Ecosystem

An ecosystem (or ecological system)

consists of all the organisms and the
physical environment with which they
interact.[2]: 458 These biotic and abiotic
components are linked together through
nutrient cycles and energy flows.
Energy enters the system through
photosynthesis and is incorporated into
plant tissue. By feeding on plants and
on one another, animals play an
important role in the movement of
matter and energy through the system.
They also influence the quantity of plant
and microbial biomass present. By
breaking down dead organic matter,
decomposers release carbon back to
the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient
cycling by converting nutrients stored in
dead biomass back to a form that can
be readily used by plants and microbes.
Left: Coral reef ecosystems are highly productive marine systems.[1] Right: Temperate rainforest, a terrestrial
ecosystem.

Ecosystems are controlled by external

and internal factors. External factors
such as climate, parent material which
forms the soil and topography, control
the overall structure of an ecosystem
but are not themselves influenced by
the ecosystem. Internal factors are
controlled, for example, by
decomposition, root competition,
shading, disturbance, succession, and
the types of species present. While the
resource inputs are generally controlled
by external processes, the availability of
these resources within the ecosystem is
controlled by internal factors. Therefore,
internal factors not only control
ecosystem processes but are also
controlled by them.

Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they

are subject to periodic disturbances and
are always in the process of recovering
from some past disturbance. The
tendency of an ecosystem to remain
close to its equilibrium state, despite
that disturbance, is termed its
resistance. The capacity of a system to
absorb disturbance and reorganize
while undergoing change so as to retain
essentially the same function, structure,
identity, and feedbacks is termed its
ecological resilience. Ecosystems can
be studied through a variety of
approaches—theoretical studies,
studies monitoring specific ecosystems
over long periods of time, those that
look at differences between
ecosystems to elucidate how they work
and direct manipulative
experimentation. Biomes are general
classes or categories of ecosystems.
However, there is no clear distinction
between biomes and ecosystems.
Ecosystem classifications are specific
kinds of ecological classifications that
consider all four elements of the
definition of ecosystems: a biotic
component, an abiotic complex, the
interactions between and within them,
and the physical space they occupy.
Biotic factors of the ecosystem are
living things; such as plants, animals,
and bacteria, while abiotic are non-
living components; such as water, soil
and atmosphere.

Ecosystems provide a variety of goods

and services upon which people
depend. Ecosystem goods include the
"tangible, material products" of
ecosystem processes such as water,
food, fuel, construction material, and
medicinal plants. Ecosystem services,
on the other hand, are generally
"improvements in the condition or
location of things of value". These
include things like the maintenance of
hydrological cycles, cleaning air and
water, the maintenance of oxygen in the
atmosphere, crop pollination and even
things like beauty, inspiration and
opportunities for research. Many
ecosystems become degraded through
human impacts, such as soil loss, air
and water pollution, habitat
fragmentation, water diversion, fire
suppression, and introduced species
and invasive species. These threats can
lead to abrupt transformation of the
ecosystem or to gradual disruption of
biotic processes and degradation of
abiotic conditions of the ecosystem.
Once the original ecosystem has lost its
defining features, it is considered
"collapsed". Ecosystem restoration can
contribute to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals.

Definition
An ecosystem (or ecological system)
consists of all the organisms and the
abiotic pools (or physical environment)
with which they interact.[3][4]: 5 [2]: 458 The
biotic and abiotic components are
linked together through nutrient cycles
and energy flows.[5]

"Ecosystem processes" are the

transfers of energy and materials from
one pool to another.[2]: 458 Ecosystem
processes are known to "take place at a
wide range of scales". Therefore, the
correct scale of study depends on the
question asked.[4]: 5

Origin and development of the term

The term "ecosystem" was first used in

1935 in a publication by British ecologist
Arthur Tansley. The term was coined by
Arthur Roy Clapham, who came up with
the word at Tansley's request.[6]
Tansley devised the concept to draw
attention to the importance of transfers
of materials between organisms and
their environment.[4]: 9 He later refined
the term, describing it as "The whole
system, ... including not only the
organism-complex, but also the whole
complex of physical factors forming
what we call the environment".[3]
Tansley regarded ecosystems not
simply as natural units, but as "mental
isolates".[3] Tansley later defined the
spatial extent of ecosystems using the
term "ecotope".[7]

G. Evelyn Hutchinson, a limnologist who

was a contemporary of Tansley's,
combined Charles Elton's ideas about
trophic ecology with those of Russian
geochemist Vladimir Vernadsky. As a
result, he suggested that mineral
nutrient availability in a lake limited algal
production. This would, in turn, limit the
abundance of animals that feed on
algae. Raymond Lindeman took these
ideas further to suggest that the flow of
energy through a lake was the primary
driver of the ecosystem. Hutchinson's
students, brothers Howard T. Odum
and Eugene P. Odum, further developed
a "systems approach" to the study of
ecosystems. This allowed them to study
the flow of energy and material through
ecological systems.[4]: 9

Processes

Rainforest ecosystems are rich in

biodiversity. This is the Gambia
River in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba
National Park.

Flora of Baja California desert,

Cataviña region, Mexico