Chapter 5 PROCESS CONTROL Stunningia INTRODUCTION e Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications. e This module introduces you to control in process industries, explains why control is important, and identifies different ways in which precise control is ensured. e The following five sections are included in this module: 1. The importance of process control 2. Control theory basics 3. Components of Control Loops 4. Controller algorithms and tuning 5. Process control systems ¥ ‘{sees in| 1) THE IMPORTANCE OF PROCESS CONTROL The basic objectives of any process control system are: 1. Closely monitor the condition of the process 2. Maintain the process in a safe and stable condition Compensate for changes in the process conditions and maintain production to a given specification 4. Increase profitability LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this section, you will be able to: ° Define process e Define process control e Describe the importance of process control in terms of : variability, efficiency, and safety Zze Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products. The raw materials, which either pass through or remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end product. e Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry, and the power industry. e Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when manufacturing a product. For example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to another, the temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an end product. iee Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons: 1. Reduce variability, 2. Increase efficiency, 3. Ensure safety Reduce Variability: Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which ensures a consistently high-quality product. Manufacturers can also save money by reducing variability. For example, in a gasoline blending process, as many as 12 or more different components may be blended to make a specific grade of gasoline. If the refinery does not have precise control over the flow of the separate components, the gasoline may get too much of the high-octane components. As a result, customers would receive a higher grade and more expensive gasoline than they paid for, and ‘the refinery would lose money. The opposite situation would be customers receiving a lower grade at a higher price.Reducing variability can also save money by reducing the need for product padding to meet required product specifications. Padding refers to the process of making a product of higher-quality than it needs to be to meet specifications. When there is variability in the end product (i.e., when process control is poor), manufacturers are forced to pad the product to ensure that specifications are met, which adds to the cost. With accurate, dependable process control, the setpoint (desired or optimal point) can be moved closer to the actual product specification and thus save the manufacturer money. PY limit to ensure quality PV limit to ensure quality PV Setpoint Low Variability PV Setpoint High VariabilityIncrease Efficiency e Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize efficiency. For example, a control point might be the temperature at which a chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature ensures process efficiency. Manufacturers save money by minimizing the resources required to produce the end product. Ensure Safety e Arun-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical reaction, may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control of all of the processing variables. The consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic. e Precise process control may also be required to ensure safety. For example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the inflow of air used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial in preventing boiler implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of “2(Z| 2) CONTROL THEORY BASICS . This section presents some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from which to understand more complex control processes and algorithms later described in this module. Common terms and concepts relating to process control are defined in this section, . Learning Objectives © After completing this section, you will be able to: . Define control loop © Describe the three tasks necessary for process control to occur: » Measure » Compare > — Adjust . Define the following terms: Process variable Setpoint Manipulated variable Measured variable Error Offset Load disturbance Control algorithm . us at least five process variables that are commonly controlled in process measurement industries . Ata high level, differentiate the following types of control: $s Manual versus automatic feedback controlThe Control Loop * Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way, requiring three tasks to occur: » Measurement » Comparison » Adjustment ® Inthe figure, a level transmitter (LT) measures the level in the tank and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a controller (LIC), The controller compares the reading to apredetermined value, in this case, the maximum tank level established by the plant operator, and finds that the values are equal. The controller then sends a signal to the device that can bring the tank level back to a lower level—a valve at the bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let some liquid out of the tank.