EE6508 - Power Quality

Voltage Disturbances

presented by

Asst. Prof. Amer M. Y. M. Ghias

School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Office: S2-B2C-109
Consulting Hours: Thursday 2pm-4pm or by appointments
Email: [email protected]
Tel: 6790 5631
S2 AY2019-2020
Acknowledgement: these lectures are based on materials obtained from Prof. Kang Kok
and Prof. Abhisek, whose help is hereby gratefully acknowledged.
Revised Jan 2019. 1
 References
Texts:
1. Dugan R C, McGranaghan M F, Santoso S, and Beaty H W, Electrical
Power Systems Quality, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2002. 2.
2. Kennedy B W, Power Quality Primer, First Edition, McGraw-Hill,
2000.
Reference:
3. Allan Greenwood, “Electrical Transients in Power Systems”, 2nd
Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1991.

2
 References
• Voltage variations
– MHJ Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems – Voltage sags and
interruptions, IEEE Press 2000.
– European Standard EN-50160, Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by
public distribution systems, CENELEC, Brussels, Belgium, 1994
– IEEE Std 493-1997, IEEE recommended practice for the design of reliable
industrial and commercial power systems (Gold book), New York, 1997
– IEEE Std 1159-1995, IEEE recommended practice for monitoring power quality,
New York, 1995
– IEC 61000-4-30, Testing and measurement techniques - Power Quality
measurement methods, 2003
– IEC 61000-4-11 / 61000-4-34, Voltage dip immunity for equipment that requires
less than / more than 16 amps per phase.
– IEEE Std 1346-1998, IEEE Recommended Practice for Evaluating Electric
Power System Compatibility With Electronic Process Equipment, 1998.
– SEMI F47: Specification for semiconductor processing equipment voltage sag
immunity, Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International.

3
 References
• Voltage fluctuations
– IEC 61000-4-15, Flickermeter—Functional and design specifications.
– IEEE 1453-2004, IEEE Recommended Practice for Measurement and Limits of
Voltage Fluctuations and Associated Light Flicker on AC Power Systems.
– IEC 61000-3-3, Limitation of voltage changes, voltage fluctuations and flicker in
public low-voltage supply systems, for equipment with rated current ≤ 16 A per
phase and not subject to conditional connection.
– IEC 61000-3-5, Limitation of voltage fluctuations and flicker in low-voltage power
supply systems for equipment with rated current greater than 16 A.
– IEC 61000-3-7, Assessment of emission limits for fluctuating loads in MV and
HV power systems

4
 Voltage Variations
 Deviation of RMS voltage magnitude characterized by
 Change in the voltage magnitude
 Voltage dip/sag: decrease in magnitude
 Voltage swell: increase in magnitude
 Voltage interruption: drop to very low (close to zero)
magnitude
 Duration of the disturbance
 Jump in voltage phase angle at beginning and end of disturbance

 Majority of problems lie with voltage sags/dips and interruptions

 Insufficient voltage to maintain the continuous supply of energy
to the loads, resulting in load tripping-off or malfunction
 High current surges when voltage recovers after disturbance,
causing equipment with low over-current withstand capability
to trip
5
 Definitions of Voltage Variations
 Short duration variations (< 1 min)
 Duration (1 cycle of 50 Hz system is 20 ms)
 Instantaneous (0.5-30 cycles),
 Momentary (30 cycles – 3 s),
 Temporary (3 s – 1 min)
 RMS magnitude
 Interruption (< 0.1 pu),
 Sag/dip (0.1-0.9 pu),
 Swell (1.1-1.8 pu)

 Long duration variations (> 1 min)

 Sustained interruption (0.0 pu),
 Undervoltages (0.8-0.9 pu typical),
 Overvoltages (1.1-1.2 pu typical)

6
 Sag Caused by Starting of Induction Motor
 Bollen – ss. 4.9 pp. 248-251; Ch. 9 of IEEE Std 399-1997
 During start-up of induction motor,
 It takes a larger current than normal, typically 5-6 times larger
 Current remains high until motors reaches its nominal speed,
typically between several seconds to one minute

