Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon

Research article

Techno-economics of coconut coir bioadsorbent utilization on free fatty acid

level reduction in crude palm oil
La Ifa a, Takdir Syarif a, Sartia Sartia a, Juliani Juliani a, Nurdjannah Nurdjannah a, **,
Heri Septya Kusuma b, *
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Universitas Muslim Indonesia, Jalan Urip Sumoharjo Km 05, Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Industrial Technology, Universitas Pembangunan Nasional "Veteran" Yogyakarta, Indonesia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The quality of crude palm oil (CPO) is generally determined by the levels of free fatty acids (FFA). This helps in
Crude palm oil balancing the level of acidity during transportation and storage processes. However, high FFA in CPO is not good
Coconut coir for consumer health. One of the methods for adsorbing FFA is adsorption, which is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or
Free fatty acid
molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the effect of
Adsorption
contact time (40, 80 and 120 min) and Coconut Coir (CC) bioadsorbent concentrations of 1, 2 and 3 (%, w/v) on
Bioadsorbent
the reduction of CPO FFA levels. This began with the activation of CC biochar synthesis by using NaOH and HCl,
which produced CC-NaOH and CC-HCl bioadsorbents based on the product of NaOH. Furthermore, the adsorption
process was carried out by mixing CPO with CC-NaOH and CC-HCl bioadsorbents in a three-necked flask. After
this, the filtrate product was obtained and analyzed for its FFA levels. The results showed that the largest per-
centage reduction for the effect of bioadsorbent concentration was 3% (w/v) at a contact time of 120 min. It also
indicated that this study enabled lower levels of FFA in CPO. Based on the detailed cost estimate, the production
cost of the CC-NaOH bioadsorbent was USD 481,874, sold at USD 95/ton with annual sales and net profit (after
tax) at USD 684,000 and USD 141,188, respectively. This profit after tax and rate of return on investment was
found to be 20.68 and 39.49% of the entire estimation, respectively. It also had a payback period of 2.95 years
and a break-even point at a capacity of 43.16%. In addition, the prepared adsorbent showed significant ability as
an inexpensive, reproducible and environmentally friendly compound used in reducing the FFA levels of CPO.

1. Introduction ketones, butyric acid, tocopherols) (Constant et al., 2017; Leticia et al.,
2012; Priatni et al., 2017).
Crude palm oil (CPO) is a raw cooking material and is one of the most A common method used by vegetable oil industries to remove free
widely consumed vegetable commodities in the world (Nd
e et al., 2019). fatty acids is known as the adsorption process (Cren and Meirelles, 2012).
The quality of this oil is often evaluated based on the content of Free Fatty This is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or
Acid (FFA), which needs to be removed through a purification process, in dissolved solid to a surface. Several studies have examined the adsorbent
order to meet domestic and international needs (Azeman et al., 2015; De on the reduction of FFA levels, such as Silva et al. (2014), which focused
Almeida et al., 2013). However, high levels of this FFA (>3%) cause on the effect of citric acid and water during bleaching. The results
rancidity, as well as changes in the taste and color of the oil (Cowan et al., showed an increase in citric acid and FFA levels at 0.09–0.27% and
2012). Besides food purposes, it is also used for the production of biodiesel 8.46%, respectively. Furthermore, Purwasasmita et al. (2015) studied the
and oleo-chemical derivatives (Garcia-Nunez et al., 2016). The CPO is a effect of NaOH reactant concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 N. The
reddish-orange vegetable oil containing triglyceride compounds, formed results showed a low CPO FFA removal efficiency at NaOH concentra-
from glycerin and fatty acids, non-glyceride materials (phosphatides, tions below 0.25 N. Based on the effect of Deodorized Palm Oil time,
raffinose, pentosan, carotene, gossypol) and hydrocarbons (sterols, Riyadi et al. (2016), obtained a 0.33% FFA removal efficiency that was

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N. Nurdjannah), [email protected] (H.S. Kusuma).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09146
Received 15 September 2021; Received in revised form 23 December 2021; Accepted 15 March 2022
2405-8440/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