® Summary of Control Terminology The value set on the scale of the control system in order to obtain the required condition. Set pat lithe controller was set at 60°C far a particular application: 60°C would be termed as the ‘set point” Desired value ‘The required value that should be sustained under ideal conditions. Control value The value of the control condition actually maintained under steady state conditions. Deviation The difference between the set point and the contral value, Offset Sustained deviation. Sensor The element thet respands directly to the magnitude of the controlled condition. Contralled medium The medium being controlled by the system. Controlled condition The physical condition of the controlled medium, Contraller A device which accepts the signal from the sensor end sends a corrective (or controlling) signal to the actuator. Actuator The element thet adjusts the controlled device in response to « signal from the controller. Controlled device The final controlling element in a control system, such as a control valve or a variable speed pump.e Process Variable: is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas) that can change the manufacturing process in some way. e Setpoint: is a value for a process variable that is desired to be maintained. For example, if a process temperature needs to kept within 5°C of 100°C, then the setpoint is 100°C. A temperature sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint. e Measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must be kept at the designated setpoint. Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure flow into and out of a storage tank to determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the measured variable, and the process fluid level is the process variable. The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at setnnint is called the eng nlnustatert variable ‘Controller| Zin Types of thermocouples e Erroris the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either positive or negative. The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error. Therefore, it is imperative that error be well understood, ® Magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the values of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude of error at any point in time compared to the previous error provides the basis for determining the change in error. The change in error is alse an important value. e Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has existed. e Rate of Change is shown by the slope of the error plot. Rate of Change of Error {Slope of Error Pot)e Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the control system held the process fluid at 100.5°C consistently, even though the setpoint is 100°C, then an offset of 0.5°C exists. e Load Disturbance: is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process variable. In the temperature control loop example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the process fluid. e Control Algorithm: is a mathematical expression of a control function. Using the temperature control loop example, V in the equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The relationship in a control algorithm can be expressed as: V=f(+e e The fuel valve position (V) is a function (f) of the sign (positive or negative) of the error. Surnming bblock Process. Error Maniputated variable = variable hoe fe) | se,Manual and Automatic Control e Before process automation, people, rather than machines, performed many of the process control tasks. For example, a human operator might have watched a level gauge and closed a valve when the level reached the setpoint. Control operations that involve human action to make an adjustment are called manual control systems. i Int valve 2 Visual indicator 3 Water Overflow Discharge valve {fixed position) : # Final product® Conversely, control operations in which no human intervention is required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a level controller, are called automatic control systems. ® Automatic control systems produce: + Amore consistent product + Release skilled operators for other productive work + Reduce the physical effort required, lessening fatigue and boredom + Decrease the physical workload on an operator + Improve safety and working conditions ® Once an automatic control system has been installed and commissioned, it should be able to maintain a pre-set operating condition over an extended period of time without any aperator involvement. [ Comtee Output ‘Gent put gal opal | Act | Denn (komme) Macradated att | Goat dev a | cant condinon TH el %aC) Open and Closed Control Loops e An open contro! loop exists where the process variable is not compared, and action is taken not in response to feedback on the condition of the process variable, but is instead taken without regard to process variable conditions. e Shen loop control has no information or feedback about the measured value. The position of the correcting element is fixed. e tis unable to compensate for any disturbances in the process. Moagured Value Indicator Meaeuring Element Ostecting Element Correcting Elemant (Hand Valve) Process Fluld Procass Fluid ‘ ‘i 4 Outlot ZAclosed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation from setpoint. In a closed loop control system the output of the measuring elementis fed into the loop controller where it is compared with the set point. An error signal is generated when the measured value is not equal to the set point. Subsequently, the controller adjusts the position of the control valve until the measured value fed into the controller is equal to the set point. Closed loop control has information and feedback about the measured value. The position of the correcting element is variable. It is able to compensate for any disturbances in the process. Lovet Transmittar (Proeaes Wariabie) Set Point - Full (Deaired {,_Controlior [Output Signal Gentrol Valeo IndicatoraC) 3) COMPONENTS OF CONTROL LOOPS « This section describes the instruments, technologies, and equipment used to develop and maintain process control loops. Control Loop Equipment and Technology © The basic elements of control as measurement, comparison, and adjustment. In practice, there are instruments and strategies to accomplish each of these essential tasks. PRIBARY CONTRO, FINAL CONTROL eee ELEMENTe Primary elements are devices that cause some change in their property with changes in process fluid conditions that can then be measured. ® Transducer is a device that translates a mechanical signal into an electrical signal. For example, inside a capacitance pressure device, a transducer converts changes in pressure into a proportional change in capacitance. e Converter is a device that converts one type of signal into another type of signal. e Transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor or transducer into a standard signal and transmits that signal to a monitor or controller e Signals: There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to transmit the process variable measurement from the instrumentto a centralized control system. 