance into previously deposited glacial areas.
Glaciofluvial features are formed by meltwater carrying and depositing debris. Outwash plains are
extensive, smooth, and flat alluvial deposits beyond moraines, formed by streams issuing from the
melting glacier. Eskers are long, sinuous ridges of stratified drift formed when streams flowing
through tunnels in the ice become clogged and deposit their load. Kames are small mounds or hills
of poorly sorted sand and gravel associated with meltwater deposition in stagnant ice. Lakes are
common in glaciated areas, occupying basins and kettles left by glacial erosion and behind
morainal dams.

MOUNTAIN GLACIERS

Mountain glaciers have played a significant role in shaping the Earth's landscape. While they are
not as extensive as continental ice sheets, they have still had a noticeable impact. Mountain
glaciers are currently shrinking due to climate change. Unlike continental ice sheets, mountain
glaciers do not completely reshape the terrain because some parts of the mountains protrude
above the ice, and the movement of the glaciers is channeled by the mountains.

The development and flow of mountain glaciers involve the formation of alpine glaciers in
depressions near the heads of stream valleys. These glaciers move downslope, pulled by gravity,
and often merge with other glaciers from smaller valleys to form a system of interconnected
glaciers.

Mountain glaciers erode and transport rock debris, resulting in the creation of distinct landforms.
The primary landform feature in glaciated mountains is the cirque, which is a broad amphitheater-
like hollow at the uppermost part of a glacial valley. Cirques are formed as glaciers erode and
quarry the mountainside. When the glacial ice in a cirque melts away, it can form a depression that
holds water, known as a tarn.

Other landforms created by mountain glaciers include arêtes and cols. Arêtes are narrow, jagged
rock ridges that are left when neighboring cirques erode back into an interfluve from opposite
sides. Cols are sharp-edged passes or saddles through ridge crests that are formed when adjacent
cirques cut back enough to remove part of the arête between them.

Horns are steep-sided, pyramid-shaped mountain peaks that are formed when three or more
cirques intersect, resulting in the quarrying of the headwalls. Glacial troughs, on the other hand, are
valleys reshaped by glaciers. Glaciers can deepen, widen, and steepen valleys through abrasion
and plucking, creating a U-shaped cross-sectional profile and grinding away protruding spurs to
form truncated spurs.

17
Glacial steps are irregular series of rock steps or benches found in glacial troughs, resulting from
the differential erosion of resistant and weaker rock layers. Hanging troughs are formed when
smaller tributary glaciers cannot erode as deeply as the main valley glaciers, resulting in the
mouths of the tributary valleys being perched high along the sides of the major troughs.

Depositional features associated with mountain glaciers are less significant compared to those
formed by continental ice sheets. Moraines, which are ridges of unsorted debris, are the primary
depositional landforms. Lateral moraines are well-defined ridges formed along the sides of valley
glaciers, consisting of debris deposited by the glacier and material from the valley walls. Medial
moraines occur when lateral moraines from tributary glaciers join the main valley glacier, forming a
dark band of rocky debris down the middle of the combined glacier.

