MAGNETISM

CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC DIPOLE

A current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole as the direction of current is opposite at the two faces of
the current loop. The magnetic dipole moment (Magnetic moment) of the current loop is directly
proportional to the strength of current and also directly proportional to the face area of the loop.
i.e., M α I A or, M = K I A where K is constant
For unit dipole moment of a small one turn loop of unit area in which unit current is flowing, K = 1
∴ M = IA
The direction of dipole moment is perpendicular to the face area which is shown in the diagram.
The SI unit of dipole moment is A m2

MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A REVOLVING ELECTRON

Let us consider an atom in which an electron is revolving in a circular orbit of radius r around a positively
charged nucleus. The motion of this electron constitutes an electric current I which is given by,
e
I=
T
Where e is the magnitude of the charge on an electron and T is the period of revolution of the electron. If ω be
the angular velocity of the revolving electron, then
e eω
I= =
2π / ω 2π
The magnetic moment of current loop, M = IA, where A is the face area of the orbit.
eω eωr 2 e
i. e., M = I × πr 2 = × πr 2 = = (mr 2ω ) , ...(1)
2π 2 2m
(Multiplying numerator and denominator by ‘m’, where m is the mass of the electron.)
e
or, M = L (Q L = mrω 2 ,is the angular momentum of the electron.)
2m
→ e →
In vector form, M =− L ....(2)
2m
The negative sign in equation (2) indicates that the direction of the magnetic moment is opposite to the direction
of the angular momentum.
According to Bohr’s theory, an electron (in an atom) is permitted to revolve only in that orbit for which the angular
momentum (mr2 ω) is an integral multiple of h/2π. Here, h is Planck’s constant
h
∴ mr 2ω = n , .....(3)
2π
where, n = 1, 2, 3, ..... is the principal quantum number.
e nh
From equations (1) and (3), we get M = ×
2 2πm
eh
or, M =n
4πm
It is clear from this equation that the value of the magnetic moment will be least when the value of n = 1.
eh
∴ Least value of magnetic moment =
4πm
This least value is considered as one Bohr Magneton. It is denoted by µB or β.
Bohr Magneton is defined as the orbital magnetic moment of an electron revolving in the innermost orbit.

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MAGNETIC POLES:
The two centres of attraction in any magnet are known as magnetic poles.
Unit of magnetic pole: Amp. Metre. Dimension: IL-1.

MAGNETIC FIELDS:
The two types of magnetic fields are:
1. Magnetising field (H)
2. Magnetic induction field (B)

Magnetising Field (H):

It represents the degree to which the field can magnetise a material.
Unit: Amp/m
[H[ = I L-1

Magnetic Induction Field (B) :

The magnetic induction field at any point due to a magnet is defined by the force exerted by the magnet on unit north pole placed at that
point.
→
→ F
B=
+m
Unit of Magnetic Induction Field: NA-1m-1 = Tesla (T) or Weber m-2
B – field depends on the medium where as H – field doesn’t depend on the medium.

Two Magnetic fields are related to each other by,

→ →
B =µ H
→
B is the Permeability of the medium, which is given by, µ = µ0 µ r
µ0 is the Permeability in free space and is given by, µ 0 = 4π ×10 −7 H/m and µ r is the relative Permeability of the medium.

MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY(µ)
The ability of a Magnetic material to allow the passage of magnetic lines of forces through it. It also represents the degree of penetration
of magnetic lines of forces through a material.
It is defined by the ratio of number of lines of forces passing through unit area (held perpendicular to lines of forces) in the specimen to
the lines of forces that would exists there in the absence of the specimen.
B
It is given by, µ= where µ = µ0 µr
H
µ r is known as relative permeability of the medium, which is the ratio of no. of lines of magnetic induction per unit area (B)
to the no. of lines of magnetic induction per unit area in vacuum.
B
i.e., µ r =
B0

INTENSITY OF MAGNETISATION (I)

When a Ferromagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, then the magnetic dipoles
inside the magnetic material align in such a way that the net magnetic dipole moment is produced in
the direction of the external magnetic field as shown in the diagram. This magnetic moment per unit volume of the substance is known as
Intensity of magnetisation. It is given by,
→
→ M m × 2l m
I= or, I= =
V A × 2l A
Thus the intensity of magnetisation / polarisation is the pole strength per unit cross sectional area when placed in uniform magnetic field.
Unit of I : Am-1

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY ( χ m )
Ability of a substance to acquire magnetism when placed in an uniform magnetic field is known as Magnetic Susceptibility. It signifies
that how easily that substance can be magnetised.