1. Pneumatic signal: are signals produced by changing the air pressure in a signal pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process variable. The common industry standard pneumatic signal range is 3-15 psig. 2. Analog signal: The most common standard electrical signal is the 4-20 mA current signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through a set of wires. 3. Digital signal: are discrete levels or values that are combined in specific ways to represent process variables and also carry other information, such as diagnostic information. The methodology used to combine the digital signals is referred to as protocol.e Indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about the process. e Recorderis a device that records the output of a measurement devices. e Chart recorders: Recorders that create charts or graphs. e Controller is a device that receives data from a measurement instrument, compares that data to a programmed setpoint, and, if necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action. » controllers are usually one of the three types: pneumatic, electronic or programmable. Controllers also commonly reside in a digital control system. e Correcting or final contro! elementis the part of the control system that acts to physically change the manipulated variable. e Actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical change in the final control device when signalled to do so. ee oe{senses Zen] 4) CONTROLLER ALGORITHMS AND TUNING After completing this section, you willbe able to: ° Differentiate between discrete, multistep, and continuous controllers ° Describe the general goal of controller tuning. . Describe the basic mechanism, advantages and disadvantages of the following mode of controller action: » Proportional action » Integral action » Derivative action ° Give examples of typical applications or situations in which each mode of controller action would be used, ° Identify the basic implementation of P, PI and PID control in the following types of loops: Pressure loop Flow loop Level loop Temperature loopia Controller Algorithms e The actions of controllers can be divided into groups based upon the functions of their control mechanism. Each type of controller has advantages and disadvantages and will meet the needs of different applications. Grouped by control mechanism function, the three types of controllers are: » Discrete controllers » Multistep controllers » Continuous controllers Wes| e Discrete controllers are controllers that have only two modes or positions: on and off (two-step). This type of control doesn't actually hold the variable at setpoint, but keeps the variable within proximity of setpoint in what is known as a dead zone. Two-step is the simplest of all the control modes. The output from the controller is either on or off with the controller's output changing from one extreme to the other regardlessof the size of the error. Sak MaltAdvantages of ON-OFF Control: e On/Off control makes "trouble shooting" very easy and requires only basic types of instruments. Disadvantages of ON-OFF Control: e The process oscillates. © The final control element (usually a control valve) is always opening and closing. This causes excessive wear. e There is no fixed operating point. Old sal Point - Measured Yaive Set Point-— Change New Ser Point Timee Multistep controllers are controllers that have at least one other possible position in addition to on and off. Multistep controllers operate similarly to discrete controllers, but as setpoint is approached, the multistep controller takes intermediate steps. Therefore, the oscillation around setpoint can be less dramatic when multistep controllers are employed than when discrete controllers are used. Process variable action uJi a) Continuous Controllers e Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV to the SP to determine if an error exists. If there is an error, the controller adjusts its output according to the parameters that have been set in the controller. The tuning parameters essentially determine » How muct correction should be made? The magnitude of the correction (change in controller output) is determined by the proportional mode of the controller. » How long the correction should be applied? The duration of the adjustment to the controller output is determined by the integral mode of the controller » How fast should the correction be ore The speed at which a correction is made is determined by the derivative mode of the controller.i a) Proportional Action e With proportional control action, the correcting element is adjusted In proportion to the change in the measured value from the set point. The largest movementis made to the carrecting element when the deviation between measured value and set point is greatest. Usually, the set point and measured value are equal when the output is midway of the controller output signal range, e Inthe accompanying diagram, the set point is shown at 60%, the measured value at 75% and the output at 65%. If the measured value were to drop to 60%, that is, equal to the SP, the output would stabilise at the designed 50%. By repositioning the set point to 