24.10.

05

Open Loop Induction Motor Control

- An Introduction to Rotor Flux Control

The Cage Induction motor has long dominated the provision of motion in the
industrial world. It is responsible for converting some 70 to 80 per cent of all
electrical power into mechanical energy. Whilst the motor is of simple
fundamental construction, it naturally exhibits some quite unattractive
performance characteristics, notably instability and a non-linear load-current
characteristic.

From the earliest days of the 1960’s Electronic Drives have been used to
harness the induction motor. Initially the control strategies applied were
simple, being based on maintaining a fixed relationship between the applied
voltage and the applied frequency (V/F control). In the 1970’s Field-oriented,
or Flux control was introduced, which for the first time facilitated high dynamic
performance. The induction motor had been harnessed.

However, this control relied upon the provision of a speed/position sensor

mounted on the motor shaft which added hardware and cost. It is not
surprising therefore, that so much industrial and academic research activity
has been devoted to the search for high performance open loop control
strategies. Further, it should come as no surprise that manufacturers have
made very bold claims for their proprietary schemes.

In realty however, the search for the perfect open loop control system is very
much like King Arthur’s quest for the Holy Grail –There are many wonderful
stories told of great deeds to tame the induction motor. One day the perfect
universal open loop control system may be discovered. It does not exist today,
but significant progress has been made and this paper provides a state of the
art view, and a practical review of limitations on performance and the
application of open loop induction motor drives.

In the absence of a perfect open-loop control system it needs to be

recognised that there is a clear market position for closed-loop controllers,
and perhaps less obvious, there is a clear need for alternate open loop control
strategies in order to optimally meet the diverse needs of different
applications.

In order to understand this need, it is helpful to consider what is required of a

control system, what characteristics are important to Drive users, and what
open loop control strategies exist. From this we can consider if any one of
today’s strategies is the best choice for all applications or if as is the case with
so many things, a more flexible approach is required.
What is required of a control system?
The essence of any control system is very simple – a mechanism to make
something to follow a reference quantity. In the case of a drive the motor
shaft may be controlled to follow a demanded value of, for example, motor
speed.
Mains power supply

Speed Demand Variable

w* Speed Drive Motor
Speed
w

Ideally the relationship between the demand and the motor speed should be
linear and the control system should respond instantly to changes in the
reference. Unfortunately there are many non-linearity’s in both the motor and
drive circuits, which means that a simple open-loop control system can suffer
from a number of performance limitations:

• Speed Regulation - The output of a simple open-loop drive can be a fixed

frequency, which is proportional to the speed demand signal. Therefore
the frequency applied to the motor remains constant, for a constant speed
demand. However, the speed of the motor drops as load is applied
because of the characteristic slip of an induction motor, and so the speed
does not remain at the demanded level.

• Instability - It is possible under certain load conditions and at certain

frequencies for the motor speed to oscillate around the required speed
even though the applied frequency is constant.

• Non-linearity - There are many possible sources of non-linearity, if for

example the motor is connected to a gearbox the speed at the output of
the gearbox could be affected by backlash between the gears.

• Variations with temperature - Some aspects of motor performance may

vary with temperature, for example the slip of an induction motor increases
as the motor heats up, and so for a given load the motor speed may
reduce from the starting speed when the motor was cold.

• Delay - With a simple open-loop inverter and induction motor there can be
a delay before the motor speed reaches the demanded level after a
change in the demand. In very simple applications, i.e. controlling the
speed of a conveyor belt, this type of delay may not be a problem. In more
complex systems, such as machine tools, delays have a significant effect
on the quality of the system.
• Robust and Easy to Use - When discussing any high performance control
system the question of robustness of control and the ease of optimisation
is critical. The best control system in the world is of little practical value if
users are unable to set it up correctly and/or its performance drifts as the
operating point or some other variable such as temperature changes.

One method that can be used to improve the quality of the controller is to use
a measure of the quantity to be controlled i.e. a speed or position feedback
device to give closed-loop control.