Speed

Current

AC line voltage

RMS voltage
7
 Useful Induction Motor Link

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLat6n
FKIgrM702J6fhBX546-d0VA_6awb

[*] http://electricalacademia.com/induction-motor/torque-speed-characteristics-induction-motor/ 8
Sag Caused by Starting of Induction Motor

 Using voltage divider, standing voltage Vsag

at the node of motor starting

𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = Zsys
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
PCC
 Assuming source voltage of 1.0 p.u.,
 At starting, Zmotor is locked-rotor Other loads M Zmotor

impedance

9
Sag Caused by Starting of Induction Motor

 When starting a motor from source with a

short circuit capacity Ssource.
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = ; 𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛽𝛽𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Zsys
 Vn is rated voltage
PCC
 𝛽𝛽 is the ratio between the motor’s
starting current and the nominal current Zmotor
Other loads M
i.e. ratio of locked-rotor current at rated
voltage to rated current
 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 is the motor rated apparent power

10
Sag Caused by Starting of Induction Motor
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉2
𝑛𝑛
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2
𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
1 Zsys
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
+𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
PCC
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = Other loads M Zmotor
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
 The corresponding per-unit change in voltage or voltage sag,
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
∆𝑉𝑉 = 1 − 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1 − =
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
≈ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≫ 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 11
 Other Characteristics of Motor-Startup
 Duration of voltage sag depends on motor inertia
 Motor torque is proportional to square of voltage
 Reduced accelerating torque if voltage sag occurs
 Prolong the motor run-up time
 Lengthen the duration of voltage sag

 Effect on other motors

 As voltage at motor terminal drops, other existing motors
will slow down, causing an increase in the motors’ load
currents
 This will pull the voltage down even further, reduce the
motor accelerating torque even more
 Deeper voltage sag
 Prolonging the voltage sag recovery
 Long run-up time for the motor
12
 Motor-Starting Methods

 Dugan ss. 3.6, pp. 78-81

 Full-voltage starting is simple, low-cost and allows rapid

acceleration but voltage sag can be excessive
 Current (and torque) is proportional to square of voltage

 Reduced starting voltage limits starting current, reducing

voltage sag
 Must ensure sufficient torque to build up the motor speed

 Autotransformer starter
 Transformer tap of 80, 65 or 50% at starting to reduce
starting current

13
 Motor-Starting Methods

 Autotransformer with turn ratio 𝛼𝛼 = N2 / N1

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = N2 / N1𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝛼𝛼𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
⇒ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝛼𝛼𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝛼𝛼𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
∴ 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝛼𝛼 2 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
⇒ 𝛽𝛽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝛼𝛼 2 × 𝛽𝛽𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

14
 Motor-Starting Methods

 Delta-Wye starter
 Stator windings are connected in
wye at starting, reducing starting
voltage to 57% of original level,
and current (and torque) to 33%
of original level

 At starting, the order of switching

is KM1, KM2 and KM3, with the
last switch only closed after the
motor has sped up to predefined
value.

15
 Motor-Starting Methods
 Without this starter, the motor will be turned on with winding
connected in delta
3𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 With delta-wye starter, the motor winding is connected in wye at

starting
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙−𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 / 3
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝐼𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝−𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = =
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = =
3 3 3
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∴ = ⇒ 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 =
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 3
16
 Motor-Starting Methods

 Part-Winding starter
 Attractive for use with dual-rated
motors (220/440 V or 230/460 V)
(equivalent to two small motors with
each half of motor ratings)
 Stator has two windings that can be
connected in parallel or series
 Only one winding is connected at
starting to limit starting current
 Second winding is only connected
after the motor has sped up and
therefore, the inrush current would
be small
17
 Motor-Starting Methods

 Part-Winding starter
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = ;
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = =
2 × 𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 1 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
∴ = ⇒ 𝛽𝛽𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 2

 Capacitor starting system

 Compensate for the predominant inductive starting current

18
 Motor-Starting Methods
 To reduce the voltage sag at PCC, the motor can be fed
through a dedicated transformer, the voltage at PCC at motor
starting is
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Zsys
Where,
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 PCC
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = , 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Ztrans

𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2
𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = , and 𝑍𝑍𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝜀𝜀
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Zmotor
 Assuming transformer is of same power Other loads M

rating as induction motor and has an

impedance 𝜀𝜀 p.u. 19
 Motor-Starting Methods

 Less voltage sag at sensitive load point

(PCC) is now electrically separated from
the motor terminal by the transformer
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2
+ 𝜀𝜀
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2 Zsys
+ 𝜀𝜀 +
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
PCC
1+𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Ztrans

𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

(1+𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = M Zmotor
(1+𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 +𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 Other loads
20
 Other Motor-Starting Methods

 Resistance or reactance starter

 Insert an impedance in series at starting to limit starting
current
 For a starting resistance of R or inductance of L,
𝑅𝑅 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛2
𝜀𝜀 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 , where 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 =
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

21
 Exercise
 Example – An 50-kW, 0.8 p.f., 90% efficiency induction motor is
started from a 11kV supply with 1 MVA short circuit capacity.
The motor starting current is six times the nominal or full-load
current. Calculate the amount of voltage sag at starting.

 If the motor is fed through a dedicated 33/11kV transformer of

the same power rating as the motor and with a leakage
impedance of 10%. Assuming that the short circuit capacity at
PCC remains unchanged,

22
 Exercise
 Example – An 50-kW, 0.8 p.f., 90% efficiency induction motor is
started from a 11kV supply with 1 MVA short circuit capacity.
The motor starting current is six times the nominal or full-load
current. Calculate the amount of voltage sag at starting.
Smotor = 50 kW
= 69.44 kVA
0.8× 0.9
1000
V sag = = 0.706 = 70.6 % ⇒ ∆V = 1−Vsag = 29.4%
1000 + 6× 69.44
 If the motor is fed through a dedicated 33/11kV transformer of
the same power rating as the motor and with a leakage
impedance of 10%. Assuming that the short circuit capacity at
PCC remains unchanged,

23
 Exercise
 Example – An 50-kW, 0.8 p.f., 90% efficiency induction motor is
started from a 11kV supply with 1 MVA short circuit capacity.
The motor starting current is six times the nominal or full-load
current. Calculate the amount of voltage sag at starting.
Smotor = 50 kW
= 69.44 kVA
0.8× 0.9
1000
V sag = = 0.706 = 70.6 % ⇒ ∆V = 1−Vsag = 29.4%
1000 + 6× 69.44
 If the motor is fed through a dedicated 33/11kV transformer of
the same power rating as the motor and with a leakage
impedance of 10%. Assuming that the short circuit capacity at
PCC remains unchanged,

Vsag = (1+ 6× 0.1)×1000 = 0.793 = 79.3 %

(1+ 6× 0.1)×1000 + 6× 69.44
⇒ ∆V = 1−Vsag = 20.7% 24
 Exercise

 If delta-star starter is used instead,

25
 Exercise

 If delta-star starter is used instead,

1000
Vsag = = 0.878 = 87.8 %
1000 + (6 3)× 69.44

∆V = 1−Vsag = 12.2%

26
 Minimum SCC to Maintain Voltage
 Employing specific motor-starting method alone may not be
sufficient to solve the problem as the voltage may still
remain low.
 What is needed is a stronger supply, also termed higher
short circuit ratio (see page 31)
 To limit the voltage drop at the motor terminal to Vmin, the
source strength needs to be (assuming the desirable
voltage is 1 pu, set Vsag = Vmin shown on page 9):
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝛽𝛽𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ×
1 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

27
 Minimum SCC to Maintain Voltage

 With dedicated transformer or starting

resistance/inductance (set Vsag = Vmin, page 20),
𝛽𝛽𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = ×
1 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 1 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 In the previous example, to keep voltage above a minimum of

90%, it is necessary to use a stronger source of SCC = 2.34
MVA, given β = 6, ε =0.1 pu and Smotor = 69.44 kVA.