slightly larger than that of0.29% at 1 h Putranti, Wirawan and Bendiyasa 2014). It is also an economical and environmentally friendly process, due
(2018), also analyzed the effect of adsorbent on low-grade cooking oil, to the recovery and recycling of chemical reagents (Tsai et al., 1997).
using NaOH and HCl-activated, as well as unactivated natural zeolites, Acid activation also significantly improves its surface properties, in order
respectively. The results showed that the NaOH-activated zeolite was to serve as a bioadsorbent in vegetable oil refining processes. The most
able to reduce FFA levels to 62.5%. Abdi, Gharachorloo and Ghavami commonly used compounds in this process are hydrochloric and sulfuric
(2021), analyzed the effect of adsorbents through commercial BE, which acids (Nd
e et al., 2019; Usman et al., 2012; Joy et al., 2007; Steudel et al.,
showed an increase of 96.77%inthe FFA levels of soybean oil. Mean- 2009; Taha et al., 2011). So far and as far as the author knows, the
while, the use of eggshell powder activated with 2% H2SO4 completely production of bioadsorbent based on coconut coir is still not available,
removed (100%) FFA from this oil. Based on the use of zeolites, Anang both studies on a laboratory scale to the development on a commercial
et al. (2020), further studied the effect of time on decreasing the FFA factory one.
levels in coconut and palm kernel oils. The results showed that a duration For the development of the use of coconut coir bioadsorbents, an
of 4 h produced the largest FFA reduction values of 89.36 and 93.25% for economic study is needed on the feasibility of using bioadsorbents on the
palm kernel and coconut oils, respectively. The study conducted by commercial stage. This study aimed to examine the economic feasibility
Oktavian et al. (2020), also showed a decrease in the FFA levels at 93% of making coconut fiber bioadsorbent by viewing the effect of concen-
for 45 min Chakawa, Nkala, Hlabangana and Muzenda (2019), studied tration, contact time of coconut fiber bioadsorbent and the type of acti-
the effect of calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO4.2H2O) on the percentage vator on the percentage reduction in CPO FFA levels. The economic
reduction of FFA in soybean oil. This showed a constant value of 0.56% feasibility of making coconut fiber bioadsorbent was seen from the
for the adsorbent concentration of 0–30%. In addition, Ifa et al. (2021), percent Profit on Sales, Rate of Return on Investment, Pay Out Time and
analyzed the contact time effect of bentonite on the percentage reduction Break Event Point.
in FFA levels, which obtained a 2.99% decrease at 60 min.
One of the commonly used adsorbents is the biomass-based sorbent 2. Materials and methods
(Anastopoulos et al., 2019), which is often grouped as inorganic, syn-
thetic, natural and organic (agricultural) products. Agricultural sorbents 2.1. Materials
are inexpensive, efficient, environmentally friendly and easy to use.
However, the utilization of its waste materials is increasingly becoming a Coconut coir and CPO (FFA level of 5.2%) were obtained from the
concern, due to the creation of serious disposal problems. Several sources traditional market of Makassar and PT. Astra Agro, Indonesia, respec-
of waste biomass are available in different parts of the world, where tively. The chemical substances used were 0.5 N sodium hydroxide
many experimental adsorption properties have been reported. This in- (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) of 37%.
cludes sesame and banana peels (El-Araby et al. 2017; Castro et al.,
2011), coconut coir, powder and stalk (Abel et al., 2020; Israel et al., 2.2. Production of coconut coir bioadsorbent
2011; Etim et al., 2016; Ofudje et al., 2015), cocoa husk charcoal
(Aderonke et al., 2014), seed coat (Amuda et al. 2013), mango leaf Coconut coir samples were severally washed and rinsed with tap and
powder (Sethu et al., 2010), eggshell (Abdi et al., 2021), pine needles distilled water, then dried in the sun for 8 h. After drying, the fiber was
(Malik et al., 2016) and palm leaf sheaths (Salman et al., 2011). blended into small pieces, as well as grounded. The dried samples were
Coconut coir is often a discarded residue that is neither frequently ground and sieved using a 300 μm sieve. Furthermore, the coconut coir
utilized nor developed for industrial use (Chaudhuri and Saminal, 2011). granules were dried to a constant weight in a drying oven at 105
C to
It contains water, cellulose, lignin and ash content of 25.2, 35.99, 53.5 remove excess water content and some volatile components. The process
and 9%, respectively. High contents of lignin and cellulose with a low ash of making bioadsorbent from coconut coir was done by charring the
level of coir powder indicate a characteristic of agricultural by-products, crushed coconut coir sample using a hot plate at a temperature of 150
C.
generally known as lignocellulosic materials (Israel et al., 2011). In The formed bioadsorbent was cooled to room temperature and then
addition, hemicellulose and cellulose in the structure of lignocellulosic stored in a desiccator.
materials are bound or veiled by lignin (Isroi et al., 2011). Furthermore,
coconut coir naturally provides a porous structure to a bioadsorbent, at 2.3. Coconut coir activation process
surface areas of 826 and 691.8 m2/g (Chaudhuri and Saminal 2011; Abel
et al., 2020). The larger the contact surface area, the greater the 2.3.1. Activation of bioadsorbent with 0.5 N NaOH and 0.5 N HCl
adsorption process of coconut coir as a bio adsorbent (Etim et al., 2016; Activation process using 0.5 N NaOH activator: A total of 100 g of
Oktavian et al., 2020; Sari et al., 2021). The conversion of this residue bioadsorbent formed was immersed in 500 mL of 0.5 N NaOH into 1000
into activated carbon also has a dual purpose, namely (1) Unwanted mL beaker glass. The mixture was allowed to stand for 24 h, filtered and
agricultural waste is converted into useful and value-added adsorbents, washed with distilled water until a neutral pH ¼ 7. Furthermore, the
(2) The use of agricultural by-products is the potential source of an bioadsorbent obtained was dried in an oven at 150
C for 2 h. The bio-
adsorbent, as a solution to several CPO quality problems (Abel et al., adsorbent which has been activated with 0.5 N NaOH is called CC-NaOH
2020; Tan et al., 2008). bioadsorbent. CC-NaOH bioadsorbent was stored in a desiccator until
The primary process used to convert biomass into bioadsorbent is needed for the adsorption process.
carbonation or pyrolysis. Besides being rich in carbon, biochar generally The activation process used 0.5 N HCl activator: A total of 100 g of
serves as a raw material for bioadsorbent production, with a pore bioadsorbent formed was immersed in 500 mL of 0.5 N HCl into 1000 mL
structure developed through activation (Na et al., 2019). This aims to beaker glass. The mixture was boiled while stirring at 110
C for 15 min.
improve the nature of the pores and activated sites. Activation of biomass After the mixture has cooled, it was then filtered and washed with
is performed through two approaches, namely physical and chemical distilled water until the pH ¼ 3. Furthermore, the resulting bioadsorbent
methods. In the chemical method, biomass raw material is often mixed was dried in an oven at 150
C for 2 h. The bioadsorbent been activated
with several synthetic activation reagents, such asH3PO4, NaOH, ZnCl2, using 0.5N HCl is called CC-HCl bioadsorbent. CC-HCl bioadsorbent was
HCl, H2SO4, etc. These reagents are known to often influence the stored in a desiccator until needed for the adsorption process.
chemical method (Ayinla et al., 2019), with their main functions based
on degrading or dehydrating organic components during the activation 2.4. CC bioadsorbent performance test
process, in order to suppress hydrocarbon depolymerization on the car-
bon surface (Mohammad-Khah and Ansari, 2009). The biggest advantage CPO as raw material was characterized before being used to test the
of this method is the one-step process at lower temperatures (Ali et al., adsorption performance of its FFA content. The CPO adsorption process