Speed error Current reference Current Torque

werr i* i Te

Speed reference Speed

w* F Current Motor Load w
control

By closing the speed loop excellent control characteristics can be obtained

including:
• Good dynamic performance at all speeds.
• Full torque operation down to standstill.
• Suitable for field weakening applications where motors can be operated up
to many times base speed.
• The drive, when used in torque control gives excellent linearity between
the torque demand and actual torque over the entire speed range.

Closed-loop induction motor drives are used in many applications where good
dynamic performance is required and especially where an induction motor
drive is required to give full torque at standstill.

Whilst closed-loop control gives optimum control performance, as stated

earlier, it adds significant cost, increases motor length and requires additional
cables to be installed between the motor and the drive, which may be a
concern for some applications in respect system reliability. It is no surprise
therefore that considerable effort has been expended in developing an open
loop control system which overcomes many of these negative side effects.
What characteristics are important to Drive Users?
Before limitations of performance are discussed it is necessary to clearly
identify what are the key areas of performance which need to be considered.
Each application has its own requirements profile, but the following list can be
considered as the most important for many industrial applications.

1. Full torque capability down to low operating speeds, and ideally

reasonable torque capability at standstill.

2. Good transient performance is a benefit in most applications, as this helps

to prevent nuisance tripping as well as giving fast recovery from speed
changes when the load changes suddenly. It also allows fast acceleration
and deceleration when required.

3. Stable operation over the required speed range with different loads,
including very light loads, for all sizes of motor.

4. Good control linearity when operating with a torque reference (i.e. torque is
being directly controlled – there is not a speed controller).

5. Good control during mains interruptions to ride through supply loss.

6. Robust operation using motor parameters that the drive obtains itself from
the motor during auto-tuning, with no significant impact of effects such as
motor temperature.

7. Quiet operation in applications where high acoustic motor noise would be

a problem.

8. Easy to use – It is no good to have a fantastic system that only the drive
designer can set up or optimise.

What open-loop control methods can be used?

Basic V/F Control

The modern industrial variable speed drive is usually what is termed a voltage
source, the output of which can apply voltage at variable voltage and variable
frequency to a motor. Fundamental, and somewhat simplified,
electromagnetic theory postulates that to achieve constant flux in the
machine, the voltage applied must be proportional to the frequency. The
motor speed can be varied in this way, over a wide range, by changing the
applied frequency. A specific voltage to frequency characteristic is used to set
the voltage level, and so this is often referred to as V/F or voltage to frequency
control. As this scheme is based on a voltage source, it can be applied to any
form of load, single motor, multiple motors connected in parallel, or even non-
motor loads.
However, because the frequency applied to the motor remains constant, for a
constant speed demand, the speed of the induction motor drops as load is
applied because of the induction motor’s characteristic slip, and so the speed
does not remain at the demanded level. This system has been refined to
improve performance with varying load and usually includes motor slip
compensation. Although this scheme can operate without any form of motor
position feedback and is robust to incorrect motor parameter settings, it does
not give good transient performance. The voltage applied to the motor is
“boosted” at low speeds to compensate for the voltage drop in the motor
stator resistance. Ideally the amount of boost should vary with load conditions,
but as the level of voltage boost is normally fixed the motor is usually either
under or over fluxed at low speeds.

Steady State Flux Oriented Control

If the voltage boost in a basic V/F drive is replaced by a system that

compensates for the voltage drop in the motor stator resistance, not only is
the motor flux held at the correct level, but also the drive becomes flux
oriented for steady state operation. A control system that provides this type of
control is shown below.
vdc

vsx* m
÷
|vs|*
Voltage P Space
Motor
f* fcomp* characteristic vector
+_ modulator
and
vsy* θv
R θm inverter
+
+
θref (reference
frame angle)
∫ isx
DQ
isD
uvw
isu

Slip isy isQ isv

xy DQ
compensation

It is now possible to obtain current components that indicate the level of motor
flux (isx) and torque (isy) for steady state operation. The torque producing
current can be used to provide slip compensation and to apply torque
producing current limits. Unlike Direct Torque Control and Rotor Flux Control
which will be described later, steady state flux oriented control does not
remain flux oriented during transients, but nevertheless gives acceptable
performance for many applications as summarised below:

• Moderate transient performance.

