A Project Work Report

‘LIMIT AND CONTINUITY '

By

Name of Student : Sudarshan Bhattarai

Stream:11

Section: A

Submitted to

The Department of Mathematics

Uniglobe Secondary School
Kamaladi,
Kathmandu,
Nepal

1
A report on the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the
internal evaluation of Grade XI.

Declaration

I hereby declare that the report presented in this project report has
been done by myself under the supervision of Mr.Agni Datta Joshi
and has not been submitted elsewhere for any examination.

All sources of information have been specifically acknowledged by

references to authors or institutions.

Signature:

Name of the student : Sudarshan Bhattarai

Stream: Science (Biology)
Section:A1
2
Date:2079-06-15

3
 Subject Teacher’s Recommendation

The project work report entitled ‘LIMIT AND CONTINUITY’ submitted by Sudarshan
Bhattarai, of Uniglobe Secondary School Kamaladi, Kathmandu, Nepal is prepared
under my supervision as per the procedure and format requirements laid by the
Department of Mathematics, Uniglobe Secondary School, as the partial fulfillment of
the requirements of the internal evaluation of grade XI , therefore, recommend the
report for evaluation.

Signature:

Name of the subject teacher : Agni Datta Joshi

Date : 2079-06-15

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 Enforcement

We hereby endorse the project work report entitled ‘LIMIT AND CONTINUITY’
submitted by Sudarshan Bhattarai of, Uniglobe Secondary School, Kamaladi,
Kathmandu, Nepal in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the Mathematics internal
evaluation of grade XI.

Signature: Signature:

Name of HoD : Agni Datta Joshi Dr.Khagendra Ojha

Department of Mathematics Principal
Date: 2079-06-15 Date: 2079-06-15

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 Acknowledgment

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mr. Agni Datta Joshi
as well as our principal Dr.Khagendra Ojha who gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic different traditional technologies in use ,which also helped
me in doing a lot of Research and I came to know about so many new things I am really
thankful to them. Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped
me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

Date: Sudarshan Bhattarai

2079/06/15. Class 11(A)

Table of contents

Title Page.........................................................................................1

Declaration.......................................................................................2

Subject Teacher’s Recommendation..................................................3

Endorsement.......................................................................................4

Acknowledgements.............................................................................5

Table of Contents..............................................................................6

List of Tables.....................................................................................8

List of Figures......................................................................................8

Abbreviations......................................................................................8

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..............................................9

Background.......................................................................................9

Profile of org./ place/ events, etc........................................................9

Objectives.........................................................................................10
Rationale...........................................................................................10

Review..............................................................................................11

Methods................................................................................................11

Limitations............................................................................................12

CHAPTER II: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ……………… 12

Data Presentation..................................................................................20

Analysis of Results...……………………………………………….21

Findings.....................................................................................................24

CHPTER III: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION..................24

BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................25
List of tables

1.1 Properties of limit and its description

1.2 Types of discontinuity and its condition

List of figures
sinθ
Fig 1.1 : Supporting image to prove lim ¿ θ
=1.¿
θ→0

Fig 1.2 : Continuous function

Fig 1.3 : Discontinuous function

Fig 1.4 : Ordinary Discontinuity

Fig 1.5 : Removable Discontinuity

Fig 1.6 : Infinite Discontinuity

Abbreviations

1. Lim = Limit
2. RHL = Right Hand Limit
3. LHL = Left Hand Limit
4. Log = Logarithm
5. e = exponential
6. Eqn : Equation
7. Soln : Solution

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Chapter 1 : INTRODUCTION

Background: Limit and Continuity is the important concept of

Mathematics. Limit and Continuity are the fundamentals for the
development of calculus .Limits and Continuity, is an introduction to the
calculus topics of limits, continuity, and derivatives, and it provides a
foundation in the essential calculus skill of thinking and reasoning about the
infinitely small and the infinitely large while also arguing logically based on
definitions and theorems.

Limit tells us the value that a function approaches as that function’s inputs
get closer and closer to some number. Limit exits if right hand limit of a
function is equal to left hand of a function i.e. If f(x) is a function then limit
exist if lim f(a-0) =lim f(a+0).

Continuity tells us that values of a function is the unbroken. Continuity of a

function exists if right hand limit is equal to left hand limit and left hand
limit is equal to functional value i.e. If f(x) is a function then continuity
exists if , lim f(a+0) = lim f(a-0) = lim f(a).