2
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

was carried out by mixing CC-NaOH and CC-HCl at the concentrations of evaluated using certain basic indicators, including Rate of Return on
1, 2 and 3% w/v in a three-neck flask using a magnetic stirrer with Investment (ROI), Pay Out Time (POT), Percent Profit on Sales (POS) and
contact times of 40, 80 and 120 min. These FFA levels were determined Break-Even Point (BEP) (Ifa et al., 2020; Kpalo et al., 2020; Soetaredjo
by the method of titration, as written with some modifications in the et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2020; Lim et al., 2021; Vlysidis et al., 2011). This
American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS, 1990). A total of 2.5 g preheated research to study the economic feasibility of CC-NaOH bioadsorbent.
CPO oil (about 50
C) was weighed in a beaker and mixed with 50 mL of Furthermore, Soetaredjo et al. (2021) analyzed the economic feasibility
ethyl alcohol. Through the process of titration, this solution was of BE processing production, for reducing the levels of CPO FFA in the
neutralized with 0.1026 N of sodium hydroxide. After this, the percent- Madiun area, East Java province, Indonesia. For a factory capacity of 450
age of FFA was calculated as palmitic acid, where its molecular weight tons/month, BE production was profitable when sold for USD 100/ton.
was assumed to be 256 based on Eq. (1) (Henry, 2011). Therefore, the annual sales (S) of BE products were USD 540,000, with a
net profit on sales (POS) after tax of approximately USD 120,000.
V  m  M
FFA as palmitic ð%Þ ¼  100% (1)
10 w 3. Result and discussion
where, V ¼ volume (mL) of NaOH, m ¼ molarity of NaOH solution, w ¼
3.1. Free fatty acid level
sample weight (g) and M ¼ FFA molecular weight (g/mol).
Based on this condition, Eq. (1) is further written as Eq. (2) (Ali et al.,
2014; Bahadi et al., 2016; Hashim et al., 2019). The FFA is a natural monobasic aliphatic compound consisting of a
hydrocarbon chain and carboxylate group (Chakawa et al., 2019). These
V  N  25:6 acids are produced by hydrolysis and oxidation processes, often in
FFAas palmitic ð%Þ ¼  100% (2)
w combination with neutral fats. Using CC bioadsorbent, this study was
conducted to improve the quality of CPO through the adsorption method.
where, V ¼ volume of NaOH (mL), N ¼ normality of NaOH (0.1026 N), w It also analyzed the effect of concentration and contact time of CC-NaOH
¼ weight of CPO (g). and CC-HCl bioadsorbents with CPO. Moreover, the best synthetic con-
centration and duration to improve the CPO quality were expected. In
2.5. Economic analysis this study, the adsorption performance of CC was evaluated based on the
reduction of FFA. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 further showed the CPO con-
Economic analysis is used to analyze the feasibility of a factory centration and contact time relationship profiles of CC-NaOH and CC-HCl
(Ulrich, 1984), based on the comparison of social interventions with bioadsorbents to the percentage reduction of FFA. In addition, adsorbent
production costs. Based on the CC-NaOH bioadsorbent, this analysis was dose and contact time were among the factors that affected the adsorp-
carried out using the following assumptions (Ifa et al., 2020). tion capacity of biomass (Abel et al., 2020; Bilal et al., 2013).