• Full torque production down to approximately 1% of rated motor speed.

• Although a good estimate of stator resistance improves torque production

at low speeds, the control system will work with an inaccurate estimate,
albeit with reduced torque. The stator resistance can be measured by the
drive with a simple test.
• Although a good estimate of motor slip improves the ability of the drive to
hold the reference speed, the control system will work with an inaccurate
estimate, albeit with poorer speed holding. The motor slip depends on the
rotor time constant of the motor and this cannot be measured easily.

• Some motor parameters vary with temperature, and in order to achieve the
highest levels of performance, modern drives such as Unidrive SP can be
configured to perform an auto-tune every time the drive is enabled.

• No position or speed feedback is required from the motor shaft.

Steady state flux oriented control is a special case of a V/F type drive and it
can be used in many applications where moderate performance is required
and where providing position feedback would be unacceptable because of the
environment or cost, or is simply not necessary. The following are some
examples of applications, but not an exhaustive list, of where this can be
used:

• Fans and pumps

• Conveyors
• Centrifuges

Note: Improvements in control are invariably dependent upon a motor model,

which provides information to the control loop on the motor flux and/or
the shaft torque of the motor. It is important to recognise that whilst the
requirements of the motor model for different forms of control, are
rarely discussed, they can dominate the performance
limitations/processing time of many control schemes.

Direct Torque Control

Direct torque control, devised in 1985 by Takahashi and Noguchi, has

received much attention in recent years, and overcomes some of the
limitations of V/F control without needing position feedback. This is a flux
oriented method, which means that a model of the motor is used to determine
the position and the magnitude of the flux. These quantities are inputs to the
direct torque controller, which then produces the required levels of the flux
and torque in the motor. Although in principle the direct torque controller is
quite simple, in common with all other flux oriented methods, it requires a
good model of the motor to obtain the flux position and magnitude. Direct
torque control is a two dimensional form of hysteresis control, and so the
switching rate of the inverter is variable, and to some extent uncontrolled. This
can result in high levels of acoustic noise from the motor.
 vdc
|ϕ s|*
Flux Stator flux
controller δ|ϕ s|*
hysteresis Inverter
comparator Switching Motor
table
w* Te*
+_ PI Torque δTe*
hysteresis
comparator
Switching
αϕs state

Te isu

|ϕ s| Electromagnetic torque,
isv
stator flux and speed
w estimator

It is important to note that although the principle of direct torque control

appears simple, the motor model used to derive the estimates of torque, flux
and speed is complex and heavily dependant on the motor parameters. The
following list gives a comparison between direct torque control and a control
system based on a space vector modulator, used in the V/F type drives as
described earlier:

• The calculations for the current controllers, reference frame translation and
space vector modulator are more complex than the direct torque control
hysteresis comparators and switching table. However, the sample rate
required for direct torque control (typically 40kHz) is much higher than that
for a space vector modulator (6-12kHz), because direct torque control
uses a hysteresis method.

• As well as supplying a single induction motor, most induction motor drives

can also supply more than one motor in parallel where the motors are
different sizes, or the drive can be used as a general purpose variable
frequency / variable voltage power supply. Direct torque control cannot be
used in these applications, and so a direct torque control drive must also
be able operate with space vector modulation for these applications.

• Because direct torque control is based on hysteresis controllers the

inverter has a continuously variable switching frequency.This is considered
to be an advantage in spreading the spectrum of the audible noise from
the motor, but the range must be controlled so that it does not exceed the
maximum allowed by the power electronics of the inverter. Care must also
be taken with direct torque control to ensure that changes from one
voltage vector to another more than 60o away do not occur repetitively as
this can increase the stress on motor insulation.