THE PERIGLACIAL ENVIRONMENT

The periglacial environment refers to areas on the perimeter of glaciation, which make up over
20% of the world's land area. These lands are found in high latitudes or elevations, primarily in
the Northern Hemisphere. Periglacial areas experience distinct characteristics due to the cold
climate, such as permafrost, which can be continuous or discontinuous and is found in regions
like Alaska, Canada, Russia, Asia, Scandinavia, and the western United States.
One notable feature of the periglacial terrain is patterned ground, which consists of various
geometric patterns that appear over large areas in the Arctic. These patterns can be formed by
the freeze-thaw cycle disrupting soil and regolith surfaces or by the development of ice wedges
in the tundra ground, creating large polygonal patterns.
Proglacial lakes are another feature of the periglacial environment. They form when ice blocks
natural drainage, causing meltwater to accumulate against the ice front, creating a lake.
Proglacial lakes are typically small and temporary, as ice movements and fluvial processes
eventually drain the water. However, there are cases of large and long-lived proglacial lakes
that experience fluctuations in size due to the changing location of the ice front. During the
Pleistocene Epoch, significant proglacial lakes formed along the margins of ice sheets in North
America, Europe, and Siberia.
In eastern Washington near Spokane, a landscape known as the Channeled Scablands was
formed by massive floods during the Pleistocene. These floods occurred when an ice sheet-
dammed lake called Pleistocene Lake Missoula, located near present-day Missoula, Montana,
periodically released enormous volumes of water. The floods scoured deep channels, leaving
ripple marks, before eventually draining into the Columbia River.
CAUSES OF THE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS
The causes of the Pleistocene glaciations, also known as ice ages, have been the subject of
scientific inquiry for many years. A complete theory explaining these glaciations must account
for four main characteristics: the accumulation of ice masses at various latitudes in both
hemispheres, the development of pluvial conditions in dryland areas, multiple cycles of ice
advance and retreat, and eventual deglaciation.
Glaciers grow when there is a net accumulation of snow over time and waste away when
summer melting surpasses winter snowfall. However, it is not always clear whether a colder or
warmer climate is more conducive to glaciation. While colder conditions would inhibit summer

18
melting and enhance winter accumulation, cold air cannot hold much water vapor. Warmer
winters would favor increased snowfall, while cooler summers are needed for decreased
melting. The timing of glacial advances and retreats also needs to be considered.
Oxygen isotope analysis has greatly improved our understanding of the Pleistocene glaciations.
The ratio of 18O/16O, derived from carbonate sediments and ice cores, serves as a proxy for
temperature. This analysis has revealed a sequence of major glacial and interglacial episodes,
as well as numerous minor advances.
Several factors have been associated with the Pleistocene glaciations. Milankovitch cycles,
which involve variations in Earth-Sun relations such as the inclination of Earth's axis and the
eccentricity of Earth's orbit, have been implicated. Other factors include variations in solar
energy output, greenhouse gas levels, changes in the positions of continents and ocean
circulation patterns, atmospheric circulation changes due to tectonic uplift, and reductions in
solar radiation reaching the surface due to volcanic eruptions.
None of these factors, either individually or in combination, provides a complete explanation for
the Pleistocene climate changes, and further research is needed.
Regarding the current status of Earth's ice age, it is uncertain whether we are in a postglacial or
interglacial period. Based on climate patterns over the past two and a half million years, it is
possible that Earth could enter another period of glaciation within tens of thousands of years.
However, human-induced global warming may potentially delay the onset of another glacial
period. It is challenging to provide a definitive answer to this question, as we are still close to the
events in a temporal sense.

Chapter 20
COASTAL PROCESSES
Coastlines are dynamic and energetic environments that span vast distances along oceans and
lakes. They exhibit a wide range of structures, relief, and topography. Wind plays a significant
role in shaping coastal landforms, generating waves and ocean currents. Other forces, such as
tides, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and long-term sea-level changes, also contribute to water
movement, but wind is the most important factor in terms of geomorphic effects. While the
processes that shape oceanic coastlines are similar to those acting on lakeshores, there are
three main differences: tides have negligible impact on lakeshores, the causes of sea-level
fluctuations differ from those of lake-level fluctuations, and coral reefs are only found in tropical
and subtropical oceans. Generally, coastal processes have a greater impact on seacoasts due
to the larger size of the bodies of water, resulting in larger and more distinctive topographic
features. Therefore, this chapter primarily focuses on ocean shorelines.
WAVES
Waves involve the transfer of energy through a cyclic rising and falling motion in a substance. In
the case of water waves, they are undulations in the surface layers of a water body.