a) The production capacity of CC-NaOH is 7,200 tons/year. 3.2. The effect of contact time on reducing FFA levels using CC-HCl and
b) CC-NaOH products are sold to meet domestic needs and the factory is CC-NaOH bioadsorbents
located in Pasang Kayu Regency, South Sulawesi, Indonesia.
c) Owned capital of 60 and 40%. The effect of contact time and concentration on FFA adsorption is
d) Annual bank interest by 5.75%. presented in Figures 1, 2, 3, and 4. These showed that the adsorption rate
e) The annual inflation rate is 3.18%. improved with increasing CC-HCl bioadsorbent concentration and time.
f) The factory is estimated at 10 years, with an annual depreciation of According to Salman et al. (2011), longer interaction between the solu-
10%. tion and adsorbent caused more adsorbate absorption on the surface.
g) Labor costs are associated with wages collected for the biomass and This was in line with the results of several studies (Abel et al., 2020;
operations of the CC-NaOH plant. These laborers are categorized as Amuda et al., 2013; Ates and Tezcan Un, 2013; Chaudhuri & Saminal,
skilled and unskilled workers, which are readily available to CC- 2011; Cowan et al., 2012; Purwasasmita et al., 2015; Putranti et al.,
NaOH plant owners and rural communities. 2018). Furthermore, the efficiency of FFA removal was linear with time
h) The plant reportedly operates 330 days per year, with the remaining according to Cowan et al. (2012), with the addition of 1 and 2% w/w
periods set aside for maintenance (Okolie et al., 2021). lipase and glycerol at 14 h producing 65.26% (from 4.98 to 1.73%).
Purwasasmita et al. (2015), also reported an increase in the efficiency of
All currency values used in this study are in US dollars (USD), with the CPO FFA removal due to the long contact time, where the largest
conversion rate of USD 1 producing IDR 14,340. This study was further reduction of 98% was obtained at 4 h (Purwasasmita et al., 2015). This
economically analyzed using general profitability criteria (Aries and was similarly reported in Riyadi et al. (2016), where the FFA reduction of
Newton, 1955; Turton et al., 2009). The level of factory profitability was 0.33% was obtained at 2 h. This was slightly higher than the reduction of
0.29% in 1 h (Riyadi et al., 2016).
Figure 1 showed that the decrease in FFA levels increased with the
length of contact time, between the CPO and bioadsorbent. This was
reportedly in line with the results of several studies (Abel et al., 2020;
Anang et al., 2020; Cowan et al., 2012; Ifa et al., 2021; Olufemi and
Otolorin, 2017; Purwasasmita et al., 2015; Riyadi et al., 2016). It also
indicated that longer contact time led to greater chances of the FFA being
trapped in the pores of the bioadsorbent, therefore, increasing the levels
of percentage reduction. According to Cowan et al. (2012), the per-
centage reduction of FFA level was linear with the contact time, where
the addition of 1/2% w/w lipase and glycerol at 14 h produced 65.26%.
However, the best conditions in this study were obtained at 120 min,
with the concentration of CC-HCl bioadsorbent at 3% w/v. Also, a
reduction of 34% was obtained (from the initial FFA level of 5.2%–3.4%).
Figure 1. The effect of contact time on FFA reduction using CC-HCl This study was limited to the maximum contact time of 120 min because
bioadsorbent the results obtained above 120 min tended to be constant, this refers to

3
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

the research conducted by Abe et al. (2020) which used the same bio-
adsorbent and adsorbate as used in this study.
Figure 2 showed the levels of FFA reduction and the increasing con-
tact time of CC-NaOH bioadsorbent with CPO. This result was in line with
Chaudhuri and Saminal (2011), which used coconut coir activated car-
bon (CCAC) bioadsorbent that was ignited with NaOH. The use of an
alkaline NaOH activator resulted in a greater percentage reduction in FFA
levels than an acidic HCl activator. This occurred because at alkaline pH
the negative charge density on the activated carbon surface increased to
carry out the deprotonation process at the adsorption site so that the
adsorption increases. The results obtained were also in line with several
previous studies, where the decrease in FFA levels was linear with con-
tact time (Anang et al., 2020; Cowan et al., 2012; Oktavian et al., 2020).
Figure 2. The effect of contact time on FFA reduction using CC-NaOH Cowan et al. (2012), reported that a 65.26% reduction of FFA in CPO was
bioadsorbent produced at 14 h, through enzymatic remediation. Furthermore, Riyadi
et al. (2016), similarly reported that a reduction of 0.32% was obtained
at 2 h, which was slightly larger than 0.29% at 1 h. Meanwhile, the
percentage in this study was smaller than Anang et al. (2020), which used
zeolite with core oil to obtain the reduction value of 89.36% at 4 h
(Anang et al., 2020). Similar results were also reported by Oktavian et al.
(2020), which focused on the synthesis and performance assessment of
CC bioadsorbents, for the purification of used cooking oil. This showed a
decrease of 93% in FFA levels for 45 min (Oktavian et al., 2020).
Figure 2 also showed that the adsorption process of FFA to the bio-
adsorbent increased at the initial stage of contact time, before gradually
decreasing. The percentage of FFA removal indicated the presence of
empty active sites on the surface of the adsorbent and also to the strong
attractive forces between the adsorbate and bioadsorbent molecules,
which decreased with increasing contact time (Olufemi and Otolorin,
2017). This decrease in efficiency was due to the limited mass transfer of
Figure 3. The effect of CC-HCl bioadsorbent concentration on FFA reduction.
the adsorbate molecules, from the solution to the outer surface of the
bioadsorbent (Onundi et al., 2011). Furthermore, the adsorption process
became slow due to the movement of FFA through the pores of the bio-
adsorbent material (Barakat et al., 2014). This was similarly reported by
Budiana et al. (2021), which showed that the adsorbent adsorbed 88%
Cr(III) for 45 min. After this, the adsorption of Cr(III) gradually decreased
to 73.6% at 150 min (Budiana et al., 2021).
According to Belay and Hayelom (2014), the effect of contact time on
the adsorbate percentage elimination occurred in two phases, namely the
fast and slow stages. In the first stage, the increase in the adsorption
percentage was associated with the presence of large active sites on the
surface of the adsorbent, rapidly occupied by several greater adsorbates.
In the second stage, the low absorption rate occurred due to two reasons:
(1) The pores of the adsorbent became saturated at an early stage (Belay
and Hayelom, 2014); (2) The binding sites immediately became limited
and the remaining unfilled surface sites were difficult to be occupied by
Figure 4. The effect of CC-NaOH bioadsorbent concentration on FFA reduction. the adsorbent. This was based on the emergence of a repulsive force
between the solid and liquid surface adsorbates (Hossain et al., 2012).