Profile of org/place/events : Concept of limit and continuity was

developed in 17th century by mathematicians, primarily to foster the
development of calculus. Ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes of
Syracuse (287–212 BC) first developed the idea of limits to measure curved
figures and the volume of a sphere in the third century BC. By carving these
figures into small pieces that can be approximated, then increasing the
number of pieces, the limit of the sum of pieces can give the desired
quantity. Archimede’s thesis, The Method, was lost until 1906, when
mathematicians discovered that Archimedes came close to discovering
infinitesimal calculus.

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As Archimedes’ work was unknown until the twentieth century, others
developed the modern mathematical concept of limits. English physicist and
mathematician Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and German mathematician
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) independently developed the
general principles of calculus (of which the theory of limits is an important
part) in the seventeenth century.
Ancient Greek philosopher (of southern Italy) Zeno of Elea (c 490–c 430
BC) may have been one of the first mathematicians to ponder the limit of a
sequence.

Objectives:

1. Limit and Continuity are the important terms in order to understand

calculus.
2. The limit concept is essential to understanding the real number system
and its distinguishing characteristics. In one sense real numbers can be
defined as the numbers that are the limits of convergent sequences of
rational numbers.
3. One application of the concept of limits is on the derivative. The
derivative is a rate of flow or change, and can be computed based on
some limits concepts.
4. Limit also help in calculating integrals .The integral calculates the
entire area of a region by summing up an infinite number of small
pieces of it
5. Limits are also part of the iterative process. An iteration is repeatedly
performing a routine, using the output of one step as the input of the
next step.

Rationale : The study was conducted in order to understand the concept of

limit and Continuity .In order to know about it applications, relation with

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calculus, limitations etc. . The study was conducted in order to know the
definition of limit, Continuity, know about its example, it’s properties etc.
The study was conducted in order to increase the creativity of students. The
study was conducted so that the students could know about it’s real life
uses . The purpose of research is to collect more information about limit and
continuity and help others through the collected information for future use.

Review: The research is about the study of Limit and Continuity and it’s
history, uses etc. Limit and Continuity are the important terms to understand
calculus, derivatives, integrals etc.

Michael Spivak produced a research about ‘CALCULUS’ published by

Education Services Australia . Following results were obtained from the
report:

 Polynomials, trigonometric functions , exponential functions are

always continuous every where they are defined.

JR Maddocks prepared a report on ‘LIMIT AND CONTINUITY ' published

on encyclopedia.com . Following results were obtained from the report:

 Limit concept is essential to understand the real number system and its
distinguishing characteristics.
 Ancient Greek philosopher (of southern Italy) Zeno of Elea (c 490–c
430 BC) may have been one of the first mathematicians to ponder the
limit of a sequence.

Methods: The report is about the concept of Limit and Continuity. The
data used were both qualitative and quantitative data . Materials used in the
preparation of this report were both primary and secondary resources such as
online databases of journals, different books, pictures related to the subject
projects of other people published online and other such sources. Qualitative

12
research method was used for the preparation of report. Data were collected
from existing data. Data collected from various sources were analysed,
discussed and processed then the report was prepared. Relevant information
of each reviewed study was gathered and the report was generated. As a
major source of data school textbook and published online articles were
used.

Limitations:

Limit are only used in calculus field of mathematics.

Chapter II : Results and Analysis

Data presentation:

1. Limit : A limit of a function is a number that a function reaches as the

independent variable of the function reaches a given value. The value
say (a) to which the function f(x) gets closed symbolized as f(x) = a .
2. Points to remember:
 Right hand limit: A function f(x) is said to have the right hand limit at
x=a as x approaches a value greater than a (i.e X approaches a from
the right) and symbolically it is written as l . It is also
x→ lim ¿f ( x )=¿¿ a+ ¿ ¿ 1

written as lim ¿∨fx( a+0 ) .¿

→ a+0 f ( x )

 Left hand limit : a function f(x) is said to have a left hand limit at x=a
as x a value lesser than a ( i.e. x approaches a from left)and
symbolically written as l and also written as lim ¿∨fx( a−0
x→ lim ¿f ( x )=¿¿ a−¿ ¿ 2
) .¿
→ a−0f ( x )

 Limit exists only if Right Hand Limit= Left Hand Limit i.e.
lim ¿f ( x )= ( ) ¿ +¿
x→ x → lim ¿ f x .¿ a −¿ ¿
a ¿

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Property Description

1. lim ¿ f ( xx)=a
→a
¿
The limit of a constant is equal to the constant.

2.lim ¿ x=a
x →a
¿
The limit of X as X approaches a is equal to a.