19
Most water waves are generated by the wind's friction on the water surface. These waves,
known as wind-generated or forced waves, can become significant in size if the wind is strong
but typically last for a limited time and don't travel far. Water waves that travel beyond their point
of origin are called swells and can travel long distances. Some water waves are generated by
factors other than wind, such as tidal surges, volcanic activity, or undersea tectonic movement.
There are two types of water waves discussed: waves of oscillation and waves of translation.
Waves of oscillation cause water to move in small circular or oscillatory movements with
minimal forward motion. As the wave passes, it produces a wave crest (the highest point) and a
wave trough (the lowest point). The horizontal distance between crests or troughs is called the
wavelength, and the vertical distance from crest to trough is the wave height. The height of a
wave depends on factors like wind speed, duration, water depth, and fetch (the area of open
water over which the wind blows).
Waves of translation can travel long distances with little change in speed or shape in deep
water. However, as they approach shallow water, they are affected by frictional drag on the sea
bottom. This causes the waves to transform from oscillatory motion to translational motion,
resulting in significant horizontal movement of the water surface. The waves slow down, bunch
together, decrease in wavelength, and increase in height. In shallower water, the waves
become higher, steeper, and more unstable. Eventually, they break, collapsing into whitewater
surf or plunging forward as breakers. The breaking waves create turbulent motion and can carry
particles onto the beach or pound rocky areas with force.
When a wave breaks, it produces a surge called swash that moves toward the shore or up the
beach. This surge can carry sediment or impact rocky areas. The momentum of the swash is
eventually overcome by friction and gravity, leading to a return flow called backwash, which
drains water seaward and often carries loose material with it.
Wave refraction occurs when waves change direction as they approach the shore due to factors
like uneven coastline or irregularities in water depth. This phenomenon causes waves to bend
and concentrate energy in certain areas, resulting in erosion of headlands and sediment
accumulation in bays.
Wave erosion is primarily caused by the pounding force of waves. Even small waves can wear
away the shore, while storm waves have immense power and can cause significant erosion.
Waves break with impact, hurling water, debris, and air onto the shore. The speed and mass of
the water, coupled with abrasive rock particles carried by the waves, contribute to erosion. Air
forced into cracks in rock and chemical action from seawater also contribute to erosion.
Tsunamis, also known as seismic sea waves, are triggered by sudden disruptions of the ocean
floor, such as fault movements, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Unlike wind-generated waves,
tsunamis disrupt the entire water column, displacing a large volume of water. In the open ocean,
tsunamis are low and have long wavelengths but slow down and increase in height as they
reach shallow water. Tsunamis arrive as rapidly advancing surges of water and can cause
devastating damage when they reach the coastline.
The passage also mentions the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and tsunami, which
resulted in one of the greatest natural disasters in recent history. The earthquake triggered a
tsunami that caused widespread destruction and loss of life across the Indian Ocean region.

20
Tsunami warnings can be issued based on seismic data, allowing for evacuation of coastal
areas. However, the effectiveness of warnings depends on the presence of local warning
systems and the proximity of the earthquake to populated coastlines.
IMPORTANT SHORELINE-SHAPING PROCESSES
These processes include tides, changes in sea and lake levels, ice push, organic secretions,
stream outflow, and coastal sediment transport.
Tides, which are caused by the gravitational influence of the Sun and Moon, result in the regular
rise and fall of the ocean waters. Tides can erode cliffs and shorelines in certain areas,
especially in narrow bays and passages between islands.
Sea-level changes can occur due to tectonic activity or fluctuations in the amount of water in the
oceans. These changes have caused some coastlines to become submerged or emerge above
sea level.
Global warming and climate change contribute to a rise in sea level. As temperatures increase,
the thermal expansion of ocean water and the melting of glaciers and ice caps lead to higher
sea levels. This can result in the inundation of low-lying coastal areas and increased risks from
storm waves.
In regions where bodies of water freeze over in winter, ice push can occur. This happens when
frozen water expands and pushes against the shoreline, causing deformations.
Organisms like coral polyps secrete calcium carbonate, forming coral reefs, platforms, and atolls
in tropical and subtropical oceans.
Sediment deposited on shorelines often comes from stream outflow or erosion of coastal rocks.
Sediment transport along coastlines is mainly carried out by wave action and local currents,
such as longshore currents and beach drifting.
Wind can also directly transport sediment and contribute to the formation of dunes.
COASTAL DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
Coastal depositional landforms are created through the deposition of sediment, particularly
sand, by the diminished energy of moving water along shorelines. These deposits are often
temporary due to the constant erosion caused by agitated waters. The balance of sediment
removal and addition determines the persistence of these deposits.
Beaches are the most widespread depositional feature and consist of loose sediment adjacent
to bodies of water. They can vary in size and slope depending on the composition of the
sediment. Beaches have different zones, including the backshore, foreshore, nearshore, and
offshore.
Spits are linear deposits of sediment that extend into open water and are attached to the land at
one end. They can curve or connect with land on the other side of a bay, forming a baymouth
bar. Tombolos are depositional features that connect a near-shore island with the mainland.
Barrier islands are long, narrow sandbars built up in shallow offshore waters parallel to the
shore. They can extend for several kilometers and often form the dominant element of a coastal
terrain. Barrier islands can create lagoons between themselves and the mainland, which may