3.3. The effect of CC-HCl and CC-NaOH bioadsorbent concentrations on

reducing FFA levels

The effect of concentration on CPO FFA adsorption is shown in

Figure 3. This showed that the adsorption increased and achieved
maximum results at 3.0% coconut coir concentration, which was in
accordance with several previous studies (Abel et al., 2020; Chaudhuri
and Saminal, 2011; Etim et al., 2016; Kumar et al., 2010; Olufemi and
Otolorin, 2017). Moreover, the adsorption increment through the con-
centration of the bioadsorbent was associated with surface increase and
more site availabilities (Kumar et al., 2010; Wambu, Muthakia,
Wa-Thiong'o, & Shiundu, 2011). As shown in Figure 3, the increase in
adsorbent concentration and active sites caused an increment and
decrease in the percentage reduction of FFA levels, respectively. The
Figure 5. The effect of activator type on FFA reduction (contact time of more the available active sites on the surface of the CC-HCl, the higher
120 min). the interactions between the FFA and bioadsorbents (Olufemi and Oto-
lorin, 2017). Similar results were also reported by Itodo and Itodo

4
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

(2010). Meanwhile, these results were different from those reported by better with the use of NaOH-activated zeolite at 62.5%, compared to HCl
Silva et al. (2014), where the addition of citric acid to acid-activated BE and natural indicators (Putranti et al., 2018). It was also in line with Abdi
produced an 8.46% increase in FFA levels (from 4.61% to 5%). Similar et al. (2021), which reported that an alkaline eggshell powder removed
results were further reported in Abdi et al. (2021), where the FFA content all FFA (100%) from the oil. This was due to the type of adsorbent used,
of soybean oil bleached with commercial BE experienced an increase of as the alkaline properties of the eggshell powder caused the complete
96.77% (from 0.31 to 0.61%). This was probably due to the hydrolysis of neutralization of the FFA levels. Therefore, the CC bioadsorbent pro-
triacylglycerol to diacylglycerol and FFA, which in turn increased free duced in this study reduced FFA CPO to 51.92%, at a concentration of 3%
fatty acid levels. CC-NaOH in 120 min. This indicated that the CC-NaOH reduced the FFA
Figure 3 showed that the addition of CC-HCl bioadsorbent concen- content in CPO from 5.2 to 2.5%.
tration from 1-3% (w/v) increased the percentage reduction of FFA level.
However, the concentrations from 2-3% (w/v) obtained insignificant 3.5. Economic analysis of CC-NaOH plant
percentages from 30 to 32%. It also showed saturation of the bio-
adsorbent ability, indicated by a decrease in FFA level reduction. The Economic analysis was carried out using the discounted cash flow
addition of 3% CC-HCl bioadsorbent concentration at 120 min further method, whose value was presently projected. This analysis was used to
indicated the largest percentage decrease in FFA levels at 32% (from determine the economic feasibility of the project (Ulrich, 1984).
5.2% to 3.4%). These results contradicted that of Chakawa et al. (2019),
where an increase in the adsorbent concentration of 0–30% did not affect
constant FFA levels at 0.56% (Chakawa et al., 2019). In addition, the 3.6. Estimated total capital investment (TCI)
percentage of FFA level reduction in this study was smaller than those
reported by Anang et al. (2020) at 89.22% (Anang et al., 2020). Total capital investment is the cost incurred to set up and operate the
Figure 4 showed the increase in the percentage reduction of FFA level factory. In producing a commodity from raw material, it is calculated
and the high concentration of bioadsorbent. This was in line with the from the amounts of fixed and working capital investment (FCI and WCI)
results of Chaudhuri and Saminal (2011), based on KOH-activated CCAC (Aries and Newton, 1955; Ziyai et al., 2019). Fixed capital is the total cost
bioadsorbents. By improving the concentration of CC-NaOH bio- of installing process equipment, buildings and tools, in establishing a new
adsorbent, the increase in the adsorption percentage was due to an factory (Aries and Newton, 1955). Furthermore, FCI consists of two main
€
components, namely direct and indirect costs (D and I) (Ozdenkçi et al.,
increment in the active sites. This facilitated the penetration of FFA