3.lim ¿ [f ( x )+g ( x )]=

lim ¿ g(x )¿
lim ¿f ( x )+ ¿
¿
The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.
x→a
x →a
x →a

lim ¿ g(x ) ¿

4.lim ¿ [f (x )−g ( x )]=

lim ¿ f (x )− ¿
¿
The limit of a difference is the difference of
x →a
x→ a
x→ a

the limits.
5.lim ¿ [cf (x )]=c
lim ¿f ( x ) ¿
¿
x→a
x→a The limit of a constant times a function is the
constant times the limit of the function.
lim ¿lim g(x) ¿

6.lim ¿[ f (x)gx(x)]¿
→a =
lim ¿ f (x) ¿
x→a
x→ a The limit of a product is the product of the
limits.
lim ¿ f (x)
x →a
lim ¿= lim ¿f ( x) ¿¿ f (x ) The limit of a quotient the quotient of the
7. x→a ¿

x →a g(x ) limits provided that the denominator does not

equal zero.
n

8.lim ¿ [f (x→
x )] ¿
a =(
lim ¿ f ( x ) ¿ n
x→a The limit of a power the power of the Limit,
provided that the exponent is the rational
number.
9.lim ¿ √ f (x¿)¿¿
n

x →a =√ ¿ ¿
n
Limit of a root is the root of the Limit provided
that the root exists.
Table 1.1 : Properties of limit and its description

3. Basic theorems on limits

 Limits of Algebraic Function
n n
x −a
lim ¿= =n an−1¿
For all rational values of n , x−a
x→ a

The proof of this theorem consists of three cases:

 Case 1:

When n is positive integer:

14
 n n
x −a n−1 n−2 n−3 2 n−1
By actual division, =x + x . a+ x . a +..+a
x−a
n n
x −a lim ¿ [ x n−1
+x
n−2
.a+ x
n−3
.a + ..+ a ] ¿
2 n−1

lim ¿ = ¿
Now, x−a x→a

x→ a

n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1

¿a +a +a +..+a
n−1
¿na

 Case 2:

When n is a negative integer

−m −m
n n x −a
x −a lim ¿ x−a
¿
lim ¿ = ¿
Then, x−a
x→ a

x→ a

m m
a −x
lim ¿ m m
¿
x a ( x−a )
¿ x→a

¿−¿

m−1 1
¿−m. a mm
a a
m−2 m−1
¿−m. a
n−1
¿na

 Case 3

When n is a rational fraction:

p
Let n= q where p and q are integers and q≠0.
p p
q q
x −a
x n−an lim ¿ ¿

Then,
x−a
lim ¿ = x →a ¿
x−a
x→a

( x ) −( a )
1 p 1 p
q q
lim ¿ ¿
x−a
¿ x→ a

1 1
Put x q = y and a q =b so that x= y b and a=b q

When x→a , y →b
15
 p p
y −b
y −b
lim ¿ ¿
q q
y −b
n n y p −b p

Now,
y −b
x −a lim ¿ q q =
y −b
y→b ¿
lim ¿ = y→ b
¿
x−a
x→ a

lim ¿ p p
y −b
y →b y−b
¿ lim ¿ p p p −1
¿
y −b pb p p −q
= p−1 = . b ¿
y→ b y−b qb q

p
p −1
¿ . ( bq ) q =n an−1
q

For all rational values of n,

n n
x −a
lim ¿ =n an−1 ¿
x−a
x→ a

 Limits of trigonometric functions

Theorem
sinθ
lim ¿ =1 ¿
θ
θ →0
where θ measured in radian .

Let ABC be a arc of radius r and AP be an arc

which subtends an angle θ at the centre O. Let
PQ be the tangent at the point P of the circle
which meets BA produced at Q. Join PA and
draw PR perpendicular to BA then

Area of ∆OPA< Area of sector <Area of Fig 1.1 : Supporting image to

sinθ
lim ¿ =1.¿
∆OPQ prove θ
θ→0

1
Now, Area of ∆OPA = 2 OA . PR

1 2
= 2 r sinθ

1 2
Area of sector OAP = 2 r θ

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 1 1 2
Area of ∆OPQ = 2 OP . PQ= 2 r tanθ

1 2 1 2 1
∴ 2 r sinθ < 2 r θ < cos θ

θ 1
⁡
1 < sin θ < cos θ ¿
¿

1
sin θ
Or, 1 > sin θ > cos θ

sin θ
Or, limθ ¿→1¿0 > lim ¿ θ
θ →0
¿
> lim ¿ cos
θ→0
θ¿

sinθ
Or, 1 > lim ¿ θ
θ →0
¿
>1

sin θ
∴lim ¿ θ
=1 ¿
θ →0

sinθ
→lim ¿ θ
=1 ¿
⁡θ →0

θ
→lim ¿ sinθ⁡θ=1
→0
¿

θ
→lim ¿ tan θ⁡θ=1
→0
¿

tan θ
→lim ¿ θ
=1 ¿
θ→0

→lim ¿ sinθ=sinθ→aa¿

 Limits of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

For the limits of logarithmic and exponential functions , we recall the

following definition of e.