50% the measured value falls to 50%, the output would again be 50%, e Assuming that the level transmitter, controller and control valve are all operating correctly and have been recently calibrated, when set point and measured value are equal and the system is in stable condition, the valve will be 50% open. The valve would have been sized during design to maintain the stable condition under a set of known conditions.e The process throughput, the fluid condition, the vessel, operating pressure and the back-pressure from the downstream process can all affect the throughput of the control valve. From .the diagram, it can be seen that the process input is equal to the process output and steady state conditions have been achieved with a level stabilised at 75%, but with a SP of 60%. Under these conditions, the control valve would need to be 65% open; the magnitude of deviation is used to reposition the valve from its normal 50% open position. Deviation from other changes in operating conditions, particularly load changes, would also open or close the valve to achieve the new stable level. Old Set Point Balanced System 4 Measured Value 1 Ni Sat Point _——*1 ear Change Fes foo ae nal Poie The process load can be changed in the following ways to remove the deviation: » Reduce the process inputto the vessel allowing the level to drop so that a stable level is achieved at 60%'when the valve is 50% open. » Increase the operating pressure of the vessel. This creates a higher differential pressure across the control valve, causing the fluid to flow from the vessel at an increased rate. This allows the level to’ fall so that» a stable level is achieved at 60% when the valve is 50% open. Reduce the back pressure from the downstream process, creating a higher differential pressure across the control valve, This also causes the fluid to flow from the vessel at an increased rate. Increase the capacity of the control valve to allow more process fluid to flow through the valve so that at 50% open a 60% level in the vessel is achieved. Any combination of the above conditions will also remove the deviation. Over compensation may cause the measured value to move below the set point, causing a deviation in the opposite direction. VieProportional Mode: e The simplest and most common form of control action to be found on a controller is proportional. With this form of control the output from the controller is directly proportional to the input error signal, i.e. the larger the input error the larger the output response fram the controller. e The actual size of the output depends on another factor, the controller's proportional band or gain. (The controller's sensitivity) e The setting for the proportional mode may be expressed as either: » Proportional Band (PB) is another way of representing the same information and answers this question: "What percentage of change of the controller input span will cause a 100% change in controller output?“ PB = A Input (% Span) For 100% A Output. » Proportional Gain (Kc) answers the question: "Whatis the percentage change of the controller output relative to the percentage change in controller input?“ Proportional Gain is expressed as: Gain, (Kc) =A Output%/ A Input % ee oeConverting Between PB and Gain e Gain is just the inverse of PB multiplied by 100 or gain = 100/PB e PB=100/Gain ae ie * Also recall that: Gain = 100% / PB a ° ° | il Proportional Gain, (Kc) = A Output% / A Input % %>"* PB= A Input (%Span) For 100% A Output me The proportional mode of control can be described mathematically as: V=K(E)+M Where » V = controller output signal to correcting unit, » K = adjustable gain, » E = magnitude of error signal, » M=constant which is the position of the valve when there is no deviation, that is, SP = MV and E =0. e This can be shown diagrammatically as in the following diagram and gain settings can be shown graphically as in the following diagram. Automatic Controller 1 | Gontrolier Outtet ee | an i Signer (vs K \_Evror Slgnai € lustable N=KE)+M ~ =SP —Mv [es | {Summary of Proportional control With Proportional Control: % Controller Output = (Change in Exror}Gain) ® Proportional Made Responds anly tow ehangoin error & Proportionalmeda alone wl not return the PV to SP. © Stable control Suffers fromoffset due to load changes, © Narrow PB% & Fasttoraspond, Large ovorshosi, Long setting tine, = Seal offset = WiderB% Stow torespond, & Quickte seta” = Largectiset ‘= Proportional control used in process where load changes are small and the offset can be tolerated. © Bape - resin FP lacrece sao) unl fe proven cyan avin, a Ustionce, tht double bn PB (cade galt by = With Optimum Setting of P Control Correct settingaC) Integral Mode Integral Action e Another component of error is the duration of the error, i.e., how long has the error existed?. The controller output from the integral or reset mode is a function of the duration of the error. e Integral action is used in conjunction with proportional action to eliminate offset problem resulting from P control. e This is accomplished by repeating the action of the proportional mode as long as an error exists. es*® Anexample of integral action in P +1 controller is shown in the following diagram, here if the process is operating idl ieaey oe, conditions ata set point of, say, hat at time T =O minutes, the o1 f the is at 20%. In a proportional only controller the ‘output would be 50% when the measured value is equal to set point, but this is not necessarily the case In a proportional plus reset controller. « At the time T = 0.2 minutes a sudden load change occurs which causes the measured value to rise 20% above set point to 60%. Proportional action increases the output 20% to 40%, which indicates a PB of 100% or a gain of 1. © If the offsetis maintained after this output change because the increased output cannot cause the measured variable to drop, the controller output will begin to increase