molecules into the bioadsorbent site. The increase in the active site also 2019; Soetaredjo et al., 2021), with its calculation for fixed capital esti-
caused a higher percentage removal of the adsorbate. This was because mation mathematically formulated by Eq. (3). The FCI of a plant with a
more active sites occurred with higher adsorbent concentrations (Itodo similar process and different capacities should also be identified (Aries
and Itodo, 2010; Olufemi and Otolorin, 2017; P
erez Marín et al., 2009). It and Newton, 1955; Kaoma and Gheewala, 2021; Maltsoglou et al., 2014).
also caused higher interactions between the adsorbate and adsorbent rmb
particles (Abel et al., 2020). Furthermore, the number of adsorption IFb ¼ IFa ð Þ0:7 (3)
rma
increased with higher adsorbent concentration and the removal effi-
ciency directly indicated several available sites (Duwiejuah et al., 2017; where
Souundarrajan et al., 2012). Therefore, the adsorption sites or surface
areas increased with the adsorbent concentration, leading to a higher rma ¼ factory a monthly production capacity (450 tons/month) or
percentage (Amarasinghe and Williams, 2007). This result was in line (540 tons/year) (Soetaredjo et al., 2021)
with previous reports, based on the effect of adsorbent concentration on rmb ¼ factory b monthly production capacity (600 tons/month) or
FFA removal (Purwasasmita et al., 2015; Putranti et al., 2018). In addi- (7200 tons/year)
tion, Purwasasmita et al. (2015), reported that the effect of 0.1–0.5N IFa ¼ fixed capital of factory a (USD 358,250) (Soetaredjo et al., 2021)
NaOH concentration caused a large FFA removal efficiency, obtained IFb ¼ fixed capital of factory b
above 0.25 N.
The biggest percentage of FFA level reduction in this study was the Based on Eq. (3), the calculations of IFb and RMB should be con-
addition of 3% w/v CC-NaOH bioadsorbent concentration, which ducted IFa and RMA are determined. The exponent of 0.7 for the equa-
showed the greatest decrease of 51.92% (from 5.2% to 2.5%) at 120 min. tion above also changed, because of the process of the plant's condition.
This result was greater than those of Imaroh and Efendi (2019) and Ifa From Eq. (3), the total FCI obtained is USD 438,171.
et al. (2021) by 45.17 and 2.99%, respectively. However, it was different
from the study of Abdi et al. (2021), which stated that the use of an
3.7. Working capital investment (WCI)
alkaline eggshell powder adsorbent removed all FFA (100%) from soy-
bean oil. The difference in the decrease was due to the type of adsorbent
Working capital includes raw material, in-process, product, extended
used. In this case, the neutralization of FFA was based on the alkalinity of
credit and available cash inventories. The amount of this investment is
the eggshell adsorbent. Moreover, the percentage of decrease in this
generally 10–15% of the TCI or 25% of the annual production selling
study was smaller than the results of Putranti et al. (2018), which ob-
values (Aries and Newton, 1955). For this process, the WCI obtained was
tained the reduction of 62.5% by using alkaline-activated zeolite with
15% of the TCI (Equation 4), which was in line with the study of Lee et al.
low FFA content (0.4%) (Putranti et al., 2018). The differences in the
(2020). Meanwhile, this value was different from that of Soetaredjo et al.
efficiency levels of several studies (Abdi et al., 2021; Putranti et al., 2018)
(2021) at 30%. As shown in Eq. (5), TCI determination was obtained by
were due to the types of utilized adsorbent, where the alkaline properties €
the summation of FCI and WCI (Ifa et al., 2020; Ozdenkçi et al., 2019;
of the zeolite and eggshell caused the neutralization of FFA.
Saba et al., 2019; Ranganathan and Savithri, 2019).
3.4. The effect of activator type on FFA reduction WCI ¼ 15% ⋅ TCI (4)

Figure 5 showed the percentage reduction of FFA level influenced by TCI ¼ FCI þ WCI ¼ FCI þ 15% ⋅ TCI (5)
the type of utilized activator. Based on this condition, the NaOH activator
obtained a larger value of 51.92%, indicating higher effectiveness in FFA FCI
reduction. This was in accordance with the study of Putranti et al. (2018), TCI ¼ (6)
0:85
which stated that the adsorption of FFA on low grade cooking oil was

5
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

Therefore, the total cost to establish and operate the factory is USD
515,495 (from Equation 6). Table 2. Estimated profit of CC-NaOH plant.