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Since the intensity of magnetisation is directly proportional to the strength of Magnetising field
→ → → →
i.e., I α H or , I = χ m H , where χ m is a constant, known as Magnetic Susceptibility of the substance.
I
or , χ m =
H
Thus Magnetic Susceptibility of a substance is defined by the intensity of magnetisation when the magnetising field is unity.
It is a pure number and it has no unit.

RELATION BETWEEN B & I

According to Gauss’s law of Magnetism, 4π lines of forces are associated with unit magnetic pole.
Thus for a pole strength of m, the number of lines of forces are 4πm.
These lines are the lines in addition to the lines due to external magnetic field. The total lines of forces in a specimen per unit area is
known as magnetic induction (B)
4πm m
Thus, B = H + or, B = H + 4πI [Q =I]
A A

RELATION BETWEEN µ r AND χ m

When a substance is placed in a magnetic field, it becomes magnetised.
→
→ → → The total magnetic flux density B within the substance is the flux
∴ B = B0 + Bm → →
→ → → → → density in vacuum B 0 plus the flux density due to magnetisation B m of
or , B = µ0 H + µ0 I = µ0 ( H + I ) the substance.

Where I is the intensity of magnetisation.

→ →
Q I = χm H

→ → → →
∴ B = µ0 ( H + χ m H ) = µ 0 (1 + χ m ) H
→ →
or , µ H = µ 0 (1 + χ m ) H or , µ = µ 0 (1 + χ m )
or , µ0 µ r = µ0 (1 + χ m )

∴ µ r = (1 + χ m )

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS:

Faraday showed that all materials can be magnetised, feebly or strongly, when subjected to strong magnetic field. Thus the materials are
broadly divided into three categories.
(A) Diamagnetic substance (B) Paramagnetic substance (C) Ferromagnetic substance

(A) DIAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE:

Diamagnetic substances have a tendency to move stronger to weaker part of the external magnetic field.
Antimony, bismuth, copper, lead, gold, silver, silicon, alcohol, sodium chloride, water etc. are the example of diamagnetic substances.
Most exotic diamagnetic materials are superconductors. When cooled to very low temperatures they exhibit
perfect conductivity and diamagnetism. The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism in Superconductors is
known as Meissner effect.
Basic properties of diamagnetic substances are as follows:
(i) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a non uniform magnetic field, it tends to move from
stronger to weaker region of the
external magnetic field.
(ii) When a diamagnetic rod is suspended in an uniform magnetic field then the rod aligns itself in the
direction perpendicular to the direction of external magnetic field.

(iii) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, the lines of forces are diverge while passing through the substance as
the poles are induced in a direction opposite to the direction of external magnetic field.

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(iv) The permeability of a diamagnetic substance is less than one (µ < 1).
(v) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, it develops weak magnetisation in a direction opposite to the external
magnetic field.
(vi) Diamagnetic substances loose magnetisation as soon as the external field is removed.
(vii) The magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance does not depend on temperature.
(viii) The magnetic susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance has a small negative value.

(B) PARAMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE:

Paramagnetic substances get weakly magnetised when placed in an external magnetic field. They have a tendency to move from a region
of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field. They get weakly attracted to a magnet.
Aluminium, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, oxygen etc. are the examples of paramagnetic substances.
Some important properties of paramagnetic substances are as follows:
(i) Paramagnetic substances loose their magnetisation as soon as the magnetising field is removed.
(ii) Paramagnetic substances develop weak magnetisation in the direction of external magnetic field.
(iii) The magnetic lines of forces are lightly converged while passing through a paramagnetic material.
(iv) When a paramagnetic rod is suspended freely in an uniform magnetic field, it aligns itself in the
direction of the external magnetic field.
(v) A paramagnetic substance moves from weaker to stronger part of the magnetic field.
(vi) The magnetic permeability of a paramagnetic substance is slightly greater than one (µ > 1).

CURIE’S LAW:
According to Curie’s law the intensity of magnetisation (I) of a paramagnetic material is directly proportional to the magnetising field
(H) and inversely proportional to the absolute temperature (T).
H H
i. e., Iα or, I =C
T T
where ‘C’ is Curie’s constant. The above equation is known as Curie’s law.