in a ramp fashion. © The time it takes to rarnp the controller output up to a value equal to the effect of the initial proportional action is called the integral action time, So the initial proportional action is a 20% increase in output. This action is repeated by integral action in 0.4 - 0.2 = 0.2 minutes. to move the output from 40% to 60%, so for this example, integral action time = 0. minutes per repeat = 5 repeats/min. Los enero Maassred Valin Fier Ta The (win) ——a Ca) e Integral Action Effect Step change in load Overshaot ‘Original proportional band Integral action begins inside the P-band Actual value falls quickly and recovers due ta proportional action TimeIntegral Saturation or Reset Wind-up e Acommon problem caused by integral action is called integral saturation or wind-up. During the time a process is shut down the integral action will keep trying to move the valve to correct for the error between its set point and the actual process value. When the process is started up it will take time for the process controller to gain control of the valve again. This time delay could result in damage to the plant or shutdown due to the plant safely devices cutting in. Normally a process such as this would be brought up on manual control and then switched over to automatic. e To prevent saturation from eecuring contac’: are fitted with integral de- saturation or anti wind-up devices. De-saturation relays prevent the controller's output from falling below 3 psi and rising above 1 psi.(| Zin| Summary of integral action (Reset) Integral (Reset) Summary - Output is a repeat of the proportional action as long as error exists. The units are in terms of repeats per minute or minutes per repeat. Advantages - Eliminates error Disadvantages: Makes the process less stable and take longer to s Can suffer from integral saturation or wind-up on batch processes. Fast Reset (Large Repeats/Min., Small Min./Repeal) High Gain Fast Return To Setpoint » Possible Cycling * Slow Reset (Small Repeats/Min,, Large Min/Repeats) » Low Gain » Slow Return To Setpoint » Stable Loop © P+ Icontrolier is used when offset must be eliminated automatically and integral saturation due to a sustained offselis nol a problem. © Trailing and Error Tuning - Increase repeats per minute until the PV cycles following a disturbance, then slow the resetaction to a value that is 1/3 of the initial setting. . Recovery = Time le down. Correct settingsDerivative Mode Why Derivative Mode? Some large and/or slow process do not respond well to small changes in controller output. For example, a large liquid level process or a large thermal process (a heat exchanger) may react very slowly to.a small change in controller output. To improve response, a large initial change in controller output may be applied. This action is the role of the derivative mode. The derivative action is initiated whenever there is a change in the rate of change of the error ihe sees of the PV). The magnitude of the derivative action is determined by the setting of the lerivative. © In operation, the controller first compares the current PV with the last value of the PV. If there is a change in the slope of the PV, the controller determines what its output would be at a future point in time (the future point in time is determined by the value of the derivative setting, in minutes). The derivative mode immediately increases the output by that amount. Slope= Rate of Error Change('Y/X)Derivative Action: The following illustration shows the effect of derivative action when a constant rate of change of offsetis considered [the derivative time is 0.4 minutes (1 -0.6)]. When the set point is equal to the measured value the output remains constant. Once the rate at which the measured value is increasing from the set point is determined, then derivative action acts to increase the contraller output, in this case, from 30% to 50%, The output then increases due to proportional action. The additional correction exists Only stile the error is changing, it disappears when the error stops changing even-though t@ may still be a large value of error signal, Derivative action has no effect on the offsetin a proportional only controller and therefore itis unusual to find a proportional plus derivative controller.Summary of Derivative action (Rate) * Rate action is a function of the speed of change ofthe error. The units are minutes. The action is to apply an immediate response that is equal to the proportional plus reset action that would have occurred some number of minutes | the future. * Advantages - Rapid output reduces the time that is required to retum PV to SP in slow process, © Disadvantage - Has no effecton offset. Dramatically amplifies noisy signals; can cause cycling in fast processes, * Large (Minutes): High Gain » Large Output Change » Possible Cycling © Small (Minutes): > Low Gain » Small Output Change » Stable Loop © Trialand-€rror Tuning » Increase the rate setting until the process cycles following a disturbance, then reduce the rale setting to one-third of the initial value, Recovery , mc Time | 1 Correct settingsProportional, Pl, and PID Control e Byusing all three control algorithms together, process operators can: » Achieve rapid response to major disturbances with derivative control » Hold the process near setpoint without major fluctuations with proportional control » Eliminate offset with integral control e Not every process requires a full PID control strategy. If a small offset has no impacton the process, then proportional control alone may be sufficient. e PI control is used where no offset can be tolerated, where noise (temporary error readings that do not reflect the true process variable condition) may be present, and where excessive dead time (time after a disturbance before control action takes place) is not a problem. e In processes where no offset can be tolerated, no noise is present, and where dead time