Item Unit cost, USD Total, USD

3.8. Production cost Sales 432,000
Total production cost 481,874
This is the sum of all Direct, Indirect and Fixed Manufacturing Costs Profit before taxes 163,428
arising from the production process. Besides this, the General Expenses Income taxes (30%) 49,028
(GE) are known to be factory-based, including administrative, product Profit after taxes 114,400
sales, research and shopping costs, respectively. The TPC results are
further shown in Table 1 (Aries and Newton, 1955).
Profit
POS ¼ x 100% (9)
Product selling price
3.9. Profitability and its analysis of project feasibility
The POS after tax was calculated based on Eq. (9) and the result ob-
Profit is the result obtained from the differences of sales and total tained is observed as 20.68%.
production costs and is defined as the excess of income after the
deduction of expenses. Furthermore, the estimates of gross and net 3.11. Rate of return on investment (ROI)
profits are presented in Eqs. (7) and (8) (Aries and Newton, 1955; Towler
and Sinnott, 2013), as well as Table 2. Companies should also have the ability to return capital based on
Profit before taxes ¼ Sales  TPC (7) being oriented to profit, especially when they are in form of loans. The
annual payback period is expressed as an ROI percentage, which is
formulated as a ratio of profit to fixed capital (Peters and Timmerhaus,
Profit after taxes ¼ Profit before taxes  Income taxes (8)
2003; Ulrich, 1984; Vlysidis et al., 2011). Moreover, ROI is a certain
Based on Table 2, the income tax according to Lee et al. (2020), was interest rate based on discounted cash flow, where all receipts exactly
30%. This result showed an annual net profit of USD 114,400, greater cover the capital expenditures. The price trial method was further carried
than that of Stolarski et al. (2013), at €30413 or USD 36,157.41 (Stolarski out to comply with Eq. (10).
et al., 2013). However, it was lower than the results of Soetaredjo et al.
(2021), which was USD 120,000 for a production capacity of 5,400 Profit
ROI ¼ x 100% (10)
tons/year (Soetaredjo et al., 2021). FCI
Based on Eq. (10), the ROI price was 39.49% per year, after the
3.10. The Percent Profit on Sales collection of taxes. This result was greater than that of Soetaredjo et al.
(2021), at 25.77% (Soetaredjo et al., 2021).
This is a profit unit expressed as a selling price percentage before and
after taxes. It is also the ratio of annual profit divided by income, with the 3.12. Rate of return (ROR)
mathematical formula shown in Eq. (9) (Aries and Newton, 1955; Vly-
sidis et al., 2011). The ROR is a certain interest rate based on discounted cash flow
(Table 3), where all receipts exactly cover the capital expenditures. The
price trial method was used in this process, therefore, producing Eq. (11)
Table 1. The TPC of the CC-NaOH plant.
(Towler and Sinnott, 2013). The value is found by trial-and-error cal-
No Item Unit cost, USD culations or the appropriate function (e.g., Goal Seek) in the spreadsheet.
1 Raw material 192,251 Besides the utilized capital, plant life and actual applicable interest rate,
2 Labor L 46,862 the ROR provides a useful method to compare budget performances for
3 Supervision 10%L 68,400 different projects. When used as an investment criterion, companies often
4 Maintenance (M) 2%FCI 8,763 expected greater ROR than the cost of capital. It is also known as the IRR
5 Plant supplies 15%M 1,315
(Internal Rate of Return) based on being directly compared to interest
rates (Towler and Sinnott, 2013).
6 Royalty and patens 1%S 6,840
7 Utilities 10%S 4,320 X CF
¼ð Þ ¼ TCI (11)
Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) 329,117 ð1 þ iÞn
8 Payroll overhead 15%L 7,029
9 Laboratory 10%L 4,686 where
10 Plant overhead 50%L 23,431 CF ¼ cash flow on n-th year, n ¼ year, 1/(1 þ i)n ¼ discount factor.
Indirect Manufacturing Cost (IMC) 35,146
TPV
11 Depreciation 10%FCI 43,817 Ratio ¼ ¼1 (12)
TCI
12 Property taxes 1%FCI 4,382
13 Asuransi 1%FCI 4,382 (Peters and Timmerhaus, 2003; Towler and Sinnott, 2013).
13 Packaging 4%S 27,360 The interest rate (i) was determined by plotting Eq. (12) and
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) 79,940 assuming the ratio to be 1.0. When i price is greater than the interest rate
Manufacturing Cost (MC) 409,058 of the loan funds, the plant or project is stated to have potentials (Peters
14 Administration 3%MC 12,272
and Timmerhaus, 2003). From the above calculation, 28.88% ROR price
was obtained per year, with the produced i price observed to be greater
15 Distribution & marketing 5% MC 20,453
than that of the capital loans to banks (5.75%). This indicated a low in-
16 R&D cost 3.5% MC 14,317
vestment risk (Vlysidis et al., 2011). Therefore, a project/investment is
17 Financing 5% TCI 25,775
found to be obtained when the ROR is greater than the ROI in the bank.
General Expenses (GE) 72,816
This showed that the feasibility of the factory should continue towards
Total Production Cost (TPC) ¼ MC þ GE 481,874
the next stage.