( 1n ) ¿
n
lim ¿ 1+
e= n→ ∞

1
If we put n= h so that when n→∞, h→0

17
 ( 1n ) =
n 1
lim ¿ (1+ h) h =e ¿
lim ¿ 1+ ¿
Then h→0

n→∞

Some standard results

log ( 1+ x )
lim ¿ =1¿
a) x
x→ 0
1
log ( 1+ x ) lim ¿ x log (1¿+ x)¿¿
lim ¿ = x →0
¿
x
x →0

1
lim ¿ log ( 1+ x ) x ¿
¿ x →0

¿ log ¿ ¿

¿ log e=1
x
e −1
lim ¿ =1 ¿
b) x
x →0

Put e x −1= y then e x =1+ y and x=log(1+ y) so that when x → 0 , y → 0.

x y
e −1 lim ¿ log ( 1+ y ) ¿
Now, lim ¿
x
= y→0 ¿

x→0

y
lim ¿
1
log ( 1 + y )
y
¿ y →0 ¿
¿1
x
a −1
lim ¿ =loga ¿
c) x
x→ 0

Put a x −1= y then a x =1+ y which implies x log a=log(1+ y )and

log(1+ y )
x= ⁡⁡ so that when x→0, y→0.
log a
y
lim ¿ ¿
x log ( 1+ y )
a −1
Now, lim ¿
x
= log a
y→ 0 ¿
x →0

1
lim ¿ ¿
1
log ( 1+ y )
y
¿ log a y→0

¿ log a .1
¿ log ⁡

→Properties of Logarithm and Exponential Function

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• y=a x

• y=e x

• x=log a y [ x is equal to logarithm of y to base a]

•log x +log y=log ( xy )

x
•log x−log y =log ( y ¿ ¿ ¿ )⁡⁡¿ ¿ ¿

•log x n=n log x ⁡

•log 1=0

•log 0=∞

4. Continuity of a function

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at the point x =x0 if and only if

lim ¿ f ( x ) =f ( x0 ) ¿
x→ x 0 . Continuity exists if RHL, LHL and functional value are finite
and equal.

Hence will be continuous at x=x 0if x→ lim ¿f ( x )=

x→
lim ¿ f( x ) =f ( x ) .¿
0 +¿
x ¿
0
¿
x−¿
0
¿

Fig 1.2 : Continuous function Fig 1.3 : Discontinuous functio

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Types of discontinuity Condition
I. Ordinary discontinuity or jump lim ¿ ¿
If x→ x f (x) does not exist i.e.
0 x→
lim ¿f ( x ) ≠ ( )
x → lim ¿ f x ¿x +¿ ¿
0
¿
−¿
x0 ¿

then f ( x ) is said to be ordinary

discontinuity.
lim ¿ ≠f (x)¿
II. Removable Continuity If x → x0 f (x )then the function f (x) said to

have removable discontinuity at x=x 0.

This type of continuity can be removed by
redefining the function.
lim ¿ ¿
III. Infinite discontinuity If x→ x f ( x ) → ∞∨−∞ , then f ( x )said to have
0

infinity discontinuity at x=x 0 .

Table 1.2 : Types of discontinuity and it’s condition

5. Graph of the discontinuities

Fig 1.4 :Ordinary

Discontinuity Fig 1.5 :
Removable Discontinuity

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 Fig 1.6 : Infinite Discontinuity

 Analysis of results
 Limit

Example 1.

Find the limiting value of f(x) = 3x-3 , when x approaches 4 or evaluate

lim ¿ ¿
x→4 f (x).

Soln:

When x approaches 4 , 3x approaches 12. So 3x-3 approaches 12-3 =9.

lim ¿ ( 3 x−3 )=9. ¿

Therefore, f ( x )= lim ¿ ¿
x→ 4
x→ 4 ¿¿

 Limit on Algebraic Function

Example 2 :
lim ¿ ¿ 2 /3 2 /3
x −a
Evaluate
x→ a x −a

Soln:
2
2 −1
2 /3 2 /3
lim ¿= × a3 ¿
3 x −a
x→ a x −a

−1
2
= ×a 3
3

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  Limits on Trigonometric Function

Example 3:
cosec x−cot x
Evaluate lim ¿ x
x →0
⁡¿

Soln:

Above limit takes the indeterminate form when x=0.