• A direct torque control drive inherently delivers a change in torque in the

shortest possible time within the limits of the sample rate. Because of the
sampling and calculation delays usually associated with space vector
modulator based systems a change in torque can take several samples.
However, deadbeat type algorithms can be used with a space vector
modulator systems giving performance which compares well to that of
direct torque control.
Rotor Flux Control

Control Techniques has developed Rotor Flux Control (RFC) is a flux oriented
method, derived from the control techniques normally associated with high
performance closed loop flux oriented drives. RFC is very similar to this type
of system, except the position feedback sensor is not required and is replaced
with a motor model, which derives the rotor flux information and estimates the
motor speed. Whilst in principle this is not new, the simplicity of the model
required for RFC is very significant and at the core of the performance and
robustness improvements which have been realised.

The simple control overview is shown below.

Speed iTorque* Flux and torque

Speed
controller producing current
demand
control

Flux controller iFlux*

Motor
speed
Flux
Flux position
magnitude

Motor
voltages

Motor model
Motor
currents

Motor

The motor currents and motor voltages are used along with key motor
parameters in a robust model of the motor to estimate the flux position, the
flux magnitude and motor speed. These are inputs to the speed and flux
controllers, which derive two current references, one current reference defines
the actual flux, and the other defines the torque. These references are
translated into actual currents in the motor using a space vector modulator.
This technique is based on a fixed inverter switching frequency that may be
selected by the user.

Unlike the flux oriented control scheme described earlier, RFC control
algorithms perform well in both dynamic/transient conditions as well as the
steady state.
What are the benefits of Rotor Flux Control?

RFC is robust. It uses motor parameter values that can be obtained from the
motor nameplate with other parameters that can be measured by the drive
itself during auto-tuning. It provides advantage in all the important features
given including:

Speed control with high low speed torque capability

Where maximum torque at standstill is necessary, a flux oriented drive
with position feedback is required, however, with RFC good speed
holding at very low speeds is possible because the drive can produce
175% or more torque at speeds as low as 30min-1.

Good transient performance

The transient performance of a drive is partly defined by the response
time of the torque controller. With RFC the torque producing current
step response is between 0.5 and 1.2ms depending on the switching
frequency that is chosen. When a sudden load is applied to the motor it
forces the speed of the motor to change and it is desirable for the drive
to respond as quickly as possible to return the speed to the required
level. The maximum change in speed caused by the transient load
depends on the load applied and the settings of the speed controller.
The time taken to recover depends on the settings of the speed
controller. Using RFC it is possible for the speed to recover after a load
greater than 100% load in 20ms or less. There is usually a minimum
ramp rate setting (maximum rate of change of speed) that must be
used with a V/F type drive to avoid over-current tripping during speed
changes. However, if zero ramp rate is used with RFC the drive limits
the motor currents and accelerates the motor as fast as possible
without tripping. These performance features, which are normally
associated with a high performance flux oriented drive using position
feedback, indicate the high level of transient performance possible with
RFC.

Because RFC is based on a classical control strategy, the performance

can be precisely predicted. The performance of a motor shaft can be
defined in an almost infinite variety of ways. Control Engineers like to
talk about bandwidth. The following waveforms show both simulated
and measured speed loop response to a step change in demand. The
very close correlation shows the precision of the control algorithms –
This knowledge is important for customers when simulating the
mechanical performance of their machines. It is also helpful that all
gain settings are in real SI units.
 2

1.8
250Hz Simulated Measured
250Hz
1.6 150Hz
150Hz
1.4 50Hz 50Hz

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
0.1ms
5ms

Simulated and measured speed loop step response

Switching freq =12kHz, ζ=1.0, Bandwidth as shown

The speed loop bandwidth is seen to be >150Hz.

The current (or torque) controller performance using auto-tunes gains,
at 12kHz switching frequency is given by:

Unidrive SP current controller frequency response (12kHz switching) Unidrive SP current controller frequency response (12kHz switching)

0 0
10 100 1000 10000 10 100 1000 10000

-2
-50

-4

-100
-6
Phase (deg)
Gain (dB)

-8 No-150
DTC Kix4 (M) No DTC Kix4 (M)

-10
-200

-12

-250
-14

-16 -300
Freq (Hz) Freq (Hz)

The torque loop bandwidth is given by the point at which the gain falls
by 3dB as 1100Hz or for applications where the current loop is used in
an external control loop, the point at which the lag of the controller is
45deg as 400Hz.