H
The variation of I with is shown in the diagram. OA Curie’s law region for low values of H/T
T
AB When H is increased and T is lowered
then magnetisation increased till it
attains saturation value Is. At this state
all the dipoles are align with the field.
According to Curie’s law,
H I C
I =C or, =
T H T
C 1
or, χ m = or, χm α
T T
Thus according to this law the magnetic susceptibility of a Paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature
provided the Paramagnetic substance is far away from its saturation. It happens due to increase in the randomness of the magnetic dipoles
with the rise in temperature. This decreases the intensity of magnetisation and hence magnetic susceptibility.
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The variation of with T and χ m with T for a Paramagnetic substance are shown below:
χm

Thus the magnetic susceptibility of a Paramagnetic substance is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature.

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(C) FERROMAGNETIC SUBSTANCE:
Ferromagnetic Substances are those which get strongly magnetised when placed in an external magnetic field. They have a strong
tendency to move from the region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field. They get strongly attracted
to a magnet.
Iron, cobalt, nickel etc. are the examples of ferromagnetic materials.
Some important properties of ferromagnetic substances are as follows:
(i) The magnetic lines of forces are highly converged while passing through a ferromagnetic material.

(ii) A ferromagnetic substance move from weaker to stronger part of the magnetic field when placed in a
non uniform magnetic field.
(iii) When a ferromagnetic rod is suspended in an uniform magnetic field then it aligns itself parallel to
the direction of the external field.
(iv) A ferromagnetic material develops strong induced magnetism when placed in an external magnetic field.
(v) Ferromagnetic substances retain their magnetism even on removal of external magnetic field.
(vi) The permeability of a ferromagnetic substance is extremely large ( µ >> 1).
(vii) Ferromagnetic substances have large positive magnetic susceptibility.
(viii) The magnetic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material decreases with the increase in temperature.
(ix) The intensity of magnetisation of a ferromagnetic material has a large positive value.

CURIE – WEISS LAW

The temperature of transition from Ferromagnetism to Paramagnetism is known as Curie temperature (TC).
The magnetic susceptibility above Curie temperature in the Paramagnetic phase is given by,
For a Ferromagnetic Material, the equation is known as Currie – Weiss equation which is given below :
C/
χm = , (where T 〉 TC ) and TC is Critical temperature and C/ is constant.
T − TC
According to this relation, when a Ferromagnetic material is heated, it becomes Paramagnetic at a certain temperature. This temperature
is known as Curie Temperature.

MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS:

Magnetic hysteresis is the characteristics of a ferromagnetic substance.

Let us consider a ferromagnetic specimen is placed within a varying magnetising field (H). When the magnetising field is zero then the
magnetic induction field (B) inside the specimen is also zero as the magnetic dipoles inside the material are in all possible directions,
which makes the net magnetic moment in the specimen is zero. When the magnetising field is increased continuously, the magnetic
induction field also increases as the magnetic dipoles start aligning in the direction of +H-field. On
increasing the positive H-field, B-field increases in the positive direction till it gets saturated (B-field
becomes constant) when all the dipoles are arranged inside the specimen. Now on reduction of
positive H-field B- field also reduces but follows a different path and on reduction of H-field to zero,
B is not zero but rather the substance acquires magnetism even after the removal of external H - field.
This property of the ferromagnetic material is known as Retentivity of the substance. Now if the H –
field is produced in the reversed direction, then initially B – field becomes zero and then develops in
the direction of negative H – field. The negative H – field required to make B – field zero, is known as
coercivity of the magnetic material. Now on increasing negative H – field, B – field develops in the
negative direction and gets saturated.
Now on reduction of negative H – field, negative B – field reduces and when the negative H – field
becomes zero, the specimen acquires negative B – field due to Retentivity.
Now when the H – field is again produced in the forward direction then initially B – field becomes zero and then develops in the positive
direction till it gets saturated.
This is how the total cycle of magnetisation is completed. It is repeated at a regular interval.
In this case of magnetisation the B – field is lagging behind H – field. The lagging of B – field behind H – field is known as Magnetic
Hysteresis and the total cycle of magnetisation is known as Hysteresis loop.
Due to Retentivity the external agent producing H – field looses energy and the energy loss per cycle is equal to the area of the hysteresis
loop.

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