6
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

Table 3. Discounted cash flow for i value (Ifa et al., 2020). Table 4. Cumulative cash flow (USD) (Ifa et al., 2020).

n-th year Net Cash Flow (CF) Trial i ¼ n-th year Net Cash Flow Cumulative Cash

Present Value 1 109,433 109,433

1 109,433 84,906 2 152,327 261,761

2 152,327 91,697 3 184,769 446,530

3 184,769 86,296 4 185,853 632,383

4 185,853 67,347 5 186,938 819,321

5 186,938 52,557
6 188,022 41,014
7 189,106 32,005 Table 5. Fixed cost, variable cost, semi variable cost, sales.
8 190,190 24,974
No Item Unit cost, USD
9 191,274 19,487
1 Fixed Cost, FC 79,940
10 192,358 15,205
2 Variable Cost, VC
Total PV 515,487
a. Raw materials 192,251
b. Utilities 68,400
3.13. Pay out time (POT) or payback period (PBP) c. Packaging & shipping 27,360
Royalty and patent 6,840
The POT serves as a rapid assessment of risky investment capital Total variable cost (VC) 294,851
period (Short et al., 1995). It is the number of years required to calculate 3 Semi-variable Cost, SVC
and measure the time value of money and risk level, respectively (Kpalo a. Labor 46,862
et al., 2020). The POT is also the time required to receive FCI (Vlysidis b. Supervision 8,763
et al., 2011). In calculating the POT, the accumulated investment is c. Maintenance & repairs 4,686
counted up as shown in Table 4. d. Operating supplies 1,315
Based on Table 4, the interpolation between years 2 and 3 obtained d. Laboratory 4,686
POT at 2.95 years for FCI of USD 438,171. This was shorter than the POT e. General Expenses 72,816
of Soetaredjo et al. (2021), at 2 years and 10 months (Soetaredjo et al.,
f. plant overhead cost 7,029
2021). Okolie et al. (2021), also found longer POT ranging from 3.2-5.4
Total Semi-variable cost 146,158
years (Okolie et al., 2021). For profitable investment, the POT should
4 Total Sales (S) 684,000
always be less than the estimated project life (Okolie et al., 2021).
Furthermore, fewer years to recover the investment is found to be better
for the project (Kpalo et al., 2020). In addition, the POT of this present with Soetaredjo et al. (2021), at 38.02 and 21.5%, respectively. Also, a
study was less than the project life, indicating that the proposed plant for good BEP value for chemical plants often ranged from 40-60% (Aries and
CC-NaOH production is profitable. Newton, 1955).
Based on this study, the FCI of the CC-NaOH plant was calculated
using Eq. (3). Furthermore, WCI and TCI were calculated through Eqs. (4)
3.14. Break-even point (BEP) and (6), with values at USD 65,725.65 and USD 503,896.65, respectively.
The TPC of the CC-NaOH plant also contained the MC and GE. The
This is a point when the company neither accumulates profit nor in- calculated TPC was observed at 481,874 and the details of its compo-
curs a loss. However, the factory is found to suffer a loss when operated at nents were shown in Table 1. Also, the CC-NaOH was sold for USD 95/
a capacity below the BEP point. It is also a condition that arises when the ton, which was USD 5/ton lower than the reported selling price (Soe-
plant is operating at full capacity. A good Break-Even Point value for taredjo et al., 2021). Therefore, the annual sales (S) of CC-NaOH Products
chemical plants often ranged from 40-60% (Aries and Newton, 1955). cost USD 684,000, with gross and net profits of USD 202,126 and USD
The BEP analysis is further used to determine the amount of production 141,188 after taxes, respectively. The value of POS after tax was further
capacity, where the result of the TPC is the same as the sales. The com- calculated through Eq. (9), obtaining 20.68%. The ROI value was also
ponents of Sales, Fixed, Variable and Semi-Variable Costs (S, FC, VC and calculated based on Eq. (10) and obtained a value of 39.49%. The factory
SVC), are calculated and presented in Table 5 (Ifa et al., 2020). In selling price was found above the break-even point, indicating profit-
addition, the BEP is calculated using Eq. (10) (Aries and Newton, 1955; ability (Okolie et al., 2021). In addition, the POTwas calculated based on
Soetaredjo et al., 2021). the discounted cash flow method, leading to a payment period of 2.95
years. From Eq. (13), the calculated BEP obtained 43.16%.
FC þ 0:3 ⋅ SVC
BEP ¼ x 100% (13)
S  0:7 ⋅ SVC  VC
4. Conclusion
where;
The CC bioadsorbent of 3% w/v produced the largest percentage
FC ¼ Fixed Cost reduction in FFA levels (34.62%) at the best contact time (120 min).
S ¼ Sales Using the NaOH activator, this time produced a reduction of 51.92%.
SVC ¼ Semi Variable Cost Meanwhile, these FFA level reductions depended on the utilized con-
VC ¼ Variable Cost centration and contact time. In this study, the results were able to reduce
FFA levels from the utilized CPO. Based on the detailed estimates, the
The results obtained a value of 41.68%, indicating that the CC-NaOH production cost of CC-NaOH was 481,874, sold at USD 95/ton with
plant had no profit or loss (break-even) with a capacity of 3,107.52 tons/ annual sales and net profit (after tax) at USD 684,000and USD 141,188.
year. This was better than the BEP values of Hakizimana and Kim (2016) The after-tax profit (POS) was also 20.68%, with an annual ROR, POT

7
L. Ifa et al. Heliyon 8 (2022) e09146

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