21
gradually fill up with sediment and transform into mudflats and coastal marshes. activities, such
as dam construction and artificial structures, have disrupted sediment budgets along many
coastlines. Dams trap sediment, reducing the amount transported along shorelines. Beach
nourishment and stabilization structures, like groins and jetties, have been used to maintain
beaches, but their effectiveness varies, and some communities continue to struggle with beach
shrinkage.
SHORELINES OF SUBMERGENCE AND EMERGENCE
Coastal topography can be influenced by changes in sea level relative to the land. A rise in sea
level leads to a shoreline of submergence, while a rise in land creates a shoreline of
emergence. Submergence occurs due to factors like melting ice sheets and global warming,
causing coastal zones to be submerged. This results in estuaries and ria shorelines, where
previous river valleys are drowned and seawater extends inland. Fjorded coasts are formed
when glaciated high-relief coastal areas are submerged, creating deep, narrow inlets called
fjords.
Coastal emergence is caused by tectonic uplift or past interglacial ice melting. It is characterized
by raised shoreline features above the present water level. Wave-cut cliffs, sea stacks, and
wave-cut platforms are common landforms associated with emergent coastlines. Wave erosion
creates cliffs, notches, sea arches, and sea stacks, while wave-cut platforms form below water
level. Marine terraces are uplifted wave-cut platforms along rising coasts, formed by a
combination of sea level fluctuations and tectonic uplift.
Multiple marine terraces can be present along certain shorelines, representing different periods
of terrace formation. These changes in sea level and tectonic activity have shaped the coastal
landscapes we see today.
CORAL REEF COASTS
Coral reef coasts are prevalent in tropical oceans and are formed by the intricate interactions of
animals, algae, and physical and chemical processes. The key organisms responsible for reef
development are stony corals, which are small anthozoan animals that live in colonies. These
coral polyps create their external skeletons by extracting calcium carbonate from seawater.
They have tentacles surrounding a mouth and feed on tiny animal and plant plankton.
Additionally, they form symbiotic relationships with algae that provide them with food through
photosynthesis.
Coral reefs thrive in shallow tropical waters, but they are sensitive to environmental conditions.
They require warm, clean water and an ample amount of sunlight. Coral reefs can be found
along stable coastlines and even around volcanic islands. The formation of reefs around
volcanic islands follows a sequence of fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls.
Fringing reefs develop when coral accumulates on the flank of a newly formed volcanic island
just below sea level. As the volcanic island sinks, the coral builds upward, forming a reef
attached to the volcano. Barrier reefs are formed when the volcano continues to sink, causing
the coral to grow upward in a cylinder shape. The result is a coral ring separated from the
remaining volcanic landmass by a lagoon. Atolls are formed when the top of the sinking volcano
goes beneath the water surface, leaving a ring of coral surrounding a lagoon. Atolls consist of
closely spaced coral islets separated by narrow channels of water.

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