28
 System Voltage Response

 Before switch is closed, V=E

 When switch is closed, there is a sudden increase in the flow
of power and current to the load
 Drop in voltage magnitude and shift in voltage phase
angle as load current flows through the system impedance
𝐸𝐸 2 = (𝑉𝑉 + 𝛿𝛿𝑉𝑉1 )2 +𝛿𝛿𝑉𝑉2 2
𝐸𝐸 2 = (𝑉𝑉 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝜃𝜃)2 +(𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝜃𝜃 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃)2
𝐸𝐸 2 = (𝑉𝑉 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋)2
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 Last expression is approximate:
valid for small shift in voltage
angle delta 29
 System Voltage Response
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜃𝜃 + 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
𝑅𝑅𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝜃𝜃 𝑋𝑋𝑉𝑉𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 + +
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝜃𝜃
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 + + note:
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑄𝑄 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
 Energizing the load results in a change in load terminal
voltage ∆𝑉𝑉of
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅+𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋
∆𝑉𝑉 ≈ 𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉 = + = = for X ≫ R
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
∆𝑉𝑉 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄 𝑉𝑉 2
≈ 2= 2 = as 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 /𝑋𝑋 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑋𝑋

 where ∆ V / V is the percentage voltage variation at load

terminal
 The amount of change in voltage magnitude can be
estimated by comparing the load reactive demand against
system short circuit capacity
30
 System Voltage Response

 Voltage E is usually regulated at system nominal value,

 The magnitude deviation ∆V can be taken as
 Voltage dip when a new load with Q lagging power, such
as large induction motor, is energized
 Voltage swell when a new capacitor with Q leading
power is turned on
 Vice versa when the above devices are turned off / de-
energized
 Constant variation or fluctuation of the voltage
magnitude when load with dynamic reactive demand is
operating e.g. welding machine

31
 Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)
 Describes voltage support strength of a power network
 Product of three-phase fault current and rated voltage
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 3 × 𝑉𝑉 × 𝐼𝐼 MVA
 I – three-phase short circuit fault current in kA
 V – phase to phase system nominal voltage in kV
 Or expressed in terms of system impedance or reactance
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 2
𝐼𝐼 = ⇒ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = MVA
3 × 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
 In per unit system,
 V is taken as 1.0 p.u.
 I is the fault current at the fault location
1 1
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = or p.u
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Note: Last expression assumes negligible system resistance. 32
 SCC and Concept of Electrical Distance

 SCC measures the system voltage support strength

 A high capacity means network is “strong” or “stiff”
 System impedance / reactance is low
 Load terminal is electrically close to the supply source
 Source tends to be more capable of regulating the
load terminal voltage (magnitude, frequency and
shape)
 A low capacity implies a “weak” network
 Large system impedance means long electrical
distance
 Poor voltage regulation results

33
 SCC and Concept of Electrical Distance

• Short circuit ratio and voltage regulation ∆𝑄𝑄

 Comparing size of load against supply strength, ∆𝑉𝑉 ≅
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
1
SSCC1 SSCC2 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆1 =
X1 X2 𝑋𝑋1
1 2 1
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 =
𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋2
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆1 > 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆2 ⇒ ∆𝑉𝑉1,% < ∆𝑉𝑉2,%

Compare voltage regulation for the same amount of

reactive power switching

34
 Switching of reactive compensation

 Power systems is predominantly inductive,

 Reactive loading has a bigger effect on voltage magnitude
than active power demand (See results on pages 30)
 Voltage variation can be estimated by ratio of “Change in
reactive power loading/short circuit capacity”
∆𝑄𝑄
∆𝑉𝑉 ≅
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
 Capacitor switching
 Voltage swell occurs at energization of capacitor
 Voltage dip at de - energization of capacitor

35
 Switching of reactive compensation

 Reactor switching
 Voltage swell occurs at de - energization of reactor
 Voltage dip at energization of reactor
𝑄𝑄𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
∆𝑉𝑉% ≅
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Qcompensation is the amount of reactive power switched in/out

36
 Exercise
 A single-phase 200kW induction motor, rated with full load
efficiency of 90% and power factor of 0.85 lagging, has a
starting current, which is 6 times its full load value. The voltage
dip at the motor terminals during motor starting is 30%.
 In order to enhance the security of supply to the motor, a
second incoming source with a source impedance 4 times the
source impedance of the original supply is connected.