Stable operation even with light loads

When a V/F drive is applied to a motor where light loads are possible at
low to medium speeds it is possible for large speed oscillations to
occur. In common with other flux orientated control methods RFC
eliminates this problem.

Torque control operation

Traditionally flux oriented drives with position feedback have been used
for torque controlled applications, such as winders. Where very
accurate control of torque is required it is still necessary to use this type
of drive, however RFC can be used in a majority of applications where
moderate torque accuracy is sufficient.
Supply interruption ride through capability
The transient performance of a V/F drive makes it difficult to achieve
reliable ride through during supply interruptions. The fast response of
RFC can be used to maintain control of the motor when the supply is
removed.

User selectable switching frequency to give quiet operation when

required
More and more applications demand quiet operation, for example lifts
or air conditioning. Unlike DTC, it is possible with RFC to select a
switching frequency to minimise the acoustic noise produced by the
motor. Higher switching frequencies produce less acoustic noise, but
increase losses in the drive. Control Techniques’ drives include thermal
protection algorithms that prevent the drive from being damaged due to
high ambient temperatures, high switching frequency and heavy loads.
The user has the option to allow the drive to trip if it becomes too hot,
or to allow the drive to reduce its switching frequency automatically
when necessary.

Switching between motor model and position feedback

As the control method used by RFC is very similar to that in a high
performance flux oriented drive using position feedback, it is possible to
include both types of control within the same product. For applications
like machine tool spindles, which combine the requirements for full
torque capability and accurate positioning at standstill with very high
speed operation, these two methods can be used together. Control with
high resolution position feedback can be used at low speeds and then
as the speed is increased the drive can switch “on the fly” to RFC,
using this in the speed range which is outside the specification of the
feedback device.
Summary
The claims made for Rotor Flux Control (RFC) are considerable, and place it
at the forefront of open loop induction motor control. It may therefore be
surprising that it is not considered the optimum solution for all applications –
We have not yet reached that Holy Grail.

There are applications where different forms of control could be considered

optimum, and it is necessary to look at the specific performance requirements
on a case by case basis. The following matrix summarises the performance of
each control scheme against the key areas of performance described earlier.

Induction Motor Drives

Open Loop Closed
Loop
Basic Steady State Direct Torque Rotor Flux Field
V/F Control Flux Oriented Control Control Oriented
Multi-motor Yes No No No No
connection
Torque response1 10ms <10ms 1-5ms <0.5ms <0.5ms
(fsw=12kHz) (fsw=12kHz)
<1ms <1ms
(fsw=4kHz) (fsw=4kHz)
Speed Recovery 100ms 100ms <20ms <10ms
Time2
Min speed with 1-3Hz 1Hz 0.5Hz 0.8Hz Standstill
100% torque
Max Torque at 1Hz >150% >150% >150% >175% >175%
Light Load Stability Moderate Moderate Excellent Excellent
Torque control Very Good Excellent
capability (moderate (Good
accuracy) accuracy)
User Selectable Yes Yes No Yes Yes
Switching
Frequency
Speed Loop 10Hz 10Hz 50-100Hz 150Hz
Response
“On the fly” No No No Yes – between these two
switching between modes only
open and closed
loop operation
Typical Feedback None None None None Encoder
Device
1
Torque response = time for drive to produce 100% torque on motor shaft in
response to a step demand
2
Speed Recovery Time = Time to recover speed after application of 100% load

Because most high performance open loop control systems depend upon the
estimation of actual motor shaft speed, a very useful indicator of performance
is the ability to hold the demanded speed, as load is applied from zero to
150%.
On a 4 pole motor, the characteristics for all the systems are very similar at
speeds above 300min-1, which corresponds to a frequency of approximately
10Hz. At speeds below 300 min-1, differences become evident:

Below 300 min-1 300 – 3000 min-1

Steady 200 3500

State Flux 180

160 300 min-1
3000

Oriented 140
120
180 min-1
120 min-1
2500 3000 min-1
SPEED

2400 min-1

SPEED
Control 100 75 min-1
2000
1500 min-1
80 60 min-1 1500 900 min-1
60 45 min-1 1000 300 min-1
40 30 min-1
20 500
0 0
0% 50% 100% 150% 0% 50% 100% 150%
LOAD LOAD

Direct 200 3500

Torque 180
160 300 min-1 3000

Control 140
120
180 min-1
120 min-1
2500 3000 min-1
SPEED

2400 min-1

SPEED
2000
100 75 min-1 1500 min-1
80 60 min-1 1500 900 min-1
60 45 min-1 300 min-1
1000
40 30 min-1
20 500
0 0
0% 50% 100% 150% 0% 50% 100% 150%
LOAD LOAD

Rotor Flux 200 3500

Control 180
160 300 min-1 3000

140 180 min-1 2500 3000 min-1

120 120 min-1
SPEED

2400 min-1
SPEED

2000
100 75 min-1 1500 min-1
80 60 min-1 1500 900 min-1
60 45 min -1 1000 300 min-1
40 30 min-1
20 500
0 0
0% 50% 100% 150% 0% 50% 100% 150%
LOAD LOAD

It is clear to see that no single CONTROL STRATEGY is suitable for all

applications. However, by incorporating Open loop V/F, Field Oriented and
Rotor Flux Control (RFC) and Closed Loop Field Oriented control strategies in
a single product, Unidrive SP, Control Techniques is able to offer a single
PRODUCT, which allows the optimum solution to be selected for each
application. Add to this the ability to control a Permanent Magnet Servo motor
and the ability to configure a standard Unidrive SP to be a mains fed converter
drawing sinusoidal supply currents at user specified power factor (unity,
lagging or leading), and the justification of the name Unidrive is apparent.
Conclusions
Rotor Flux Control represents a major step forward in the open loop control of
induction motors. It offers excellent, and clearly defined, torque response,
which brings significant benefit in many areas notably in excellent speed
holding and torque linearity/control. Light load instability, a significant problem
in some applications, also benefits greatly from RFC.

RFC represents state of the art, but it is not a universal solution for all
applications, and care is still necessary in selecting the optimum control mode
for some applications.

Control Techniques has over many years developed high performance

Unidrive platforms which allow customers flexibility to optimise their system.
Flexibility has for many years been offered in respect:
• Communications interfaces (Serial, Fieldbus and Ethernet)
• Position feedback interfaces (12 selectable modes to meet key industry
standards)
• On-board open applications and PLC functionality (Fully scalable
solutions including synchronisation between applications and drives)
• Optional I/O capability both drive mounted and remote
• Open Loop Flux control and V/F control plus closed loop flux control and
strategies for PM motors and sine wave supply converter technology

RFC adds a new control dimension to Unidrive SP. It gives the user greater
flexibility BUT not greater complexity. With great attention paid to the need for
robust control strategies, and effective auto-tuning of essential motor
parameters, set-up could not be easier.

Embodying alternate control strategies in a single product brings some

benefits which may not be immediately obvious. Since RFC is derived from
the closed loop high performance control strategy, it is possible for the drive to
switch seamlessly between open and closed loop operation. This may seem a
strange requirement, but some applications such as a machine tool spindle
where very high performance motion control is required at very low speeds
but also very high speeds (beyond the capability of encoder feedback) are
needed at different points in the duty cycle. Another example where this
feature could bring benefit would be in application where failure of the
encoder (or more likely its cabling) could be problematic – switching “on the
fly” would provide greater robustness and an option for perhaps safe recovery
of a process, or the ability to continue operation, perhaps with some process
constraint.

If everyone had the same application, then a single solution could be

developed and universally applied. Control Techniques recognises the
benefits to users of a single common platform, and offers optimum, robust and
easy to use solutions through unrivalled flexibility. Rotor Flux Control adds a
further dimension to its control flexibility, and marks a significant step forward
in harnessing the induction motor.