So,

lim ¿
cosec x−cot x lim ¿ 1 1
x
= x →0 − (
cos x
x sin x sin x
¿¿ )
x →0

lim ¿ (
1 1−cos x
x sin x
¿ )
¿ x→0

2
2 sin x
lim ¿ ⁡⁡¿
x x
x 2 sin cos
2 2
¿ x →0

x
tan
2 1
lim ¿ ¿ ¿
x 2
2.
2
¿ x →0

 Limits on Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Example 4:
log x
Evaluate: lim ¿ x−1 ⁡¿
x→ 1

Soln:
log x 0
lim ¿ form ¿
x−1 0
x →1

Put x-1=y then x=1+y so that when x→1,y→0.

log (1+ y )
log x lim ¿
y
¿

Now, lim ¿ x−1 = y →0

x→ 1
¿

=1

 Continuity
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 Example 5

Test the continuity and discontinuity of the following function.

2

f ( x )= 2−x for x ≤2
x →4 for x>2 }at x=2

LHL = x→
lim ¿f ( x)¿ −¿
2 ¿

= x→ lim ¿2−x 2 ¿ −¿
2 ¿

=2-4

=-2

RHL = x→
lim ¿f ( x)¿ + ¿
2 ¿

= x-4

=2-4

=-2
¿¿
Since, RHL=LHL, limx →2 f ( x ) exist .

f(2) = 2−x 2=2−4=−2

Since,

lim ¿f ( x )= ( ) ¿
lim ¿ f ( x ) = lim ¿ f x ¿ ¿
x → 2 +¿ −¿
x→ x→ 2 ¿
2 ¿

∴f(x) is continuous at x=2 .

 Findings
I. Limit exists if only Right Hand Limit= Left Hand limit although not
equal to functional value i.e. x→
lim ¿f ( x )= ( )
x → lim ¿ f x .¿ a −¿ ¿
¿ +¿
a ¿

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 II. A function is Continuous only if Right Hand Limit= Left Hand Limit=
Functional Value of given function f(x).
III. There are three types of discontinuity. They are:
 Ordinary Discontinuity or Jump
 Removable Discontinuity
 Infinite Discontinuity.
IV. Theorems of Limits
 Limit of Algebraic Function
n n
x −a
lim ¿= =n an−1. ¿
→For all rational values of n , x−a
x →a

 Limit of Trigonometric Function

→lim ¿ sinθ=0
θ →0
¿

→lim ¿ cosθ=1 ¿
⁡θ → 0

→lim ¿ sinθ=sinθ →0
a¿

sinθ
→lim ¿ θ
=1 ¿
⁡θ →0

θ
→lim ¿ sinθ⁡θ=1
→0
¿

θ
→lim ¿ tan θ⁡θ=1
→0
¿

tan θ
→lim ¿ θ
=1 ¿
θ→0

 Limits of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

( 1n ) ¿
n
lim ¿ 1+
→e=
n→ ∞

→log e=1
x
e −1
→lim ¿ x
=1 ¿
x →0

24
 x
a −1
lim ¿ =loga ¿
→ x
x→ 0

log ( 1+ x )
→lim ¿ x
=1¿
x→ 0

x
lim ¿ =1 ¿
→ log(1+x )
x→0

Chapter III : Summary And Conclusion

This report explains and introduces ‘LIMIT AND CONTINUITY ‘ as a

major aspect to understand calculus.Limut and Continuity. Sir Isaac Newton
and Gottfried Wilhelm developed the principle of calculus (of which the
theory of limits is an important part) in the seventeenth century. Limit and
Continuity not only have mathematical importance, it also has practical
importance in real life . Limit are important to understand derivatives, real
number system , integrals etc. Limit exists if RHL=LHL and continuous
function exists if RHL=LHL = functional value . The theorem of limit of
Algebraic Function, logarithmic and exponential functions, and
Trigonometric Function are some of the basic theorems of limit. It is the
basis for solving derivatives, function, integration, and continuity. Limit is
the intended height of a function in calculus .Therefore, limit and continuity
is important chapter in mathematics field.

25
Bibliography

 Spivak M, 2008 , Calculus, Publish or Perish , 4th edition

 Dr Bhajracharya B , 2077, Limit and Continuity , Basic Mathematics

Grade XI ,Sukunda Pustak Bhawan

 Maddocks JR ,2018, Limit and

Continuity
,https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/mathematics/
mathematics/limit#A

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