a) Find the short circuit capacity at the motor terminals

before and after the supply reinforcement
b) After the enforcement, determine the amount of voltage
variations at the motor terminals when the motor is
switched on and switched off

37
 Exercise
Solution (a)
Before Reinforcement
Induction motor capacity, P=200kW (1ph)
Rated full-load efficiency,𝜂𝜂 =90%
Rated power factor = 0.85
Since S = VphxIph
Therefore Iph = S/(Vph)
Since motor starting current is 6 times of its full load value, therefore
Iph(starting) = 6 x Iph = (6x200x1000)/(0.85 x 0.90 x Vph)
Where S=P/(eff x pf)
Since ∆V=Q/SCC
Assuming starting current is purely reactive
(i.e. Sstarting = 0+jQstarting)
∆V=Vph x Iph(starting)/SCC 38
 Exercise

Given ∆V = 30%
SCC= Vph x 6 x 200 x 1000/(0.85 x 0.90 x Vph x 0.3) = 5228.758kVA
(1 Ph)

After Reinforcement
Xold = 1/ SCCold = 1/5228.75=0.1913µΩ
Xnew= [4 x (Xold)2]/(5x Xold)=4 x Xold/5
SCCnew=1/ Xnew=7 /(6 x Xold)= 5 /(4 x 0.1913 x 10-6)=6534.24kVA (1
Ph)

39
 Exercise
b) When the motor is switched on,
∆V=Q/SCC=[Vph x 6 x 200 x 1000/(0.85 x 0.9 x Vph x 6534.24 x
1000)]x100
∆V=24% (DIP)

When motor is switched off,

The motor reactive power changes from rated Q to 0, during this
time
Qrated=200 x 1000 x sin(cos −1 (0.85)) /(0.9 x 0.85)≈ 137.721kVAr
∆V = Q/SCC = 137.721 x 1000 x 100 / (6534.24 x 1000)≈2.1%
(Swell)

40
Voltage sags caused by system faults

System connection
VS VL • Fault occurs on the transmission or
Z3
distribution system such as a cable
fault
Z1 Z2

Fault ZL
Customer

Equivalent circuit during fault

Z3 • In general, Z1, Z2 and Z3 << ZL
VS

Z2
Z1 Z2
VL = VS ×
ZL VL Z3 + Z 2

41
Voltage sags caused by customer faults

System connection Equivalent circuit during fault

VS Z1
VL1 Z1 × Z 2
VS Z eqv = Z1 // Z 2 =
Z1 + Z 2

Z2

Z4 Z3 Z4 VL1

Z3 Customer 1
• Fault occurs within the premise
VL2 of another customer
Fault
• In general, Zeqv and Z3 << Z4
Z3
Z5 VL1 = VS ×
Z eqv + Z 3

Customer 2

42
Characteristics of fault-induced voltage sags
• Characteristics of voltage sags / interruptions depend very much on the
location of fault and sensitive point
– Fault positions 1 to 5 and sensitive points A to D
• Fault position 1
– Serious sag for both substations
– Deep sag transferred down to all
• Fault position 2
– Minor dip at A, severe dips at others
• Fault position 3
– Very deep sag at D, deep sag at C
– Recloser may cause multiple sags to
occur at C for permanent fault
• Fault position 4
– Deep sag for C, shallow sag for D
• Fault position 5
– Deep sag for D, shallow sag for C
– A and B minimally affected by fault at 4 or 5
43
 Voltage sags caused by system faults
• Dugan ss. 3.2.3-3.2.4; Bollen ss. 4.2.2-4.2.5
• Interruptions, dips and swells
– Dip occurs at the faulted phase
– Swell may occur at healthy phases, depending on neutral grounding conditions
– Momentary interruptions when line/busbar/… is isolated to clear fault
• For a radial system, simple voltage divider rule can be used to determine the sag
magnitude at PCC (point of common coupling)
ZF z⋅L
Vsag = = Vsag
ZS + ZF ZS + z ⋅ L E ZF
Fault
ZS
– System voltage E is taken as 1 p.u.
– z is the impedance of feeder per unit length
– L is the distance between the fault and PCC Load
PCC
• Expressed Vsag in terms of fault levels,
Vn2 Vn2 S FLT
S FLT = ; S PCC = ⇒ Vsag = 1−
ZS + ZF ZS S PCC