is an issue, customers can use full PID control. fel ee ere Nera Flaw Yes ves No Level yes [yes Rare Temperature | Yes [ves Yes Pressure [Analytical| rtss arg Pod sherk ‘hon eataed oart = ay tox, Properiond |g ree |e Proprtiont i arratia reo a aja epnn we cans Pepin pas ate uu arate ‘pei = Wight eto, eat ae miriaeverstoat = Morn complete vat ny ut ment econ carters nea matte tity, = re expensive wee pont cantatern a conceni a) Automatic Controller Adjustments e Set point adjustment, which allows the operator to select the required operating point for the process when the controller is in automatic mode. e Auto/manual selector switch. When in the manual position the controller output becomes independent of the measured value and set point, that is, the controller ‘operates in open loop. e Output adjustment which allows the position of the final control element to be controlled by the operator when the controlleris in manual mode so that the correcting element can be moved from fully closed to fully open and can be held at any position in between.Bumpless Transfer « Whenswitching a controller from auto to manual or vice versa, care must be taken that the output signal does not move sharply when the auto/manual switch is operated. This may cause a severe disturbance in the process, which may result in damage or shutdown. * Switch Auto to Manual » Adjust manual output until the balance indicator shows thal the manually adjusted output pressure is equal to the output pressure generated by the auto mechanism. The balance indicator mechanism varies according to the manufacturer of the controller, but all indicate by a flag or some similar device when the two output pressures are equal, » Once the balance position has been found, It Is safe to switch from auto to manual without any process bump. The manual output adjustment now has control of the output to the final control element. e Switch Manual to Auto » When switching from manual to auto, the set point should Initially be moved towards the measured value to see if an output balance can be found. It is usual to find balance where there is an offsetbetween set point and measured value. When the balance point has been found, it is then safe to switch to auto and slowly ones the set point to the desired operating condition.a Ca) Controller Tuning Why Controllers Need Tuning? ® Controllers are tuned in an effort to match the characteristics of the control equipment to the process so that two goals are achieved; is the foundation of process control measurementin that electricity: » The system responds quickly to errors. » The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around the SP) e Controller tuning is performed to adjust the manner in which a control valve (or other final control element) responds to a change in error. e In particular, we are interested in adjusting the controller's modes (gain, Integral and derivative), such that a change in controller input will result in a change in controller output that will, in turn, cause sufficient change in valve position to eliminate error, but not so great a change as to cause instability or cycling. There are many trial and error methods of controller tuning which do not involve mathematical analysis and should be demonstrated by an experienced person, otherwise shutdowns may occur. © The first adjustment, which would normally be made, would be to set forward or reverse action as required. A forward acting controller has increasing output in response to an increasing measured variable. A reverse acting controller has. decreasing output in response to an increasing measured variable.| e PB at Optimum Value e Controller optimisations can then be carried out as follows. For any particular control system there is a value of the proportional band, which will produce the best controller performance: » Increasing the proportional band above this value will result in greater deviations of the controlled condition from the desired value owing to disturbances in the process. » Decreasing the Proportional band below the critical value will increase the tendency for the process to hunt, and disturbances will cause prolonged oscillation of the controlled condition about the control point. Indeed, if made too narrow, the system becomes unstable and instead of the oscillations dying out they will increase in amplitude. e Trained observation of the chart record, following a plant disturbance, thus provides a method of initially adjusting a controller's settings to the Process. Process disturbances are easily simulated by moving thii a) Empirical Tuning Method «® Proportional only controller With transfer switch at manua1, set PB at maximum or at safe high value, usually 200% PB. Move transfer switch to auto and make changes in set point. The time required for the disturbance to settle may then be noted. Continue reducing band-width to half its previous value until the oscillationdo not die away, But continue to be perceptible. Now increase the band-width to twice its value. This gives the required Stability, that is, the minimum stabilising time and minimum offset. e Proportional plus integral action Set the Integral Action Time (IAT) to maximum. Adjust the proportional band as for a proportional controller. Decrease the IAT in steps, each step being such that line IAT 1s halved at each adjustment. Below some critical value, depending upon the lag characteristics of the process, hunting will occur. This hunting Indicates that the IAT has been reduced too far. Now increase the time to approximately twice this value to restore the desired stability. %e Proportional plus derivative action » ’ Adjust the Derivative Action Time (DAT) to its minimum value. Adjust the proportional band as described for proportional controller, but do not increase the band when hunting occurs. Increase the DAT (that is, double each setting) so that; the hunting caused by the narrow