– SFLT and SPCC are fault levels at the fault point and PCC respectively
– Vn is the nominal voltage level at fault point and PCC
• Extensive impacts if system is highly meshed or interconnected
– Short electrical distance between fault point and sensitive point (small ZF) 44
 Local generators
• Local generator to distribution network mitigates voltage sags
– Increase fault level at distribution bus (works well for weak system)
– Keep up voltage at local bus by feeding into system faults
• Without local generator, voltage sag at load terminals is same as that at PCC
• With local generator in, the load terminal becomes local generator bus with the
following relationship,

)= 1−V pcc )
Z4
(1−V Z3 + Z 4 (
sag Local
generator
• Last expression assumes pre-sag voltages of
generators are identical at 1 p.u. Vsag and VPCC
Z1 Z3 Z4
are the voltages at the load and PCC buses
respectively.
PCC
– Lower generator voltage drop (1-Vsag)
Load bus
• Generator impedance Z4 is small and/or
• Link to PCC is weak (large Z3) Z2
Important
• When Z3 = Z4, Vsag = 70% when Vpcc=40% or sensitive
- Short-circuit fault at PCC, load bus voltage load
Fault
Vsag ,min = Z3
Z3 + Z 4
45
 Local generator - example
• A system with impedance Z1 has a short circuit capacity of 1 MVA, and Z2 is a 200 kVA (10%
X) transformer. (Refer to the power system of previous page, without local generation).
– Compute the amount of voltage sag Using 200 kVA power base,
experienced by a sensitive load
1
connected to the PCC when a short Z1 = = 0.2 p.u.
circuit fault occurs at the load end of Z2 1 MVA 200 kVA
Z2 0.1
V pcc = 1× = = 0.33
Z1 + Z 2 0.2 + 0.1
• To reduce voltage sag impact, a local generator
is used to supply to the sensitive load. ∆Vload = ∆V pcc = 1− 0.33 = 67%
– Generator is rated at 50 kVA, 5% X and
interconnecting transformer between generator and PCC is rated at 50 kVA, 10% X.
– Compute the voltage sag at the sensitive load when the same fault occurs
200 200
Z 3 = 0.1× = 0.4 p.u. ; Z = 0.05× = 0.2 p.u.
4
50 50
Z eq, pcc = Z1 // (Z 3 + Z 4 ) = 0.15 p.u.
Z2 0.1
V pcc = 1× = = 0.4 p.u.
Z eq, pcc + Z 2 0.15 + 0.1

∆Vload = 1−Vload = Z4 0.2

Z3 + Z 4 ( ) 0.4 + 0.2 (1− 0.4 ) = 20%
1−V pcc =
46
Slight improvement in Vpcc and much improvement in Vload levels
Methods to avoid or reduce voltage sags
• Reducing the number of faults along overhead lines
– Replace overhead lines by underground cables: minimize faults caused by
adverse weather or other external influences
– Use covered or insulated wires to reduce fault rate
– Strict policy of tree trimming to avoids faults due to contacts or felling branches.
– Install shielded wires to reduce the risk of lightning strokes
– Raise insulation level to reduce risk of short circuit faults
– Increase maintenance and inspection
• Reducing the severity of voltage sag
– Fault current limiter reduces the depth of sag
– Faster fault clearing time to shorten sag duration
– Faster backup protection
– Installation of transformer
• Alter the power systems
– Install generator near sensitive loads
– Split busses or substations to limit the number of feeders in exposed area

47
 Power quality and other grid-connected
devices
• Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

48
 Power quality and other grid-connected
devices
• Series Active Filter

49
 Power quality and other grid-connected
devices
• Static Compensator (STATCOM)

50
 Power quality and other grid-connected
devices
• Shunt Active Filter

51