band is eliminated. Continue to narrow the band and again increase the DAT until the hunting is eliminated. Repeat previous step until further increase of the derivative action time fails to eliminate the hunting introduced by the reduction of the proportional band, or tends to increase it. This establishes the optimum value of the DAT and the hunting should be eliminated by increasing the width of the proportional band slightly. e Proportional plus integral plus derivative action » » » » » Set IAT to a maximum. Set DAT to a minimum. Adjust the proportional band as for a P + D controller. Adjust derivative using same procedure as for above, P + D. Adjust integral to a related value of the final derivative setting. ene In many cases, the setting procedure may be shortened by omitting settings, which are outside the probable range. ® The process should then respond to set point or load changes, where integral action removes offset and the second overshoot of set point is approximately 1/4 the amplitude of the first. This is commonly referred to as the 1/4 decay method and is generally agreed to be the optimum controller setting for a P + | controller. The above method is only used when no other controller setting data is available and must be practised with care. alb= wa ol Tim ti a) Optimum Settings (Ultimate Method) © The closed loop or ultimate method involves finding the point where the system becomes unstable and using this as a basis to calculate the optimum settings. e The following steps may be used to determine ultimate PB and period: 1. Switch the controller to Manual and set the proportional band to high value. 2. Turn off all integral and derivative action. 3. Switch the controller to automatic and reduce the proportional band value to the point where the system becomes unstable and oscillates with constant amplitude. Sometimes a small step change is required to force the system into its unstable mode. The below figure showing typical response obtained when determining ultimate proportional band and ultimate period time. 4. The proportional band that required causing continuous oscillation is the ultimate value Bu. 5, The ultimate periodic time is Pu. 6, From these two values the optimum setting can be calculated as per the. M following procedures. zgi Ca Optimum setting calculation e For proportional action only » PB%=2Bu% e Proportional + Integral » PB% = 2.2 Bu % » Integral action time = Pu / 1.2 minutes/repeat e Proportional + Integral + Derivative » PB%=1.67Bu » Integral action time = Pu / 2 minutes/repeat » Derivative action = Pu / 8 minutes esTypical Controller Settings Process Gain —PB(%) Integral Derivative Ti(sec) _minrpt. _T, (sec) Flow 0.6-0.8 167-125 3.0-1.8 0.05-0.03 0.0 Pressure 5.0 20.0 120-60 2.0-1.0 0.0 Temp. 1.0-2.0 100-50 120-30 20:05 6.0-12 Level 0.81.2 125-83 600-300 10.0-5.0 0.6-1.25) PROCESS CONTROL LOOPS — Inthis section, you will leam about how cantrol components and control algorithms are integrated to create a process control system, Because in some processes many variables mus| be controlled, and each variable can have an impact on the entire system, control systems must be designed to respond to disturbances at any point in the system and to mitigate the effectof those disturbances throughout the system Learning Objective: After completing this section, you will be able to: * Explain how a multivariable loop is different from a single loop. © Differentiate feedback and feedforward control loops in terms of their operatian, design, benefits, and limitations, * Perform the following functions for each type of standard process control loop (i.¢., pressure, flow, level, and temperature) » State the type of control typically used and explain why itis used » Identify and describe considerations for equipment selection (@.g., speed, noise) Identify typical equipment requirements ‘© Explain the basic implementation process, including a description of equipment requirements and considerations, for each of the follawing types of control: » Cascade control » Ratio contrat » Override control » — End-point contrat » Batch control » Fuzzy control Bescribe benefis and limitaions of each lype of contol listed above Seyamples of process applications in which each type of control described in this section mighi5.1) Single Control Loops e Feedback Control loop: measures a process variable and sends the measurementto a controller for comparison to setpoint. If the process variable is not at setpoint, control action is taken to return the process variable to setpoint. In the figure, a feedback loop in which a transmitter measures the temperature of a fluid and, if necessary, opens or closes a hot steam valve to adjust the fluid's temperature. e Feedback loops are commonly used in the process control industry. The advantage of a feedback loop is that it directly controls the desired process variable. The disadvantage to feedback loops is that the process variable must leave setpoint for action to be taken.‘xamples of feedback Control Loopse Feedforward control is a control system that anticipates load disturbances and controls them before they can impact the process variable. For feedforward control to work, the user must have a mathematical understanding of how the manipulated variables will impactthe process variable. In the figure the flow transmitter opens or closes a hot steam valve based on how much cold fluid passes through the flow sensor. An advantage of feedforward control is that error is prevented, rather than corrected. However, it is difficultto account for all possible load disturbances ina system through feedforward control. Factors such as outside temperature, buildup in pipes, consistency of raw materials, humidity, and moisture content can all become load disturbances and cannot always be effectively accounted for in a feedforward system. Flow | wansmitter C chest Cold ————————— process Steam valve aa =